英语语言学 习题 24页

英语语言学课外单元练习（1）language1.Statethenatureoflanguagebrieflywithexamples.2.Whyisitsaidthatthelanguagesystemisuniquetohumanbeings?3.Whatarethecharacteristicsofhumanlanguage?4.Whatarethesocialfunctionsoflanguage?5.Doanimalsotherthanhumanshavetheirownlanguages?6.Exemplifyhowanimalscommunicatewitheachother.7.Canlanguagebeviewedonlyasasystemofcommunication?Whynot?8.Howdidlanguagecomeintobeing?Whatistherelationshipbetweentheoriginoflanguageandtheoriginofhumanbeings?9.Rewriteeachofthefollowinglistsofwordsintonaturalorder.（1）Five/the/fresh/potatoes（2）Pretty/American/girls/thetwo（3）Airlines/brand/France-made/new/thetwo（4）Fashions/Chinese/the/latest/three（5）Beginning/hardworking/two/the/workers10.Fillintheblankswiththeproperwords.（1）_______functionmeanslanguagecanbeusedto“do”things.（2）_______functionmeanstheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.（3）Mostimperativesentencesareassociatedwith_______function.（4）Thesentence“What’sitlike?”shows______function.（5）Greetingsshows_______function.（6）“Wearemostgratefulforthis.”shows______function.（7）Propagandashows________function.（8）________referstocontextsremovedfromtheimmediateofthespeaker.（9）For________,referenceisnottheonly,noteventheprimarygoalofcommunication.（10）Halliday’smetafunctionsinclude________,___________,_____________.（11）Linguisticsshouldincludeatleastfiveparameters:___________________________________________________________..11.Saythefollowingaretrueorfalse.Ifitisfalsecorrectit（1）Languagedistinguishesusfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalscommunicationsystem.（2）Thereisnotacertaindegreeofcorrespondencebetweenthesequenceofclausesandtheactualhappenings.（3）Thetheoriesdiscussedinthetextbookabouttheoriginsoflanguagearenotatmostaspeculation.（4）Thedefinition,“Languageisatoolforhumancommunication.”hasnoproblem.（5）Thedefinition,“languageisasetofrules”,tellsnothingaboutitsfunctions.（6）Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.（7）Chomsky’sdefinitionaboutlanguageisthesameasSapir’s.英语语言学课外单元练习（2）Linguistics1.Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Pointoutthreeaspects.3.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicor\ndiachronic?Why?4.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?Why?5.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?6.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?7.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?8.Whatisthemaintaskforalinguist?Statetheimportanceoflinguistics.9.Whyis“duality”regardedasanimportantfeatureofhumanlanguage?10.Fillintherightwordaccordingtotheexplanations.（1）_____________thescientificstudyoflanguage.（2）_____________thestudyoftheinterlinguisticrelationshipsamongdifferentlinguisticelementsoflanguage.（3）____________thestudyofuniversalfeaturesoflanguage（4）____________thestudyofaparticularlanguageattheparticularpointoftime.（5）____________thestudyofthestructureandboththesyntacticandsemanticrulesofalanguage（6）thestudyoftherulesorprinciplesprescribedforpeopletofollowwhentheyusealanguage.（7）___________thestudyoflanguageisrelationtoothersciences（8）thestudyofthenatureofhumanlanguageandthehumanmindthroughthestudyoftheU.G.1.Saythefollowingaretrueorfalse.Ifitisfalsecorrectit.（1）SociolinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetoPsychology.（2）Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.（3）Inthepast,traditionalgrammarianstendedtoover-emphasizetheimportanceofthewrittenword.（4）Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently.（5）Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.（6）Saussure’sdistinctiontookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.（7）Earlygrammarswerebasedon“high”（religious,literary）writtenlanguage.（8）Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledappliedlinguistics.（9）Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets.（10）Toexplainwhatlanguageisseemstobeanaïveandsimplequestion.（11）Languagebearscertainfeaturesdistinguishingitfrommeansofcommunicationotherformsoflifemaypossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.英语语言学课外单元练习（3）Phonetics1.Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?2.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds?3.Drawapictureforthespeechorgansofhumanbeings.4.Wherearethearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingcontained?5.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?6.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifyEnglishvowels?7.Whatisthefunctionofthenasalcavity?Howdoesitperformthefunction?\n1.Describethevariouspartsintheoralcavitywhichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?2.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?3.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsandvowelsclassified?4.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:（1）voicedpalatalaffricate（2）voicelesslabiodentalfricative（3）voicedalveolarstop（4）frontcloseshort（5）backsemi-openlong（6）voicelessbilabialstop（7）tensefrontmidvowel（8）lateralliquid（9）laxhighbackvowel（10）voicedbilabialoralstop（11）midcentrallaxvowel（12）lowfrontvowel（13）palatalglide（14）voicedinterdentalfricative（15）voicedaffricate（16）velarnasalconsonant（17）lowbackvowel（18）highbacktensevowel（19）midbacklaxvowel（20）voicelessinterdentalfricative12.Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:［d］［l］［t∫］［w］［u］［æ］［b］［v］［a:］［m］［r］［i:］13.DrawatonguechartforthebasicEnglishvowels.英语语言学课外单元练习（4）Phonology1.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?2.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtothephoneme?3.Whatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?4.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.5.Statethefunctionsofstressinalanguagewithexamples.6.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?7.Aphoneticsymbolisactuallya“coverterm”foracompositeofdistinctphoneticpropertiesorfeatures.Defineeachofthesymbolsbelowbymarkinga“+”ora“---”foreachgivenfeature:a“+”,ifthepropertyispresent,a“---”,ifitisabsent:Soundsegments:uэa:iæu:i:oueiPhoneticfeatures:HighLowBackTenseRoundSoundsegments:fngθztlPhoneticfeatures:StopNasalVoicedLabialAlveolarVelarLiquidfricative8.Distinguishandtranscribethefollowingsoundsingroups.（1）【p】inpit,tipandspit（2）【l】inlessonandpeople（3）【n】intenandtenth\n（4）【k】inkeyandscheme（5）【t】inteamandsteam9.Fillintheproperwordaccordingtotheexplanations.（1）thefrequencyofvibrationinthemusicalsoundofthevoice.（）.（2）aspecialemphasisonasoundorasoundgroup.（）.（3）thelengthofsilencebetweenpartsofutterance.（）.（4）thesmalleststructuredsoundunitmadeupofarule-governedsequenceofphonemes.（）.（5）thephoneticprocessinwhichtwophonemes,adjacenttoeachother,becomeidentical.（）.英语语言学课外单元练习（5）Morphology1.Whatdoesmorphologystudy?Howdowedefinemorphology?2.Distinguishbetweenphonologicallyandmorphologicallyconditionedallomorphs,andbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixes,andbetweenfreeandboundmorphemes.Giveexamples.3.Dissectthefollowingwordsintomorphemes:Description/underdevelopment/photosynthetic/anatomy/radiation/geography/philharmonicdefrosted/refreshment/demobilized/conducting/suppression/circumspect/dialoguedeformed/combination4.TrytofindoutthemeaningofthefollowingrootsinEnglishandgivetwoorthreewordsthatcontaineachofthem:hydrochrondemoduragrkilonympedruptgresspolysyn5.StatethemorphologicalrulesthatgoverntheuseofthegivenderivationalaffixesExample:--erThissuffixisaddedtoaverbtoformanounindicatingtheagentthatcarriesouttheaction,e.g.writer---writer--ant--ment--sub--en--en--ee--ful--some--wise--un6.Explaintheformationandmeaningofthefollowingcompounds:Example:nightcap------nounformedbycombiningtwonouns,meaningadrinkonetakesbeforegoingtobed.cat’spawtableclothgreen-eyedgreenbornupdatejetlagbootlegbuilt-incockpitgood-for-nothing7.Writeouttheproperwordorwordsaccordingtotheexplanations:（1）thesmallestmeaningfulunitwhichcanbeusedindependently.（）（2）eachofthephoneticformsorvariants.（）（3）thedifferentmorphsofonemorpheme.（）（4）thesmallestlinguisticunitthatcarriesmeaning.（）（5）wordswhosemembershipcanberegularlyexpanded.（）（6）allthewordsofagivenlanguage.（）（7）thewayhowmorphemesarecombinedtoformnewwords.（）8.Pointoutthederivationalandinflectionalmorphemesinthefollowingwordsandgivetheirmeanings:teachershorterbreaksbooksgirl’scarelessusefulnessirregularMarxistreaderswantedlovedhousesbusesstudiedbusiness9.dividethefollowingwordsintoseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachtwomorphemes:reconstructionsociolinguisticstouristsreadingsmorphophonemicpredeterminationendearmentgirlsindependentreplacementgrandparentsgeneralizationderivationaltelevisionretroactivepsycholinguisticbefriendedunpalatable10.ThinkoffiveEnglishsuffixes,givetheirmeaningsandexplainwhatbasesorstemstheymaybesuffixedto.Example:--ermeaning“doerof”,making\nanagentivenoun,isaddedtoverbs,asshowninthefollowing:reader,“onewhoreads”,speaker“onewhospeaks”英语语言学课外单元练习（6）Syntax1.Examineeachofthefollowingsentencesandindicateifitisasimple,coordinate,complexorcompoundcomplexsentences:（1）Janediditbecauseshewasaskedto.（2）Thesoldierswerewarnedtoremainhiddenandnottoexposethemselves.（3）Davidwasneverthere,buthisbrotherwas.（4）Sheleadsatranquillifeinthecountry.（5）UnlessIhearfromher,Iwon’tleavethistown..2.Usetheappropriatephrasestructurerulestodrawalabeledconstituentstructuretreediagramforeachofthefollowingsentences:（1）Aclevermagicianfooledtheaudience.（2）Thetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind.（3）Theyknewthatthesenatorwouldwintheelection.3.Foreachofthefollowingtwosentences,drawatreediagramofitsunderlyingstructurethatwillrevealthedifferenceintherelationshipbetweenJohn/Maryandtheverb“see”:（1）MaryadvisedJohntoseethedentist.（2）MarypromisedJohntoseethedoctor.4.Theformationofmanysentencesinvolvestheoperationofsyntacticmovement.ThefollowingsentencesarebelievedtohavederivedfromtheirD—structurerepresentations.ShowtheD—structureforeachofthesesentences.（1）Theleaderofthemajoritypartywasseverelycriticizedbythemedia.（2）Themanthrewtherakeawayintheyard..（3）Whatcanrobotdoforus?（4）Willthenewshopownerhireher?5.DrawonyourlinguisticknowledgeofEnglishandparaphraseeachofthefollowingsentencesintwodifferentwaystoshowhowsyntacticrulesaccountfortheambiguityofsentences:（1）Smokingcigarettescanbenauseating.（2）Tonyisadirtystreetfighter.（3）Afteratwo-daydebate,theyfinallydecidedonthehelicopter.（4）Themanistooheavytomove.（5）Thelittlegirlsawthebigmanwiththetelescope.6.Becauselanguageshaverecursiveproperties,thereisnolimittothepotentiallengthofsentences,andthesetofsentencesofanylanguageisinfinite.Givetwoexamplestoshowtherecursivepropertiesofsentences.7.Writedowntheembeddedsentencesbelow:（1）ThegirlspleadedforMarytoleavethemalone.（2）Ifoundmywifewritingalettertoherfriend.（3）WhotoldtheteacherthatIwouldn’tattendhislecture?（4）Iknowthemanwhoisstandingthere.（5）Forustomasteraforeignlanguageisveryuseful.（6）Givethisbooktothestudentswhomwewerejusttalkingabout.8.Explainthedeepstructureandsurfacestructure,andaccountfortherelationsbetweenthetwokindsofstructures>英语语言学课外单元练习（7）Semantics1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?2.Whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?3.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseachofthefollowingpairsofantonymsbelong?Left/rightfar/nearvacant/occupiedfather/daughternorth/southdoctor/patientdark/brightugly/beautiful4.Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowing\npairsofsentences:（1）Tom’swifeispregnant./Tomhasawife.（2）Helikesswimming./Helikessports.（3）Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced./Mysisterisamarriedwoman.（4）HespeaksEnglish./Hespeaksaforeignlanguage.2.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis:（1）Themansellsice-cream.（2）Isthebabysleeping?（3）Itissnowing（4）Thetreegrowswell.6.Writeouttheproperwordorwordsaccordingtotheexplanations:（1）asenserelationbetweenapairofwords,inwhichthemeaningofawordisincludedinthemeaningoftheother.（）（2）thesymbolreferstothelinguisticelements.（）（3）anapproachadoptedbystructuralsemantistsindescribingthemeaningofwordsandphrases（4）thekindofanalysiswhichinvolvesthebreakingdownofpredicationsintotheirconstituents—argumentsandpredication.（）1.Pickoutfromthefollowingpairsthehomonymsandthehomophones:Style/stilehear/herebank/bankknow/nohare/hairear/eartale/tailbear/bearsoul/soleone/wontear/taredear/deer2.Indicatewhichamongthefollowingarecomplementarypairs,whicharegradablepairs,andwhicharerelationalpairs:Larger/smallerasleep/awakeparents/childrenlegal/illegalfalse/truestart/endfail/passstrong/weakbeautiful/uglytrainer/traineepregnant/sterilerude/politeask/answerfor/against.3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesbelongtoillustrativelanguageandwhichtometalanguage?（1）Yellowisthecolorofmytruelover’shair.（2）“Yellow”isacolorword.（3）Ahorseisananimal.（4）“Horse”containsthesemanticpropertyof“animal”.（5）Everybodylikesflowers.（6）“Flowers”isspelledf-l-o-w-e-r-s.英语语言学课外单元练习（8）Pragmatics1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoseitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?2.Howisthenotionofcontextinterpreted?3.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?4.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:（1）theroomismessy.（2）Ican’tworkunderuntidycircumstances.（3）Itwouldbegoodifshehadagreenskirton.5.WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?6.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?7.Howdoestheviolationofthesemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures?8.Writeouttheproperwordorwordsaccordingtotheexplanations（1）utterancesusedto“do”thingsorperformacts.（）（2）theactofsayingsomething.（）（3）theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.（4）theactperformedorresultingfromsayingsomething;it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.（）9.Imaginecontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:\n（1）Theroomneedscleaning.（2）Itiscoldhere.（3）ItisSundaytoday.（4）Mywatchhasstoppedagain.2.Howdothefollowingexchangesofconversationillustratethepolitenessprinciple?（1）A:Thedresssheiswearingisbeautiful,isn’tit?B:Thepatternisnice>（2）A:Areyougoingtouseyourcarthisevening?B:Ithasgotaflattyre,I’mafraid3.Explainthefollowingterms:（1）Speechacttheory（2）TheCP（3）ThePP12.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance?Giveanexample.\nLanguage（Exercise1）1.Statethenatureoflanguagebrieflywithexamples.Answer:modernlinguistshaveproposedvariousdefinitionsoflanguagesuchas:Languageis“apurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”(Sapir,1921)Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”(Hall,1968)Languageis“aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”(Chomsky,1957)“语言是人跟人互通信息，用发音器官发出来的，成系统的行为的方式。”（赵元任）Eachofthesedefinitionshasitsownspecialemphasis.However,thereisagenerallyaccepteddefinition:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thedefinitionhascapturedmainfeaturesofhumanlanguage:(i)languageisasystem;(ii)languageisarbitrary;(iii)languageisvocal;(iv)languageishuman-specific;and(v)languageistocommunicate.(Studentsshouldillustratethesepointsmoreclearly)2.Whyisitsaidthatthelanguagesystemisuniquetohumanbeings?Thatlanguageishumanspecificmeansthatlanguageisdifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifehave,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.(Moreaboutthispointcanbefoundintheillustrationofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage)3.Whatarethecharacteristicsofhumanlanguage?Humanlanguageischaracterizedbyitsdesignfeatures,whichreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagewhichdistinguishitfromanimalcommunicationsystem.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecified13features(someofthemdiscussedinourtextbook):1.Modeofcommunication:vocal-auditory;2.RapidFading:Messagedoesnotlingerintimeorspaceafterproduction.3.Interchangeability:individualswhousealanguagecanbothsendandreceiveanypermissiblemessagewithinthatcommunicationsystem.4.Feedback:usersofalanguagecanperceivewhattheyaretransmittingandcanmakecorrectionsiftheymakeerrors.5.Specialization:thedirect-energeticconsequencesoflinguisticsignalsareusuallybiologicallytrivial;onlythetriggeringeffectsareimportant.6.Semanticity:thereareassociativetiesbetweensignalelementsandfeaturesintheworld;inshort,somelinguisticformshavedenotations.7.Arbitrariness:thereisnologicalconnectionbetweentheformofthesignalanditsmeaning.8.Discreteness:messagesinthesystemaremadeupofsmaller,repeatableparts;thesoundsoflanguage(orcheremesofasign)areperceivedcategorically,notcontinuously.9.Displacement:linguisticmessagesmayrefertothingsremoteintimeandspace,orboth,fromthesiteofthecommunication.10.Productivity:userscancreateandunderstandcompletelynovelmessages.1)Inalanguage,newmessagesarefreelycoinedbyblending,analogizingfrom,ortransformingoldones.Thissaysthateverylanguagehasgrammaticalpatterning.2)Inalanguage,eitherneworoldelementsarefreelyassignednewsemanticloadsbycircumstancesandcontext.Thissaysthatineverylanguagenewidiomsconstantlycomeintoexistence.11.Culturaltransmission:theconventionsofalanguagearelearnedbyinteractingwithmoreexperiencedusers.12.Duality(ofPatterning):alargenumberofmeaningfulelementsaremadeupofaconvenientlysmallnumberofmeaninglessbutmessage-differentiatingelements.13.Prevarication:linguisticmessagescanbefalse,deceptive,ormeaningless.\n14.Reflexiveness:Inalanguage,onecancommunicateaboutcommunication.15.Learnability:Aspeakerofalanguagecanlearnanotherlanguage.(CharlesHockett,1966,"TheProblemofUniversalsinLanguage".)Amongthem,arbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacementarethecrucialandcentralpropertiesoflanguage.4.Whatarethesocialfunctionsoflanguage?Languageservesvarioussocialfunctionsasfollows:1)phatic:languageisusedforestablishinganatmosphereforfurthercommunicationormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformation,suchasgreetings,farewellsandcommentsontheweather.2)directive:languageisusedtogetthehearertodosomething.3)informative:languageistheinstrumentofthought,istogiveinformationorrecordthefacts.4)interrogative:languageisusedtogetinformationfromothers.5)expressive:languageisusedtoconveytheuser’sfeelingsorattitudes.6)evocative:languageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.7)performative:languagecanbeusedtoperformcertainacts.(Studentsarerequiredtolistotherfunctionsoflanguageandgivesomeexamples)5.Doanimalsotherthanhumanshavetheirownlanguages?Animalshavetheirowncommunicationsystemswhichmaybedifferentfromhumanlanguages.Forinstance,abeecantellotherbeesthelocation,direction,distanceorqualityofthefoodsourcebyperformingadanceonawallofthehive.Anantcanconveyinformationtoitspartnersthroughitsfeelers.6.Exemplifyhowanimalscommunicatewitheachother.Seetheanswertothequestion5(listmoreexamplesaboutotheranimals).7.Canlanguagebeviewedonlyasasystemofcommunication?Whynot?Thestatementthatlanguageisasystemofcommunicationdoesnotclarifythenatureoflanguage.Languageisacomplicatednotion.Aproperdefinitionshouldbebasedonthestructures,featuresandfunctionsoflanguage.Moreover,iflanguageisdefinedmerelyasasystemofcommunication,thenlanguageisnotuniquetohumans.(Moreonthisseetheanswersabove.)8.Howdidlanguagecomeintobeing?Whatistherelationshipbetweentheoriginoflanguageandtheoriginofhumanbeings?Therearemanytheoriesabouttheoriginoflanguage.FourtheoriesareintroducedinthetextbookThetextbookreferstoLinguistics:ACourseBookeditedbyHuZhuanglin,BeijingUniversityPress,2001.(PP.9-19).Youcanfindmoreinformationaboutthisproblemontheinternet,orinthelibrary.Therelationshipbetweentheoriginoflanguageandtheoriginofhumanbeingsisanopenquestion.Studentscandiscussitaccordingtoyourunderstanding.9.Rewriteeachofthefollowinglistsofwordsintonaturalorder.Five/the/fresh/potatoes:ThefivefreshpotatoesPretty/American/girls/thetwo:ThetwoprettyAmericangirlsAirlines/brand/France-made/new/thetwo:ThetwonewbrandFrance-madeairlinesFashions/Chinese/the/latest/three:ThelatestthreeChinesefashionsBeginning/hardworking/two/the/workers:Thetwobeginninghardworkingworkers10.Fillintheblankswiththeproperwords.（1）Performativefunctionmeanslanguagecanbeusedto“do”things.（2）Emotive/expressivefunctionmeanstheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.（3）Mostimperativesentencesareassociatedwithdirectivefunction.\n（4）Thesentence“What’sitlike?”showsinterrogativefunction.（5）Greetingsshowsphaticfunction.（6）“Wearemostgratefulforthis.”showsexpressivefunction.（7）Propagandashowsevocativefunction.（8）Displacementreferstocontextsremovedfromtheimmediateofthespeaker.（9）ForJakobson,referenceisnottheonly,noteventheprimarygoalofcommunication.（10）Halliday’smetafunctionsincludeIdeational,InterpersonalandTextualfunctions.（11）Linguisticsshouldincludeatleastfiveparameters:___________________________________________________________.11.Saythefollowingaretrueorfalse.Ifitisfalsecorrectit1)Languagedistinguishesusfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalscommunicationsystem.(T)2)Thereisnotacertaindegreeofcorrespondencebetweenthesequenceofclausesandtheactualhappenings.(F)Theorderofclausesarealwaysmatchingtheactualsequenceofhappenings.3)Thetheoriesdiscussedinthetextbookabouttheoriginsoflanguagearenotatmostaspeculation.(F)(moreaboutthisonP.10)4)Thedefinition“Languageisatoolforhumancommunication.”hasnoproblem.(F)Thedefinitionjustfocusesonthefunctionoflanguage,whichdoesnotincludethenatureandfeaturesoflanguage.5)Thedefinition,“languageisasetofrules”,tellsnothingaboutitsfunctions.(T)6)Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.(F)(Seetheanswertothequestion1)7)Chomsky’sdefinitionaboutlanguageisthesameasSapir’s.(F)(Seetheanswertothequestion1)Linguistics（Exercise2）1.Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Theword“language”precededbythezeroarticleinEnglishimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Theword‘study’doesnotmean‘learning’,but‘investigation’or‘examination’.Theword‘scientific’referstothewayinwhichlanguageisstudied.Ascientificstudyisonebasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Theprocessoflinguisticstudycanbesummarizedasfollows:First,certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;next,basedonthesegeneralizations,hypothesesareformulatedtoaccountforthesefacts;then,thehypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;finallyalinguistictheoryisconstructedaboutwhatlanguageisandhowitworks.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Pointoutthreeaspects.ThemajorbranchesoflinguisticsandtheirstudyonPP.17-20.ItisgenerallybelievedthatthebeginningofmodernlinguisticswasmarkedbythepublicationofF.deSaussure’sCourseinGeneralLinguisticsin1919.Beforethatlanguagehadbeenstudiedforcenturies,called“traditionalgrammar”.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways:Firstly,modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.(PP.23-24)Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammartendedtoemphasizetheimportanceofthewrittenword.Beforetheinventionofsoundrecording,itwasdifficultforpeopletodealwithutteranceswhichexistedonlyforseconds.\nThirdly,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Inthepast,itwasassumedthatLatinprovidesauniversalframeworkintoalllanguagesfit.Asaresult,otherlanguageswereforcedtofitintotheLatinpatternsandcategories.Modernlinguisticstrytosetupauniversalgrammarbasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbyhumanbeings.3.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?AfterSaussure’sdistinctionbetweensynchronicanddiachronicstudy,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicstudy.Saussurepostulatedthepriorityofsynchrony:noknowledgeofthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguageisnecessarytoexamineitspresentsystem.Hearrivedatthisradicalviewpointduetohisconvictionthatlinguisticresearchmustconcentrateonthestructureoflanguage.4.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?Why?Speechandwritingaretwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsspeechastheprimaryoneforsomereasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemistorecordspeech.Eventoday,therearesometribeswithoutwritingsystem.Fromtheviewofchildren’sdevelopment,childrenacquirehismothertonguebeforetheylearntowrite.5.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Themeaningoflangueandparole(PP.24-25)Themeaningofcompetenceandperformance(PP.25-26)Amongthetwopairsofdistinction,paroleandperformancehavealotincommon,theyarealltheactualizationorrealizationoftheabstractlanguagesystemorknowledge.Butlangueandcompetencearesimilarinoneaspect,thatis,theyallrefertotheconstantwhichunderliestheutterancesthatconstituteparoleorperformance.Theirdifferencesareobvious.Langueisasocialpropertywhilecompetenceisamentalone;langueisasetofconventionswhilecompetenceisaformof‘knowing’.6.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Agoodandcomprehensivedefinitionoflanguageshouldatleastincludethefollowingpoints:thestructuresoflanguage,thefeaturesoflanguageandthefunctionsoflanguage.(cf.exercisesinChapterone)7.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?(cf.exercisesinChapterone)8.Whatisthemaintaskforalinguist?Statetheimportanceoflinguistics.Themaintaskofalinguististodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,suchashoweachlanguageisconducted,howitisusedbyitsspeakers,andhowitisrelatedtootherlanguages,etc.Accordingtoyourunderstanding,illustratetheimportanceofthesubject.9.Whyis“duality”regardedasanimportantfeatureofhumanlanguage?AccordingtoLyons(1982:20),bydualityismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.Thefeatureimpliesthatalargenumberofmeaningfulelementsaremadeupofaconvenientlysmallnumberofmeaninglessbutmessage-differentiatingelements,forinstance,asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningandtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.Itisthefeatureofdualitythatmakeslanguage\nproductiveorcreative.Dualityalsoimpliesthatlanguageishierarchical(PP.6-7).10.Fillintherightwordaccordingtotheexplanations.（1）Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.（2）Senseisthestudyoftheinterlinguisticrelationshipsamongdifferentlinguisticelementsoflanguage.（3）Universalgrammaristhestudyofuniversalfeaturesoflanguage（4）Synchronicstudyisthestudyofaparticularlanguageattheparticularpointoftime.（5）____________thestudyofthestructureandboththesyntacticandsemanticrulesofalanguage（6）Prescriptivestudyisthestudyoftherulesorprinciplesprescribedforpeopletofollowwhentheyusealanguage.（7）Macrolinguisticsisthestudyofrelationbetweenlanguageandothersciences（8）Transformational-GenerativegrammaristhestudyofthenatureofhumanlanguageandthehumanmindthroughthestudyoftheU.G.11.Saythefollowingaretrueorfalse.Ifitisfalsecorrectit.（1）SociolinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetoPsychology.(F)（2）Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.(T)（3）Inthepast,traditionalgrammarianstendedtoover-emphasizetheimportanceofthewrittenword.(T)（4）Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently.(T)（5）Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.(T)（6）Saussure’sdistinctiontookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.(T)（7）Earlygrammarswerebasedon“high”（religious,literary）writtenlanguage.(T)（8）Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledappliedlinguistics.(F)（9）Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets.(T)（10）Toexplainwhatlanguageisseemstobeanaïveandsimplequestion.(F)（11）Languagebearscertainfeaturesdistinguishingitfrommeansofcommunicationotherformsoflifemaypossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.(T)Phonetics（Exercise3）1.Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?Thetwomajormediaofcommunicationarespeechandwriting.(Cf.theanswertothequestion4inexercise2.)2.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds?Thethreebranchesofphoneticsare:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphoneticsandauditoryphonetics.Theystudyspeechsoundsfromdifferentperspectives.Articulatoryphoneticsstudiestheproductionofspeechsounds,acousticphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechandauditoryphoneticsstudiestheperceptionofspeechsounds.3.Drawapictureforthespeechorgansofhumanbeings.(cf.thefigureonP.33)4.Wherearethearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingcontained?SeethefigureonP.33.5.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?Voicingisproducingasound(usuallyavowelorvoicedconsonant)byvibratingthevocalcords.6.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifyEnglishvowels?ThecriteriausedtoclassifyEnglishvowelsare:Theheightofthetongueraising:high,mid,andlowThepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue:front,central,andbackThedegreeofliprounding:rounded,un-roundedThedegreeoftenseness/thelengthofsound:tense(long)orlax(short)Thechangeofsoundquality:\npure(monophthong),gliding(diphthong)FrontCentralBacktenselaxtenselaxtenselaxHigh/close¡:¡U:UMide[:[R:Low/openæQB:R7.Whatisthefunctionofthenasalcavity?Howdoesitperformthefunction?Nasalcavityisaresonatingcavitywhichamplifiesandfurthermodifiessoundsproducedbythemovementofthevocalcords.Thesoftpalatemaybelowered,asinthenormalpositionforbreathing,sothattheaircangothroughthenasalcavity.Whentheoralcavityisatthesametimeblocked,anasalsoundisproduced.8.Describethevariouspartsintheoralcavitywhichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?(SeeP.35)9.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?Transcriptionreferstothemethodofwritingdownspeechsoundsinasystematicandconsistentway.Itservesasanaidtothedescriptionofspeechsounds.Therearetwotypesoftranscription:broadandnarrowtranscription.Broadtranscriptionreferstothetranscriptiontoindicatethosesounds,whicharecapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.Twoslashesareused,e.g.pet/pet/,bed/bed/.Narrowtranscriptionistosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingtheminuteshades,suchasthetranscriptionof/l/inthefollowingwords:Let[let],tell[teł];peak[pk],speak[spk]10.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsandvowelsclassified?Therearebasicallytwokindsofsounds,consonantsandvowels.Consonantsaresoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisobstructionoftheair-streamatsomepointofthevocaltract.Vowelsaresoundsintheproductionofwhichnovocalorganscomeclosetogetherandtheair-streampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.Themaindifferencebetweenthemisthattheairflowsfreelyinvowels,whileallconsonantsinvolvesomesortofinterferenceoftheair-streaminthemouth.11.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:（1）voicedpalatalaffricate:/dV/（2）voicelesslabiodentalfricative:/f/（3）voicedalveolarstop:/d/（4）frontcloseshort:/i/（5）backsemi-openlong:/R:/（6）voicelessbilabialstop:/p/（7）frontmidvowel:/e/（8）lateralliquid:/l/（9）laxhighbackvowel:/U/（10）voicedbilabialoralstop:/b/（11）midcentrallaxvowel:/[/（12）lowfrontvowel:/A/（13）palatalglide:/j/（14）voicedinterdentalfricative:/T/（15）voicedaffricate:/dV/（16）velarnasalconsonant:/N/（17）lowbackvowel:/R/（18）highbacktensevowel:/U:/（19）midbacklaxvowel:/R/（20）voicelessinterdentalfricative:/W/\n12.Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:［d］voiced,alveolar,stop;［l］voiced,alveolar,lateral;［t∫］voiceless,post-alveolar,affricate;［w］voiced,bilabial,glide;［u］back,high,lax,rounded;［æ］front,low,lax,unrounded;［b］voiced,bilabial,stop;［v］voiced,labio-dental,fricative;［a:］back,low,tense,unrounded;［m］voiced,bilabial,nasal;［r］voiced,alveolar,liquid;［i:］front,high,tense,unrounded.13.DrawatonguechartforthebasicEnglishvowels.FrontCentralBackHighMid-HighMid-lowLowPhonology（Exercise4）1.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Phoneticsandphonologybothstudythesameaspectoflanguage----speechsounds,thereisafairdegreeofoverlapinwhatconcernsthetwosubjects.Withouttheknowledgeofspeechsoundsprovidedbyphoneticstudies,anystudyofthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguagewouldhavebeenalmostimpossible.However,thetwosubjectsapproachspeechsoundsfromdifferentpointsofview.A)Phoneticsprovidesmethodsforthedescription,transcriptionofsoundsforalllanguages;phonologystudiesthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage.Therefore,phoneticsisgeneral,descriptive,andclassificatory;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,etc.phonologicalstudyisparticularandfunctional.Itisparticulartoonelanguageandtheconclusionwereachaboutthephonologyofonelanguageshouldnotbegeneralizedintothestudyofanotherlanguage.Phonologydealswithhowhumanbeingusespeechsoundstoexpressmeaning.B)Thebasisunitofphoneticstudyisphone,whilethatofphonologicalstudyisphoneme.C)Aphoneticstudyisastaticone,sinceittellsushowasoundofalanguageismade,transmittedandreceived,whereasaphonologicalstudyisadynamicone,tellinghowsoundsareusedtoconveymeaning.2.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtothephoneme?Phonereferstothespeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Phonemeisthesmallestsoundunitthatcandistinguishmeaning.However,phonemeisanabstractunit,i.e.itisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Inactuallyspeech,aphonemeisrealizedphoneticallyasacertainphone.Aphonemecanberealizedbyoneormorethanonephone.Thedifferentphoneswhichrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Allophonesareactualizationsofaphonemeinaparticularlanguagethatneveraffectthemeaning.3.Whatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?Minimalpairreferstotwoexpressions(wordsormorphemes)ofalanguagewithdifferentmeaningsthataredistinguishedbyonlyonephoneme,e.g.{pig:big};{tip:dip};{ship,sheep}.Minimalsetreferstomorethantwoexpressionsofalanguagewithdifferentmeaningsthataredistinguishedbyonlyonephoneme,suchas{said:says:set:sell};{pat:bat:mat}.Contrastingminimalpairsisabasic\nprocedureinestablishingthephonemicinventoryofalanguage.4.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.Thepatterningofsoundsinaparticularlanguageisgovernedbyrules.1)SequentialrulesSpeechisadynamicprocessandwhenhumanbeingstalk,theydonotuttereachandsoundseparately,butdeliveracontinuousflowofsounds.Therearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,whicharecalledsequentialrules.Forinstance,inEnglish,ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:a)thefirstphonememustbe/s/;b)thesecondmustbe/p/,/t/or/k/;c)thethirdmustbe/l/,/r/or/w/Examples:spring,string,sequential,splendid2)AssimilationrulesTheassimilationrulesassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialsound,thusmakingthetwosoundsmoresimilar.Assimilationiscausedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.giveboats[givb[uts]givepeace[gifpi:s]Thesound/v/(voiced,labiodental,fricative)isinfluencedbyfollowingsound/p/(voiceless,bilabial,stop).3)DeletionrulesTherulemeansthatasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.thepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,paradigm,thereisno/g/soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletter.Butintheircorrespondingnounformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the/g/representedispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea/g/whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.5.Statethefunctionsofstressinalanguagewithexamples.Stressistheemphasis(shownbymoreforceful,louder,andhigher-pitchedvoice)giventosomesyllables(usuallynomorethanoneineachword).Theresultisthatthestressedsyllablessoundlouderthanunstressedones.Accordingtothecontext,i.e.whetherstressisconsideredinthecontextofthewordinisolationorinthecontextofconnectedspeech,stresscanbedividedintotwotypes:wordstressandsentencestress.1)WordstressTherearesomefactorswhichdeterminetheplacementofstressinsuchlanguage.a)Thesyntacticclassofawordprovidessomecluetothepositionofstress.Combine,convict,insult,abstract,greenhouseb)Themorphologicalmake-upofawordaffectsitsstresspattern.Forexample,wordsendingwiththefollowingendings:-ity,-ion,-ian,-ic,-ify,-ible,-igible,-ish,(stressontheprecedingsyllable):exemplify,terrible,foolish,Verbsofthreeormoresyllablesendingin–ate,throwthestressbacktwosyllables:liberate,hibernate;whereasverbsoftwosyllablesendingin–ate,placethestressonate:narrate.2)SentencestressSentencestressplaysvariousrolesinconveyingmeaning.a)Sentencestressdependsontherelativeimportanceoftheword.Themoreimportantawordis,thestrongeritsstressis.b)Rhythmicconsiderationsinfluencetheplacementofstress(suchasinpoetry).Stressedsyllablestendtooccuratregularintervalsoftime,thestresspatternisaffectedbytherhythm.e.g.Sheisfifteenyearsold.Sheisonlyfifteen.c)Thesyntacticstructureofasentenceinfluencesitsstresspattern,suchasparentheticalphrasesareoftennotstressed.6.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?Supra-segmentalphonologyreferstothe\nstudyofphonologicalpropertiesofunitslargerthanphoneme,suchasthesyllable,word,phrase,clause,orsentence.Theprincipalfeaturesarestress,pitch(tone),andintonation.Meaningconveyedbythesefeatures:1)Stress(seetheanswertothequestion6)2)pitchDifferentratesofvariationare,inacousticterm,differentfrequencies,andinauditoryterms,aredifferentpitches(degreeofhighnessandlownessofsoundorqualityofsound).Pitchvariationsarecalledtones,andlanguagesusingtonesaretonelanguages.Tonelanguageisalanguagethatdistinguishesmeaningsamongwordsofsimilarformbyvariationsinpitchandtone.Thebest-knownexampleistheChinese dialectsofMandarinandCantonese,suchastheform“ma”hasfivetoneswithdifferentmeanings:吗,妈,嘛,马,骂.3)IntonationIntonationistheuseofchangingpitchtoconveysyntacticinformation,i.e.theriseorfallofthepitchinspeaking,whichcouldaffectthemeaningofwhatissaid.Thegrammaticalfunctionsofintonation:a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.b)Itmayindicateconnotativemeanings.Icannoteatanything.(Icaneatnothing.Icanonlyeatsomeparticularones)c)Itmayimposedifferentstructureonthesentencebydividingthesentenceintodifferentintonationunits.Hedidn’tcomebecauseofMary.Thosewhosoldquicklymadeaprofit.d)Itmaymakepartofasentenceprominentbyplacingthenucleusonthepartconcerned.e)Ithasattitudinalfunction,expressingthespeaker’sfeelingsorattitudes.7.Aphoneticsymbolisactuallya“coverterm”foracompositeofdistinctphoneticpropertiesorfeatures.Defineeachofthesymbolsbelowbymarkinga“+”ora“---”foreachgivenfeature:a“+”,ifthepropertyispresent,a“---”,ifitisabsent:Soundsegments:uea:iæu:i:PhoneticfeaturesHigh+--+-+-Low--+-+--Back+-+--+-Tense--+--++Round+----+-SoundsegmentsfngWztlPhoneticfeaturesStop--+--+-Nasal-+-----Voiced-++-+-+Labial+------Alveolar-+--+++Velar--+----Liquid------+Fricative---++--Supplementarymaterial:thephoneticfeaturesofEnglishdiphthongsAccordingtothedirectionofgliding,diphthongscanbecentralorclosing.Accordingtothepositionofthemoreprominentelementinthediphthong,wehavedivideddiphthongintofallingdiphthongs(iftheprominentelementcomesfirst)andrisingdiphthongs(ifthelessprominentcomesfirst).Diphthongscanbewide(iftheglideimpliesamoreradicalmovementofthespeechorgans)andnarrow(ifthetwovocalicelementsoccupyneighbouringpositionsonthevowelchart).Diphthongscanbeopening(ifthedegreeofapertureincreaseswiththeglide)orclosing(ifthelessprominentvoweliscloserthanthefirst).CentringFallingNarrowOpeningi[++++Z[+++-\nU[++++Bi-+--Ri-+--ei-++-[U-++-BU-+--8.Distinguishandtranscribethefollowingsoundsingroups.（1）【p】inpit,tipandspit（2）【l】inlessonandpeople（3）【n】intenandtenth（4）【k】inkeyandscheme（5）【t】inteamandsteam9.Fillintheproperwordaccordingtotheexplanations.（1）thefrequencyofvibrationinthemusicalsoundofthevoice.（pitch）.（2）aspecialemphasisonasoundorasoundgroup.（stress）.（3）thelengthofsilencebetweenpartsofutterance.（pause）.（4）thesmalleststructuredsoundunitmadeupofarule-governedsequenceofphonemes.（syllable）.（5）thephoneticprocessinwhichtwophonemes,adjacenttoeachother,becomeidentical.（assimilation）.Morphology（Exercise5）1.Whatdoesmorphologystudy?Howdowedefinemorphology?Phonologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.2.Distinguishbetweenphonologicallyandmorphologicallyconditionedallomorphs,andbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixes,andbetweenfreeandboundmorphemes.Giveexamples.Morphophonemicsisanintermediarylevelofanalysisbetweenphonologyandmorphologyinwhichthephonologicalregularitiesintheframeworkofmorphology,especiallythesystematicphonologicalvariantsofmorphemesandtheconditionsoftheiroccurrencearedescribed.1)Phonologicalconditioningofallomorphs.Thedistributionoftheallomorphsofamorphemeisstatedintermsoftheirphoneticenvironment,e.g.thephoneticvariationsofthepasttensemorphemes,-ed,as/d/instayed,/t/inheaped,and/id/inneeded.2)Morphologicalconditioningofallomorphs.Themorphologicallyconditionedallomorphsofamorphemeareregardedasirregularincontrasttothephonologicallyconditionedallomorphswhichareregardedasregular.Forinstance,itistheparticularmorphemesratherthanthesoundsofthewordsthatdeterminethepluralformsofnouns.E.g.child:children,foot:feet.Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixes(PP.86-88)Thedistinctionbetweenfreeandboundmorphemes(PP.84-85)3.Dissectthefollowingwordsintomorphemes:Description→describ(e)+-tion;underdevelopment→under-+develop+-ment;Photosynthetic→photo+syn-+-thetic;anatomy→ana-+tomyRadiation→radi(o)+-(a)tion;geography→geo-+-graphyphilharmonic→phil-+harmonic;defrosted→de-+frost+-ed;refreshment→re-+fresh+-ment;demobilized→de-+mobil(e)+-ize+-ed;conducting→conduct+-ing;suppression→sup-+press+-tion;circumspect→circum+spectdialogue→dia-+loguedeformed→de-+form+-ed;combination→combin(e)+-ation;4.TrytofindoutthemeaningofthefollowingrootsinEnglishandgivetwoorthreewordsthatcontaineachofthem:Hydro(ofwaterorliquid;ofhydrogen):hydrogen,hydroelectric,hydrotherapy;Chron(oforrelatingtotime):chronology,chronicle,chronometer;Demo(ofpeopleorpopulation):democracy,\ndemography,demotic;Dur(lastingforatime):during,durable,duration;Agr(oforrelatingtoland):agriculture,agrarian,agronomy;Kilo(thousand):kilometer,kilogram,kilowatt;Nym(relatingtoyoungfemale):nymph,nymphet,nympho;Ped(ofchild):pedagogy,pedant;(offoot):pedal,expedition,quadruped,pedestrian;Rupt(break):interrupt,corrupt,bankrupt;Gress(go,walk):progress,congress,retrogress;Poly(many):polygamy,polysyllable,polytheism;Syn(together):syndrome,synthesis,syntax;5.StatethemorphologicalrulesthatgoverntheuseofthegivenderivationalaffixesExample:--erThissuffixisaddedtoaverbtoformanounindicatingtheagentthatcarriesouttheaction,e.g.writer---writer--ant:addedtoverbstoformnounsmeaning‘agentiveandinstrumental”,e.g.inhabitant,disinfectant.--ment:addedtoverbstoformnounsmeaning‘state,action’,e.g.amazement,enjoyment;sub-:aprefixaddedtoadjectivesmeaning‘lowerthanorlessthan’,e.g.subconscious,subculture;--en:addedtoadjectivestoformverbs(transitiveorintransitive)meaning‘causative’or‘becomeX’,e.g.deafen,sadden;--ee:addedtoverbstoformpersonalnounswith‘passive’meaning,e.g.employee,interviewee;--ful:addedtonouns(chieflyabstract)toformgradableadjectivesmeaning‘havingX’,or‘givingX’,e.g.useful,helpful;--some:addedtonounsorverbstoformadjectivesmeaning‘producing,liketo’,e.g.handsome,troublesome;--wise:addedtonounstoformnongradableadverbsmeaninga)‘inthemannerof…’,b)‘asfaras…isconcerned’,e.g.crabwise,weather-wise;un-:aprefixaddedtoadjectivesorparticiplesmeaning‘theoppositeof…’,e.g.unfair,unexpected;MoreknowledgeaboutprefixesandsuffixesonQuirk,R.etal.1985.AComprehensiveGrammaroftheEnglishLanguage.Longman.PP.1539-15586.Explaintheformationandmeaningofthefollowingcompounds:Example:nightcap------nounformedbycombiningtwonouns,meaningadrinkonetakesbeforegoingtobed.Cat’spaw:anounformedbytwonounswithgenitivecase,meaning‘apersonwhoisusedbyotherstodosomethingriskyorunpleasant’.Tablecloth:anounformedbycombiningtwonouns,meaning‘clothforcoveringatable’.Green-eyed:anadjectiveformedbycombiningtwoadjectives,meaning‘jealous’.Greenhorn:anounformedbycombininganadjectiveandanoun,meaning‘inexperiencedoreasilydeceivedperson’.Update:averbformedbycombininganadverbandaverb,meaning‘bringuptodate,modernize’.Jetlag:anounformedbycombiningtwonouns,meaning‘delayedphysicaleffectsoftirednessafteralongflightbyplane’.Bootleg:averboranadjectiveformedbycombiningtwonouns,meaning‘smuggle;makeandsellillegally’asaverb,‘smuggled,madeandsoldillegally’asanadjective.Built-in:anadjectiveformedbycombiningaparticipleandapreposition,meaning‘constructedtoformpartofastructure’.Cockpit:anounformedbycombiningtwonouns,meaning‘compartmentforthepilotandcrewofanaircraftoraspaceship,ordriver’sseat’.Good-for-nothing:anadjectiveformedbycombininganadjective,aprepositionandapronoun,meaning‘(personwhois)worthlessorlazy’.7.Writeouttheproperwordorwordsaccordingto\ntheexplanations:（1）thesmallestmeaningfulunitwhichcanbeusedindependently.（freemorpheme）（2）eachofthephoneticformsorvariants.（）（3）thedifferentmorphsofonemorpheme.（allomorphs）（4）thesmallestlinguisticunitthatcarriesmeaning.（morpheme）（5）wordswhosemembershipcanberegularlyexpanded.（openclass）（6）allthewordsofagivenlanguage.（vocabulary）（7）thewayhowmorphemesarecombinedtoformnewwords.（word-formation）8.Pointoutthederivationalandinflectionalmorphemesinthefollowingwordsandgivetheirmeanings:teachershorterbreaksbooksgirl’scarelessusefulnessirregularMarxistreaderswantedlovedhousesbusesstudiedbusinessStudentsarerequiredtoanalyzethewordsaccordingtotheanswertoabovequestions.9.Dividethefollowingwordsintoseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachtwomorphemes:reconstructionsociolinguisticstouristsreadingsmorphophonemicpredeterminationendearmentgirlsindependentreplacementgrandparentsgeneralizationderivationaltelevisionretroactivepsycholinguisticbefriendedunpalatable(cf.question3)10.ThinkoffiveEnglishsuffixes,givetheirmeaningsandexplainwhatbasesorstemstheymaybesuffixedto.Example:--ermeaning“doerof”,makinganagentivenoun,isaddedtoverbs,asshowninthefollowing:reader,“onewhoreads”,speaker“onewhospeaks”Syntax（Exercise6）1.Examineeachofthefollowingsentencesandindicateifitisasimple(A),coordinate(B),complex(C)orcompoundcomplex(D)sentences:（1）Janediditbecauseshewasaskedto.(C)（2）Thesoldierswerewarnedtoremainhiddenandnottoexposethemselves.(A)（3）Davidwasneverthere,buthisbrotherwas.(B)（4）Sheleadsatranquillifeinthecountry.(A)（5）UnlessIhearfromher,Iwon’tleavethistown.(C)2.Usetheappropriatephrasestructurerulestodrawalabeledconstituentstructuretreediagramforeachofthefollowingsentences:（1）Aclevermagicianfooledtheaudience.（2）Thetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind.（3）Theyknewthatthesenatorwouldwintheelection.3.Foreachofthefollowingtwosentences,drawatreediagramofitsunderlyingstructurethatwillrevealthedifferenceintherelationshipbetweenJohn/Maryandtheverb“see”:(1)MaryadvisedJohntoseethedentist.MaryadvisedthatJohnshouldseethedentist.（2）MarypromisedJohntoseethedoctor.MarypromisedJohnthatMarywouldseethedoctor.（Studentscandrawtreediagramsaccordingtotheirunderlyingmeanings.）4.Theformationofmanysentencesinvolvestheoperationofsyntacticmovement.ThefollowingsentencesarebelievedtohavederivedfromtheirD—structurerepresentations.ShowtheD—structureforeachofthesesentences.(1)Theleaderofthemajoritypartywasseverelycriticizedbythemedia.TheD-structure:Themediaseverelycriticizedtheleaderofthemajority.(2)Themanthrewtherakeawayintheyard.TheD-structure:Themanthrewtherakeawayintheyard.(3)Whatcanrobotdoforus?TheD-structure:Robotcandowhatforus.（4）Willthenewshopownerhireher?\nTheD-structure:Thenewshopownerwillhireher.5.DrawonyourlinguisticknowledgeofEnglishandparaphraseeachofthefollowingsentencesintwodifferentwaystoshowhowsyntacticrulesaccountfortheambiguityofsentences:(1)Smokingcigarettescanbenauseating.a)Theactionofsmokingcanbenauseating.b)Cigarettesthataregivingoutsmokecanbenauseating.(2)Tonyisadirtystreetfighter.a)Tonyisafighteragainstdirtystreet.b)Tonyisastreetfighterwhoisdirty.(3)Afteratwo-daydebate,theyfinallydecidedonthehelicopter.a)Afteratwo-daydebate,theyfinallymadeadecisiononthehelicopter.b)Afteratwo-daydebate,theyfinallychosethehelicopter.(4)Themanistooheavytomove.a)Themanissoheavythathecannotmove.b)Tomovethemanisveryheavy.(5)Thelittlegirlsawthebigmanwiththetelescope.a)Thelittlegirlsawthattherewasabigmanwiththetelescope.b)Thelittlegirlsawthebigmanbymeansofthetelescope.6.Becauselanguageshaverecursiveproperties,thereisnolimittothepotentiallengthofsentences,andthesetofsentencesofanylanguageisinfinite.Givetwoexamplestoshowtherecursivepropertiesofsentences.e.g.Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthat….7.Writedowntheembeddedsentencesbelow:(1)ThegirlspleadedforMarytoleavethemalone.Marytoleavethemalone.(2)Ifoundmywifewritingalettertoherfriend.Mywifewritingalettertoherfriend.(3)WhotoldtheteacherthatIwouldn’tattendhislecture?Iwouldn’tattendhislecture.(4)Iknowthemanwhoisstandingthere.Whoisstandingthere.(5)Forustomasteraforeignlanguageisveryuseful.Forustomasteraforeignlanguage(6)Givethisbooktothestudentswhomwewerejusttalkingabout.Whomwewerejusttalkingabout8.Explainthedeepstructureandsurfacestructure,andaccountfortherelationsbetweenthetwokindsofstructures.Whatisdeepandsurfacestructure?(P.132)Deepstructureisaformalrepresentationoftheunderlyingsemanticcontentofasentence,isanabstractunderlyingstructurefromwhichtheactualformofasentenceisderived.Deepstructureisgeneratedbythebasecomponent.Surfacestructureisaformalrepresentationofthefinalsyntacticformofasentence,asitexistsafterthetransformationalcomponenthasmodifiedadeepstructure.ItisderivedfromtheDeepStructure.Therelationisasfollows:1)Adeepstructuremayhavedifferentsurfacestructures:a)Themanopenedthedoor.(akernelsentence)b)Themandidn’topenthedoor.c)Didthemanopenthedoor?d)Thedoorwasopenedbytheman.e)Wasthedooropenedbytheman?f)Itwasthemanwhoopenedthedoor.Allthesentencesaftera)undergothetransformation.Itisthetransformationalrulesthatchangethedeepstructuresgeneratedbythephrasestructurecomponentintosurfacestructure.2)Asurfacestructuremaycomefromdifferentdeepstructures.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.(Ifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivity;planesthatareflyingaredangerousobjects)Heisanxious/difficulttoteach.Semantics（Exercise7）1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudy\nofmeaning?1)Thereferentialtheory2)Theconceptualistview3)Contextualismview4)Behaviorismview5)Functionalismview6)Mechanismview2.Whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?Meaningisanotioninsemanticsclassicallydefinedashavingtwocomponents:Senseisthesemanticrelationsbetweenonelinguisticunitandanother.Itisconcernedwiththeintra-linguisticrelations.Referenceistherelationbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto,ormoregenerallybetweenalinguisticunitandanon-linguisticentityitrefersto.Theyarerelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.a)Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavethedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations,e.g.Iwasoncebittenbyadog.Mindyou,thereisadogoverthere.Thelinguisticsymbol‘dog’,bearingthesamesense,hastwodifferentreferencesinthetwosentences.b)Therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.Atypicalexampleistheexpressions‘morningstar’,‘eveningstar’and‘Venus’(金星).Theydifferinsensebutthereferenceisthesamestarweseeinthesky.c)Somelinguisticformshavesensebutnoreference,suchasabstractnouns.3.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseachofthefollowingpairsofantonymsbelong?Antonymscanbeclassifiedintothreetypesonthebasisofsemanticcontrast:a)Gradableantonymsb)Complementaryantonymsc)Relationalorconverseantonymsa)Gradableantonyms:far/near,ugly/beautiful,dark/bright,vacant/occupiedb)Complementaryantonyms:north/south,left/rightc)Relationalorconverseantonyms:father/daughter,doctor/patient4.Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:(1)Tom’swifeispregnant./Tomhasawife.(Presupposition)(2)Helikesswimming./Helikessports.(Entailment)(3)Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced./Mysisterisamarriedwoman.(Presupposition)（4）HespeaksEnglish./Hespeaksaforeignlanguage.(Entailment)5.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis:(1)Themansellsice-cream.Two-placepredicationTHEMAN,ICE-CREAM(SELL)(2)Isthebabysleeping?One-placepredicationTHEBABY(SLEEP)(3)Itissnowing.No-placepredication(SNOW)（4）Thetreegrowswell.One-placepredicationTHETREE(GROW)6.Writeouttheproperwordorwordsaccordingtotheexplanations:（1）Asenserelationbetweenapairofwords,inwhichthemeaningofawordisincludedinthemeaningoftheother.（hyponymy）（2）Thesymbolreferstothelinguisticelements.（）（3）Anapproachadoptedbystructuralsemantistsindescribingthemeaningofwordsandphrases.(Componentialanalysis)(4)Thekindofanalysiswhichinvolvesthebreakingdownofpredicationsintotheirconstituents—argumentsandpredication.（Predicationanalysis）7.Pickoutfromthefollowingpairsthehomonymsandthehomophones:Style/stilehear/herebank/bankknow/nohare/hairear/eartale/tailbear/bear\nsoul/soleone/wontear/taredear/deerThehomonyms:bank/bank,ear/ear,bear/bearThehomophones:Style/stile,hear/here,know/no,hare/hair,tale/tail,soul/sole,one/won,tear/tare,dear/deer8.Indicatewhichamongthefollowingarecomplementarypairs,whicharegradablepairs,andwhicharerelationalpairs:Larger/smallerasleep/awakeparents/childrenlegal/illegalfalse/truefail/passstrong/weakbeautiful/uglytrainer/traineepregnant/sterilerude/politeask/answerGradablepairs:larger/smaller,strong/weak,beautiful/ugly,rude/polite,start/end,for/againstComplementarypairs:asleep/awake,false/true,fail/pass,pregnant/sterile,for/againstRelationalpairs:parents/children,legal/illegal,trainer/trainee,ask/answer,9.Whichofthefollowingsentencesbelongtoillustrativelanguageandwhichtometalanguage?1)Yellowisthecolorofmytruelover’shair.illustrativelanguage2)“Yellow”isacolorword.metalanguage3)Ahorseisananimal.metalanguage4)“Horse”containsthesemanticpropertyof“animal”.metalanguage5)Everybodylikesflowers.illustrativelanguage6)“Flowers”isspelledf-l-o-w-e-r-s.illustrativelanguage(Anillustrativesentenceisanexamplethatclarifiestheusageofaparticularsenseofalexeme,whichwillhelpyouclarifythemeaningofalexeme,useawordinthecorrectgrammaticalcontext,andgaininsightintothecultureandliterarystyleofthelanguage.Agoodillustrativesentencemeetsthefollowingcriteria:1)Itclarifiesthemeaningofthelexeme:Itillustratesthemeaningasdefinedinthesense,containscharacteristicelementsthatreinforceandconstrainthemeaning,suchasattribute,behaviororaction,usage,positionorlocation,andmaterialcomposition2)Itiseasytounderstand,simpleinconstructionandclearinitsreferences.3)Itisaccurate:Itisaccurateingrammar,initsinformationabouttheculture;itisconsistent,truetothevaluesystemoftheculture.4)Itispractical:Itisuseablebyalanguagelearnerindailylife.Metalanguageislanguageusedtodescribeortalkaboutlanguage.)Pragmatics（Exercise8）1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoseitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?Ageneraldefinition:pragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageinuse.Pragmaticsstudiesthefactorsthatgovernourchoiceoflanguageinsocialinteractionandtheeffectsofourchoiceonothers.(DavidCrystal,1985)G.LeechinhisPrinciplesofPragmatics(1983:PP.5-6)holdstheviewthatthedifferencebetweensemanticsandpragmatics‘canbetracedtotwodifferentusesoftheverbtomean:[1]WhatdoesXmean?[2]WhatdidyoumeanbyX?Pragmaticscanbedefinedbythisformula:PRAGMATICS=MEANING–SEMANTICS.Pragmaticstakescareoftheaspectofmeaningthatisnotaccountedforbysemantics.Semanticstraditionallydealswithmeaningasadyadicrelation,whilepragmaticsdealswithmeaningasatriadicrelation.Thusmeaninginpragmaticsisdefinedrelativetoaspeakerortheuserofthelanguage;whereasmeaninginsemanticsisdefinedpurelyasapropertyofexpressionsinagivenlanguage,inabstractionfromparticularsituations,speakersorhearers.’Therefore,whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudy\nisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.2.Howisthenotionofcontextinterpreted?Contextisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningwithoutconsideringthecontextoflanguageuse.3.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?Asentenceisagrammaticalconceptandthemeaningofasentenceisabstract,intrinsictothesentenceandde-contextualized;whileanutteranceisactualizationofasentenceinthecourseofcommunication,itisconcreteandcontext-dependent.Theutterancemeaningofasentenceoftenvarieswiththecontextinwhichitisused.However,theyarecloselyrelated.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealcontext.(Studentsshouldgivesomeexamplestoillustratethispoint.)4.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:（1）theroomismessy.（2）Ican’tworkunderuntidycircumstances.（3）Itwouldbegoodifshehadagreenskirton.5.WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?Searle’sfivetypesofillocutionaryacta)Assertives:tocommitthespeakertosomethingbeingthecase,tothetruthoftheexpressedproposition.Thedirectionoffitiswordstotheworld.Belief(that).b)Directives:togetthehearertodosomething.Thedirectionoffitistheworldtowords.ThepsychologicalstateexpressedisWant(wishordesire).c)Commissives:tocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction.Thedirectionoffitistheworldtowords.ThesincerityconditionisIntention.Theprepositionalcontentisthatthespeakerdoessomefutureaction.d)Expressives:toexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedinthesincerityconditionaboutastateofaffairsspecifiedintheprepositionalcontent.Thereisnodirectionoffit.“thank,congratulate,apologize,welcome…”.e)Declarations:tobringaboutimmediatechangeintheexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.“youarefired”.6.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?(PP.252-254)7.Howdoestheviolationofthesemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures?(PP.253-258)8.Writeouttheproperwordorwordsaccordingtotheexplanations（1）utterancesusedto“do”thingsorperformacts.（performatives）（2）theactofsayingsomething.（locutionaryact）（3）theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.(illocutionaryact)（4）theactperformedorresultingfromsayingsomething;it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.（perlocutionaryact）9.Imaginecontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:(1)Theroomneedscleaning.(2)Itiscoldhere.(3)ItisSundaytoday.(4)Mywatchhasstoppedagain.10.Howdothefollowingexchangesof\nconversationillustratethepolitenessprinciple?(1)A:Thedresssheiswearingisbeautiful,isn’tit?B:Thepatternisnice.(2)A:Areyougoingtouseyourcarthisevening?B:Ithasgotaflattyre,I’mafraid.11.Explainthefollowingterms:(1)SpeechacttheorySpeechacttheoryisthefirstmajortheoryinpragmatics,initiallyproposedinthe50sandwidelydiscussedinthe60sand70s.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnL.AustinandJohnR.Searle.Itaimstoanswerthequestion‘Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?’In1955,inWilliamJamesLectures:‘HowtoDoThingswithWords’,Austinproposedtheperformative-constativedichotomy,claimingsomesentencesaretostateordescribefactswhilesomeotherstoperformcertainacts.Later,Austingaveuphisinitialdistinctionandclaimedthatallsentencescanbeusedtodothings.Aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.However,JohnAustindidn’tclassifytheillocutionaryact.JohnSearlemadefurthercontributiontothetheory.(2)TheCP(PP.252-254)(3)ThePPPolitenessPrinciplewasintroducedbyBritishlinguistinhisworkPrinciplesofPragmatics(1983).Incommunication,peopledonotalwaysobservetheGriceanmaximsinconversations.TorescueGrice’sCP,LeechproposesthePolitenessPrinciplewhichrunsasfollows:Tactmaxim(indirectives[impositives]andcommissives):minimisecosttoother;[maximisebenefittoother]Generositymaxim(indirectivesandcommissives):minimisebenefittoself;[maximisecosttoself]Approbationmaxim(inexpressivesandrepresentatives[assertives]):minimisedispraiseofother;[maximisepraiseofother]Modestymaxim(inexpressivesandrepresentatives):minimisepraiseofself;[maximisedispraiseofself]Agreementmaxim(inrepresentatives):minimisedisagreementbetweenselfandother;[maximiseagreementbetweenselfandother]Sympathymaxim(inrepresentatives):minimiseantipathybetweenselfandother;[maximisesympathybetweenselfandother]12.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance?Giveanexample.AccordingtoAustin,threeactsareperformedwhileapersonmakesanutterance:Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,andclauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactinsayingsomething,ormakingclearourpurposeinproducinglanguage.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.(Example,cf,ourtextbook)