语言学 总结 12页

Chapter1introductionDefinitionoflinguisticsThescientificstudyorsystematicstudyoflanguages.Science--linguistics----------literatureScopesoflinguisticsMicrolinguistics微观语言学Thestudyoflanguageitself;itstudiesthevariousaspectsoflanguage,includingsound,formandmeaning.Sound:phonetics,phonologyForm:morphology,syntaxMeaning:semantics,(pragmatics)MacrolinguisticsThestudyoflanguageinrelationtootherdisciplines(interdisciplinarystudies):Psycholinguistics:languageandmind,languageacquisition,comprehensionandproductionNeurolinguistics:languageprocessingandrepresentationStylistics:scienceofliterature,etc.SomeLinguisticDistinctions1.Descriptive&prescriptivegrammars2.Synchronic&diachroniclinguistics共时语言学历时语言学3.Langue语言&parole言语bySaussure4.Competence语言能力&performance语言应用byChomsky5.Syntagmatic¶digmaticrelations（横）组合关系和（纵）聚合关系6.Functionalism功能主义&formalism形式主义`AsystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunicationsDesignFeatures----FeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguageI.Arbitrariness任意性II.Duality双重性/两重性III.Productivity创造性IV.Interchangeability互换性V.Displacement移位性VI.Specialization专门性VII.Cuturaltransmission传递性VIII.Discreteness离散性IX.Learnability习得性IIDesignFeaturesofLanguage1.Arbitrariness:formsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaningIIDesignFeaturesofLanguageInotherwords,itisimpossibletopredictthemeaningfromtheform,orviceversa.Lookatthefollowingdiagram.wordformmeaning12\nonomatopoeia象声词112Apesgibber.猴子唧唧叫Roosterscrow.公鸡喔喔叫Henscluck.母鸡咯咯嗒Chickspeep.小鸡唧唧唧Bullsbellow.Cowsmoo老牛哞哞哞Ducksquack.鸭子嘎嘎嘎Catsmew.小猫喵喵叫Frogscroak.青蛙呱呱呱Goatsbleat.小羊咩咩咩Pigsgrunt.小猪呼噜噜Micesqueak.老鼠吱吱叫Dogsbark.小狗汪汪叫onomatopoeia象声词2Beesbuzz;theygobzzz.Birdschirp;theygotweettweet.Cuckoosgocuckoo.Donkeysbray;theygohee-haw.Dovescoo.Geesehonk.Horsesneighorwhinney.Lionsroar.Owlshoot;theygohoo.Roosterscrow;theygocock-a-doodle-doo.Turkeysgogobblegobble.Wolveshowl.12DesignFeaturesofLanguageAnimalsmakemuchthesamesoundsaroundtheworld,buteachlanguageexpressesthemdifferently.Arbitraryandonomatopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.“Itisonlywhenyouknowthemeaningthatyouinferthattheformisappropriate.”(Widdowson)IIDesignFeaturesofLanguageThearbitrarylinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaning,however,isalsoconventional.ReadthefollowingjokeAnaughtyboybeginningtolearnABCisbotheringhisteacherrepeatedly:“WhyweshallreaditA?”“WhyweshallreaditB?”……Theannoyedteacherpinchedhisnose.“Auch,mynose!”Theannoyedteacherpinchedhisear.“Auch,myear!”Thentheteacherasked:“Whyyoucallityourearandnose?”“Itissonamedandsocalled.”“Alright,ABCissonamedandsocalled.”DesignFeaturesofLanguage:dualityAlsocalleddoublearticulation(双重性）:thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructure.人类语言的双重性主要是指（1）用本身无意义的语音构成有意义的语言单位这一事实；（2）此外，还指用一个层次上的成分构成另一个层次上的更大单位。“分层—一级一级的组织—是有限的手段无限使用的物质表现，是人类语言最显著的特征。”（Bolinger&Sears）DesignFeaturesofLanguage—productivityAlsocalledCreativity:theabilitythatweallhavetoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage,includingsentencesthatwehaveneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothesituationinwhichtheyare12\nuttered.Thisfeatureequipsuswiththeabilitytoproducecompletelynewutterancesandideas.DesignFeaturesofLanguage—displacementWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Ahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirelanguage.Languageisatoolofcommunication—RomanJacobsonWhatdowecommunicate?FunctionsofLanguage1.Phaticfunction/communion交感功能2.Directivefunction指令功能3.Informativefunction信息传达4.Interrogativefunction信息索取5.Expressivefunction感情功能6.Evocativefunction激发功能7.Performativefunction施为功能　8.Recreationalfunction娱乐功能9.Metalinguisticfunction元语言功能,etc.Whatfunctionsoflanguagebeingused？Goodmorning,MsZhang!Hello,Mary.It’sreallycoldtoday.Yeah,really.Let’sbeginourclassnow.Themaindesignfeaturesoflanguagesarearbitrariness,duality,creativityanddisplacement.Ilovethisclass.parody(仿化）WhatImeanis,IdohopeyoucanenjoytheclassChapter2phoneticsThearticulators/organsofspeech(Page27)Threecavitiesrelatedtospeech:Pharyngealcavity咽腔Oralcavity口腔.Nasalcavity鼻腔VocalOrgansInitiator/Producer1.pharyngealcavity2.oralcavity3.nasalcavityChapter2TheSoundsofLanguage(1)Consonants:PlaceofArticulation1.bilabials[p],[b],[m][w]双唇音2.labiodentals[f],[v]唇齿音12\n3.dentals/interdentals[θ]、[ð]齿音4.alveolars[t,d,l,n.s,z,r]齿龈音5.palatals[ʃʒtʃdʒj]腭音6.velars[kgŋ]软腭音7.glottal[h]喉音CardinalVowelsAsetofarbitraryreferencepointsfixedwiththetongueputinmosteasilyfeltpositions.DistinctiveFeaturesp.40Alsocalledphonemicfeaturesarefeaturesthatdistinguishonephonemefromanother.Thefeatureofbeingwithoneandwithouttheotherisrepresentedbytwovalues:+,-FeaturesthatarenotdistinctivearecalledredundantfeaturesWhatAretheDistinctiveFeatures?[m]vs.[b]:[nasal][m]:[+bilabial],[+voice],[+nasal][b]:[+bilabial],[+voice],[-nasal]Whatabout[b]vs.[d]?Page40FreeVariation自由音变A.Definition:Twoormoresoundsoccurinthesamepositionwithoutchangeofmeaning.E.g.:direction[i]/[ai];either[i]/[ai]B.Freevariationdoesnotchangethemeaningofaword;itistheresultofdifferencesinpronunciationordialect.自由音变vs.不自由音变(Add)不自由音变指在语流中只要出现音变条件，音变现象就必然发生，如北京话的上声变调:[shui214~35zhun214]（水准）。自由音变指在语流中虽出现音变条件，但音变现象不一定必然发生，变和不变是两可的，因环境和个人习惯而异。如北京话的“七、八”变调。“七、八”本调为阴平，位于去声前可读成阳平。如“七天七夜”，“七上八下”，“七嘴八舌”，“七零八落”等。Somerulesinphonology1Sequentialrules:whichgovernthecombinationofsoundinaparticularlanguage(p.42)/S/+/p，t，k/+/r，l，j，w/InEnglish,theremaybeatmostthreeconsonantsbeforethepeakandfourafterit.e.g.:sixthsSomerulesinphonology2(35-36)Liasonrule连音:lateron,thereareElisionrule省音:mostlyAssimilationrule同化,including1.progressive顺同化:stops,stabs2.regressive—逆同化:immovable,ingratitude,think,sunglassesAssimilation12\nAlsocalledco-articulation.Onesoundtakesonsomeorallofaneighbouringsound.同化是语流音变中最常见的现象。为了发音便利，相邻音互相影响、相互调整，使原来不相同、不相近的音，变为相同或相近的音。如鼻音化nasalizationSyllable音节Chapter3MorphologyChapter3Morphology形态学Morphologyisthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesofwordformation.Morphologyfallsintotwocategories:inflectionalmorphology(studyofinflections)andlexical/derivationalmorphology(studyofwordformation).BasicunitsofmeaningWord-formation1.Compounding合成法Lookers-on2.Derivation派生法Sadsadness3.Conversion转化法Guess,aguess4.Backformation逆生法Donation,donate5.clipping/shortening/abbreviation缩略法Demonstration,demo6.Blending拼缀法Brunch:breakfast+lunch7.acronym:首字母拼音词APEC8.Intialism首字母缩略词GPS9.Borrowing借词法kungfuCompoundingWhentwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwilloftenbeinthiscategory.E.g.Ice-creamWhentheyarenot,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwilldecidethegrammaticalcategory.E.g.GreenhouseChapter4syntaxSyntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage.Simplyspeaking,itisthestudyoftheformationofsentences.Therearedifferentapproachestosyntaxinthelinguisticfield:Thetraditionalapproach,thestructuralapproachthegenerativegrammararediscussedhere.P75ICanalysis1直接成分分析法ThefatherofAmericanstructuralism—LeonardBloomfield.Theoreticalbase:12\nasentencenotonlyhasalinearstructure,butahierarchicalstructuremadeupoflayersoflayersofwordgroups.Immediateconstituentanalysis直接成分分析法—adescriptiveapproachAsentenceisviewedasmadeupbytwo-partconstructionsonaseriesoflevelsorlayers.Thebigwordgroupscontainsomesmalleronesandthesmalleronesmayinturncontainsomestillsmallerones.Thewordgroupsinasentenceincalleditsconstituents成分.ImmediateConstituentsAnalysisisthetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintowordgroupsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttings二分法untilthelevelofsinglewordsisreached.Constituentsaspartsofabiggerwordgrouparecalleditsimmediateconstituents(ICs).直接成分thefinalcutsareknownastheultimateconstituents(UCs)最终成分.ICAnalysis4：Verticalbars（add)ICAnalysis5：bracketsp.76ICAnalysis4：ATreeDiagramProblemswithIC-analysis6p.83TGGrammarOriginatedinthelate1950swiththeAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky,whograduallyestablishedthewell-knownTransformational-Generative(TG)Grammar.TGGrammarhasseenseveralstagesofdevelopment,involvingputtingforward,revising,andcancelingofmanyspecificrules,hypotheses,mechanisms,andtheoreticalmodels.TGgrammarInnatenesshypothesis天赋论（269-270）Competenceandperformance（16-17）GenerativeTransformationDeepstructureandsurfacestructure（85）StandardTheory（85）LanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)语言习得机制ChomskybelievesthatachildisbornwithLAD,whichprobablyconsistsofthreeelements:ahypothesis-makingdevice（语言的假设,linguisticuniversal(语言普遍性),andanevaluationprocedure(评价).5SemanticsSemanticsisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.(p.104)106107108CommunicationLinguisticmeaningSentencemeaningLexicalmeaningGrammaticalmeaningSpeaker’smeaningParalinguisticmeaningNon-linguisticmeaningLexicalandstructuralmeaning12\nGrammaticalmeaning(syntacticandmorphological)FunctionalwordsLexicalmeaningContentwordsItisarguablethatthe‘functionalwords’haveanyreferentinthephysicalworld.Leech’s“SevenMeanings”1.conceptualmeaning2.connotative3.social4.affective5.reflective6.collocative7.thematicDenotationandConnotationDenotationisastraightforward,‘literal’meaningofthewordeverymemberofthelanguagespeakingcommunitywillagreeon.指称意义Connotationisnotthebasicmeaningofthewordbutsomeemotiveorevaluativemeaningsassociatedwiththewordbyindividuallanguageusersintheirmind.内涵意义Leech’s“SevenMeanings”111-1.Conceptualmeaning(denotativemeaning/cognitivemeaning,centralmeaning,coremeaning)概念义--词的核心意义.2.Connotativemeaning(aboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.)内涵/附加义Comparedwithconceptualmeaning,connotativemeaningisperipheral,unstable,indeterminateandopen-ended.Leech’s“SevenMeanings”112e.g.pig,dog,cat,etc.old(andwornout),blue(anddown-hearted),tall(andhandsome)Amonkey:achildwhoisfullofannoyingplayfulnessandtrickAparrot:apersonwhorepeats,oftenwithoutunderstanding,thewordsoractionsofanother3.Socialmeaning社会义113(aboutthecontextsorthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse)asreflectedindialects,slangs,jargonsandotherstylesoflanguageuse.e.g.steed—horse–gee-geediminutive–tiny–weeLeech’s“SevenMeanings”1134.Affectivemeaning/emotive(thefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer)感情义e.g.nigger,fascist,politician,statesman,cop5.Reflective/reflectedmeaning(associationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression)反映义e.g.intercourse,nucleurLeech’s“SevenMeanings”1166.Collocativemeaning:Theassociationsofawordgetsbecauseofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitslinguisticcontext搭配义.Meticulous,fussy;12\npretty,handsome,etc.Full(moon),completevictoryLeech’s“SevenMeanings”116Thematicmeaning主题义:Meaningthatarisesoutofthewayinwhichthewriterorspeakerorganizeshismessage.It’smainlyamatterofchoiceb/talternativegrammaticalconstructions.Jackwaspresentedwithagoldmedal.AgoldmedalwaspresentedtoJack.TheOlympicCommitteepresentedJackwithagoldmedal.P118p102-p125Chapter6PragmaticsdefinitionofpragmaticsMicropragmaticsReference指称143Deixis指示144Anaphora回指145Presuppposition预设146Reference144Theactbywhichaspeakerorwriteruseslanguagetoenableahearerorreadertoidentifysomethingbyinference.Thephilosophyoflanguage--MacrolinguisiticsSpeechacttheorybyJ.Austin1950s,OxfordphilosopherJohnAustininitiatedthefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageuse.Themajorideaofthetheoryisthatthingscanbedonewithwords.Austin’sSpeechActTheory奥斯丁的言语行为理论p.148Aspeakerisnotmerelysayingsomethingtodescribestatesofaffairs,butheisalsoactivelydoingthings.Afterhehasdoneit,thesituationoftheoutsideworldwillchangeaccordingly.Theactionofproducinganutteranceisseenasconsistingofseveralrelatedspeechacts:Speechacts1481.Locutionaryact言内行为/发话行为：theactofsaying,theliteralmeaningoftheutterance;3.llocutionaryact言外行为/施为行为(intendedmeaning)(ordering,requiring,stating)4.Perlocutionaryact言后行为/言后之果(intendedeffect),(persuading,convincing,intimidating,appeasing,exasperating,assuring)IndirectSpeechActsSpeakersoftenperformoneillocutionaryactimplicitlybywayofperforminganotherexplicitly.Theexplicitlyperformedactisusedtoconveyadirectspeechactandthespeakerreliesonbackgroundknowledgeheshareswiththehearertoexpresshisrealintention.ClassificationofiIlocutionaryactbySearl150Representatives阐述类:It’scoldtoday.Directives指令类Closethewindowplease.12\nCommissives承诺类I’llfixit.Expressives表达类I’msorry.Declarations宣告类Ideclarethemeetingopen.TheConversationalImplicature会话含义ProposedbyOxfordphilosopherHerbertPaulGricethroughtheWilliamJameslectureshedeliveredatHarvardin1967.Conversationalimplicature会话含义154ConversationalimplicaturesAkindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance.Whenthespeakermakesablatantshowoffloutingoneofthemaxims,heisactuallytryingtoleadthehearertolookfortheimpliedmeaning.TheCooperativePrinciple153-7Background:Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectly,theytendtoimplythem.Therefore,thereexistsaproblem:Howpeoplemanagetoconveythelogicalsemantics(implicature).Gricefoundthatthereissomeregularityinconversation.CPanditsmaxims154Themaximofquality质量准则Themaximofquantity数量准则Themaximofrelation关系准则Themaximofmanner方式准则MaximsofQualitySupermaxim:Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.6MaximsofPP(158)MaximofTact得体准则MaximofGenerosity慷慨准则MaximofApprobation赞扬准则MaximofModesty谦虚准则MaximofAgreement赞同准则MaximofSympathy同情准则MaximofTact得体准则“Whitelies”inconversations:A：Shallwegooutfordinnerthisevening?B:Ｉ’mafraidIwillhavetodealwithmyhomework.MaximofGenerosity慷慨准则Associatedwithsuperficially‘nice’:Wouldyoumind…Iwonderifyoucould…Couldyou…MaximofApprobation赞扬准则Youlooksmarttoday!Whatamarvelousmealyou’vecooked!MaximofModesty谦虚准则12\nThatwassillyofme.Howstupidofme!MaximofAgreement赞同准则A:Thebookisverywellwritten.B:Yes,wellwrittenasawhole.Buttherearesomeratherboringpatches.Don’tyouthink?MaximofSympathy同情准则160UsedineitheracongratulationorcondolenceIamsohappyyourdaughtergotfirstprize!Iamterriblysorryaboutyourcat.Post-GriceanDevelopments1.TheQ-andR-principlesFirstproposedinhis“TowardaNewTaxonomyforPragmaticInference:Q-BasedandR-BasedImplicatures”TheQ-principleisintendedtoinvokethefirstmaximofGrice’sQuantity,andtheR-principletheRelationmaxim,butthenewprinciplesaremoreextensivethantheGriceanmaxims.Post-GriceanDevelopments2.TheRelevanceTheoryProposedbyDanSperberandDeirdreWilsoninRelevance:CommunicationandCognitionin1986.Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.Communicationisnotsimplyamatterofencodinganddecoding,italsoinvolvesinference.Fromthespeaker’sside,communicationshouldbeseenasanactofmakingclearone’sintentiontoexpresssomething.Thisacttheycallostensiveact.Inotherwords,acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-inferential.Chapter8SociolinguisticsLanguageisacitytothebuildingofwhicheveryhumanbeingbroughtastone.——RalphWaldoEmerson¡Onceyouopenyourmouth,youareplaced.¡——PygmalionbyBernardShawPointstocover¡1.specialterms:¡Standardlanguage,¡dialects,¡registers,¡pidginsandcreoles,¡codeswitching,¡languagesexism¡2.discussion:¡DifferencesbetweenEnglishandChineseintermsoflinguistictaboosandeuphemism12\n¡TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandgenderSociolinguistics196¡Thestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.¡Itstudiestherelationsbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichthelanguageuserslive.8.2Languagevarieties语言变体¡Languagechangefromregiontoregion,fromsocialgrouptoanother,fromindividualtoindividual.¡Languagevarietiesarerelatedtoregion,socialclass,educationalbackground,andthedegreeofformalityofasituationinwhichlanguageisused,includingstandardlanguage,dialects,registers,pidgins,creoles,etc.Standardlanguage标准语言1Alsocalledstandardvarietyorstandarddialect,standardlanguageisthedominant,orprestigiousvariety.Itisthevarietyofalanguagewhichhasthehigheststatusinacommunityornationandwhichisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.Standardlanguage（add)¡1.StandardChinese/StandardMandarin,thephonologyisbasedonBeijingdialect;thegrammarisstandardizedtothebodyofmodernliteraryworkswritteninvernacularChinese.¡2.RP:ReceivedPronunciationinBritishEnglish¡3.SAE:StandardAmericanEnglishStandardlanguage标准语言1Alsocalledstandardvarietyorstandarddialect,standardlanguageisthedominant,orprestigiousvariety.Itisthevarietyofalanguagewhichhasthehigheststatusinacommunityornationandwhichisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.8.2.2ClassificationofDialectsRegionaldialectsSocialdialectsAccentsDialectsofEnglish¡Phonologicaldifferences¡Lexicaldifferences¡SyntacticdifferencesSevendialectareasinChina¡官话、吴语、闽方言、赣方言、客家方言、湘方言、粤方言¡方言区划(一般分四个层次):¡区、片（次方言）、小片、点¡如:吴语区——太湖片——苏沪嘉小片——苏州话DialectsThe“standard”dialectsandvernaculars12\nBlack(vernacular)English¡Phonology¡Syntax¡History(Origin)(1)TheAfricanslaveslearnedEnglishfromtheircolonialmastersasasecondlanguage.(2)InfluencesoftheAfricanlanguagesspokenbytheslaves.(3)BEisclosertotheSoutherndialectofEnglish.8.2.4Linguafranca通用语ØAlanguagewhichisusedhabituallybypeoplewhosemothertonguesaredifferentinordertofacilitatecommunicationbetweenthemØLinguafrancas说两种不同语言的人用第三种语言交流，这个第三种语言就是linguafranca。比如，德国人和日本人用英语谈生意，英语就是他们的通用语。ØAtradelanguage；acontactlanguage;aninternationallanguage;anauxiliarylanguagePidgin¡皮钦语,洋泾浜语或混杂语言（Pidgin），指不同种语言混和而成的混合语。从纯粹语言学的观点看，皮钦语只是语言发展的一个阶段，指在没有共同语言而又急于进行交流的人群中间产生.¡Apidginlanguageisalinguafrancawhichhasnonativespeakers.¡FeaturesØReductioninvocabularyandgrammarØEliminationofcomplexitiesandirregularitiesTheoriginofthenameØ--Hebrewpidjommeaning“tradeorexchange”--Chinesecharacterspeiandts'inmeaning“payingmoney”¡带有鲜明地方特色的洋泾滨语例如下面的竹枝词，就要用沪语或宁波官话发音才能辩明意思：好法身而沙发身（howfashion而sofashion）翘梯翘梯喝杯茶（HAVETEA），雪堂雪堂请侬坐（SITDOWN），红头阿三开泼度（KEEPDOOR），自家兄弟勃拉茶（BROTHER），爷叫泼茶娘卖茶（FATHER/MOTHER），PidginsandCreolesAcreoleisapidginwhichhasacquirednativespeakers.¡FeaturesØExpandinginstructureandvocabularytoexpresstherangeofmeaningsØServingtherangeoffunctionsrequiredofafirstlanguage¡Theoriginofthename：FrenchCreole“half-breed”¡Althoughbothpidginsandcreolesoriginateashighlyrestrictedvernacularsofaparticularkind,creolescanincertaincircumstancesachievethestatusofstandards.12