英语语言学教案 82页

.-《英语语言学》教案《英语语言学》课程设计目录《英语语言学》课程设计目录2《英语语言学》课程描述COURSEDESCRIPTION5《英语语言学》学生需求分析STUDENTS`NEEDSANALYSIS5《英语语言学》课程介绍COURSEINTRODUCTION5-.可修编.\n.-《英语语言学》课程目标COURSEOBJECTIVES6《英语语言学》课程规划COURSEPLAN6《英语语言学》课程大纲SYLLABUSDESIGN8《英语语言学》教学模式TEACHINGMODEL11《英语语言学》课程要求COURSEREQUIREMENTS11《英语语言学》课程资源READINGRESOURCES11《英语语言学》课程评价COURSEEVALUATION12《英语语言学》进度安排TIMETABLE(2004-2005-I)13CHAPTER1CLEARINGTHEGROUND14Objectives(students)14Focus:UnderstandingofEnglishLanguageandEnglishlinguistics.14Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnersunderstandlanguageandlinguistics.14Aid:on-linecourseware14Topic:14SectionOneLanguage15SectionTwoLinguistics(I)28SectionThreeLinguistics(II)33CHAPTER2SPEECHSOUNDS36Objectives(students)36Focus:Englishsoundperception36Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnerstoknowmoreaboutphoneticsandphonology.36Aid:on-linecourseware36Topic:36SectionOnePhonetics37SectionTwoPhonology(I)41SectionThreePhonology(II)43CHAPTERTHREELEXICON45Objectives(students)45Focus:lexicalchange45Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnersunderstandwordformation.45Aid:on-linecourseware45Topic:45SectionOneWord46SectionTwoTheFormationofWord48SectionThreeLexicalChange50-.可修编.\n.-CHAPTERFOURSYNTAX53Objectives(students)53Focus:EnglishLanguageandEnglishsyntax53Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovinglearnersunderstandlanguage&syntax.53Aid:on-linecourseware53Topic:53SectionOneTheStructuralApproach54SectionTwoTheGenerativeApproach57SectionThreeTheFunctionalApproach66CHAPTERFIVEMEANING72Objectives(students)72Focus:EnglishlanguageandEnglishsemantics72Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthestudentsunderstandlanguageandsemantics.72Aid:on-linecourseware72Topic:72SectionOnetheReferentialTheory73SectionTwoponentialAnalysis75SectionThreeSentenceMeaning77CHAPTERSIXLANGUAGEPROCESSINGINMIND79Objectives(students)79Focus:Englishlanguageandhumanmind79Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthestudentsunderstandlanguageandmind.79Aid:on-linecourseware79Topic:79SectionOneLanguageprehension80SectionTwoDiscourseInterpretation83SectionThreeLanguageProduction84ACHIEVEMENTTESTOFENGLISHLINGUISTICSFORENGLISHMAJORS`02(A)(TERMV),WTU86KeystoTestA,200588ACHIEVEMENTTESTOFENGLISHLINGUISTICSFORENGLISHMAJORS`02(B)(TERMV),WTU90KeystoTestB,200592-.可修编.\n.-《英语语言学》课程描述CourseDescription课程名称CourseEnglishLinguisticStudies系班Dept.Dept.`ForeignStudies学生人数SsNum.98任课教师InstructorJianbinCui教材名称BookLINGUISTICS.ACOURSEBOOK(2ndedition)编辑者AuthorHuZhuanglin出版处所CopyrightPekingUniversityPublishingHouse《英语语言学》学生需求分析Students`NeedsAnalysisHavingfinishedtwoyearslearningofEnglishasmajorincollege,learnersachievedmoreinreading,listening,speakingandwritingandtheycoulduseEnglishtomunicatetheirideasbetter.Asamajor,theyneedtoknowmoreaboutthesubjectaslinguisticstudies,literaturestudies,culturestudies,translationstudiesandacademicwriting.Learnersonanadvancedlevelneedtofocusononeaspectoranotherastheiracademicareaorinterest,andneedtofurthertheireducationaswell.Englishlinguisticstudiesisawell-plannedcourseforadvanced-levellearners.Itwillmeetlearner’sneedeitherinwideningtheirknowledgeorfurthertheireducation.《英语语言学》课程介绍CourseIntroductionEnglishLinguisticStudiesisarequiredsubjectcourseforuniversityundergraduateswhoaremajoringinEnglish,asasystematicwhole,EnglishLinguisticStudieshasasitsmainponentstheoryandprinciplesofthesubject.EnglishLinguisticStudiesisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.Itdealswithyaparticularlanguage—English,forthepurposeofconstructingamodeltorepresentunconsciousknowledgepossessedbyafluentEnglishspeaker.Thiscoursehasadoublepurpose.Thefirstistomakecleartolearnerssomefundamentallinguisticprinciples,conceptsandmethods,whichmightbeapreliminarystudyofgeneral-.可修编.\n.-linguistics.ThesecondpurposeistoenablelearnerstohaveabetterunderstandingofthestructureofEnglish,whichmightbeanadvancedstudyofEnglish.《英语语言学》课程目标CourseObjectives1.Tohelplearners`understandwhatEnglishlinguisticsisabout,tohelplearnerstoknowfundamentallinguisticprinciples,theories,conceptsandmethods.2.TodevelopstudentslinguisticpetenceinapplyinglinguistictheoriesinEnglishlanguagelearningandteachingintheirfutureposition.3.Tohelplearners`understandGeneralLinguistics,whichdealswithLanguage,itaimsatdevelopingatheorythatdescribestherulesofhumanLanguageingeneral.AnddescriptivelinguisticsattemptstoestablishamodelthatdescribestherulesofthisparticularLanguage,suchasChinese,English.《英语语言学》课程规划CoursePlan一、《英语语言学》课程理念、定位与目标1、坚持现代理念，坚持创新观念，树立精品意识，建设品牌课程，体现师特点。2、《英语语言学》是英语专业的核心课程，建设目标是省级精品课程。具体教学目标定位是提升学术水平，培养专业综合能力和素质。3、《英语语言学》课程应体现创新精神、现代教育理念、成为具有一流教师队伍、优化的教学容、先进的教学方法，现代的教学手段，科学的测试评价体系的示性精品课程。二、《英语语言学》课程教学容与方法改革与建设1、教学容设计的原则：培养专业综合素质为主线，以提升学术水平为标志，理论与实践相结合，突出师特色，注重素质和能力的同步提高。2、教学容的特色：注重培养具有先进的教育理念，掌握系统的学科基本理论基本知识，高超的教学水平，现代化的教学手段，具有创新精神的合格教师。3、教学方法：改革教学方法的原则：调动学深的学习积极性，提高学生专业综合素质。以参与式、互动式、体验式教学模式为基本形式。建立多媒体、纸质等构成形式的立体教学载体。三、《英语语言学》课程基本建设1、教材建设-.可修编.\n.-1、评价体系建设2、评教机制建设四、《英语语言学》课程建设阶段与预期成果第一阶段：论证设计1、形成课程建设规划2、制订课程教学大纲3、设计教学方案第二阶段：组织实施1、制作多媒体教学课件2、建立课程试题库3、课题研究的理论论文第三阶段完善总结课题总结、完善、交流。成果申报。《英语语言学》课程大纲SyllabusDesign课程名称：英语语言学/EnglishLinguisticsStudies学时：72学分：4开课年级：三年级课程类别：学科方向课适用专业：英语专业本科开课院系：外国语言文学系一、教学目的《英语语言学》是一门为英语专业高年级学生开设的专业课。旨在使学生了解人类语言研究的丰硕成果，提高其对语言的本质、功能的认识，并初步了解语言与人类之间的关系，培养学生的语言意识，发展理性思维。该课程要求学生掌握语言学学科的基本概念；了解语言与心理，社会，文化，文学等跨学科研究的关系及其发展现状和趋势。有助于拓宽学生的思路与视野，培养并激发其对语言研究的兴趣，为其在该领域的进一步学习及研究打好基础。二、教学方式课堂讲授与讨论结合。三、教学资源教材：胡壮麟，《语言学教程》，大学，2001年。主要参考书目1、布龙菲尔德[美]，1985，语言论[M].:商务印书馆2、费尔迪南·德·索绪尔[瑞士]，1985，普通语言学教程[M].商务印书馆3、润清，1995，西方语言学流派[M].外语教学与研究戴炜栋，1999，简明语言学教程[M].外语教育-.可修编.\n.-15.Widdowson,H.G,2000.Linguistics[M].外语教育16.Lyones,John,1981.LanguageandLinguistics:anIntroduction[M],CUP.17.Crystal,David,1986.WhatisLinguistics[M].London:EdwardArnoldLtd.四、评价方式：学期考试：70%；课程论文：15%;课堂表现：15%五、教学容：第1学期教学容课题名称容摘要ChapterOne:LanguageandLinguisticsSection1LANGUAGELanguage;Designfeatures,Origin,FunctionsSection2LINGUISTICS(I)WhatisLinguistics?MainbranchesoflinguisticsSection3LINGUISTICS(I)Macrolinguistics;DistinctionsinlinguisticsChapterTwo:SpeechSoundsSection1PHONETICSSpeechproduction&phonetictranscriptionSection2PHONOLOGY(I)Phonologicalanalysis;phonemes&allophonesSection3PHONOLOGY(II)Distinctivefeatures;Syllables;StressChapterThree:LexiconSection1WORDWordsenses/identification/classificationSection2WORDFORMATIONTypesofmorphemes;Inflection&formationSection3LEXICALCHANGEPhonologicalchange;semanticchangeChapterFour:SyntaxSection1THESTRUCTURALAPPROACHThetraditional/structuralapproachSection2THEGENERATIVEAPPROACHDeep/surfacestructure;ThestandardtheorySection3THEFUNCTIONALAPPROACHFunctionalsentenceperspectiveChapterFive:MeaningSection1THEREFERENTIALTHEORYSenserelationsSection2PONETIALANALYSISSection3SENTENCEMEANINGAnintegratedtheory;logicalsemanticsChapterSix:LanguageprocessinginSection1LANGUAGEPREHENSIONWordrecognition;Basicprocessinreading-.可修编.\n.-MindSection2DISCOURSEINTERPRETATIONSchemataandinferencedrawingSection3LAGUAGEPRODUCTIONSpeech/writtenproduction第2学期教学容课题名称容摘要ChapterSeven:Language,CultureandSocietySection1Languageandculture(I)Currentissues,Culture,InterculturemunicationSection2Languageandculture(II)Sapir-Whorfhypotheses,cultureelementsinFLTSection3LanguageandSocietySociolinguistics,ImplicationsChapterEight:LanguageinUseSection1SpeechActTheoryPragmaticstheory,speechacttheorySection2TheoryofConversationalImplicatureCooperativeprinciple,violationofthemaximsSection3Post-GriceanDevelopmentRelevancetheory,theQ-andR-principleChapterNine:LanguageandLiteratureSection1FeaturesofLiteraryLanguageForegrounding,analysisofLiteral,figurativelanguageSection2ThelanguageinPoetrySoundpatterning,stress,conventionalformsofmetresound,Howtoanalysespoetry?Section3ThelanguageinFictionandDramaFictionalprose,speechandthoughtpresentation,Analyzingdramaticlanguage.ChapterTen:LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeachingSection1LinguisticViewsinLanguageTraditionalgrammar,structuralistlinguistics,transformational-Generativelinguistics,functionallinguistics,thetheoryofmunicativepetenceSection2SyllabusDesignFactorsinsyllabusdesign,typesofsyllabusSection3LanguageLearningandErrorLearningInput/interlanguageandlanguagelearning,attitudestoerrors,non/contrastiveanalysisSection4Testing(I)Approachestotesting,TypesoftestSection5Testing(II)Testrequirements,testcontent/form,markingChapterElevenTheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguisticsSection1ThePragueSchool/TheLondonSchoolFSP,Malinowski`stheory,Firth’stheoriesSection2AmericanStructuralismBoasandSapir,Bloomfield’stheory,Post-Bloomfieldianlinguistics-.可修编.\n.-Section3Transformational-GenerativeGrammarTheclassicalTheory,thestandardtheory,theExtendedStandardTheory,Latertheories,MainfeaturesofTGGrammar《英语语言学》教学模式TeachingModelThiscourseisatheory-basedcourseandthegoalofitistoberealizedbyteacher’sclasspresentationon-lineandstudents`groupdiscussionaswellastheassignmentsdesignedforeachunit.Activitiesbothinandoutsideclassroomwillbenefitlearnersalotintheirlearning.《英语语言学》课程要求CourseRequirementsEnglishLinguisticsisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.ItdealswithEnglish,forthepurposeofconstructingamodeltorepresentunconsciouslinguisticknowledgepossessedbyafluentspeaker.(CourseHours:72hs)Inordertolearnthiscoursewell,Thefollowingaresomerequirementsofandtipsforthosewhoacquirethecourse.Firstly,youneedtodopossibleamountofauthentictheoreticalreadings,andsecondly,youneedtokeepnecessarynotesinclass.《英语语言学》课程资源ReadingResources1、布龙菲尔德[美]，1985，语言论[M].:商务印书馆2、费尔迪南·德·索绪尔[瑞士]，1985，普通语言学教程[M].商务印书馆3、润清，1995，西方语言学流派[M].外语教学与研究4、戴炜栋，1999，简明语言学教程[M].外语教育5、文秋芳，1998，英语语言学导论[M].:教育6、胡壮麟，1996，系统功能语法概论[M].：教育7、秀白，1996，文体学概论[M].：教育-.可修编.\n.-1、桂诗春，1996，应用语言学[M].：教育2、祝畹馑，1996，社会语言学概论[M].：教育10．黄国文，1996，语篇分析概要[M].：教育11、何自然，1996，语用学概论[M].：教育12、王初明，1996，应用心理语言学[M].：教育13、王钢，1996，普通语言学基础[M].：教育14、伍谦光，1996，语义学导论[M].：教育15.Widdowson,H.G,2000.Linguistics[M].外语教育16.Lyones,John,1981.LanguageandLinguistics:anIntroduction[M],CUP.17.Crystal,David,1986.WhatisLinguistics[M].London:EdwardArnoldLtd.《英语语言学》课程评价CourseEvaluationEvaluationoftheEnglishLinguisticStudiesconsistsofformativeassessmentandsummativeassessment.Formativeassessmentincludeslearners`self-assessment,peerassessment,andassessmentconductedbyteacheranddepartmentadministrators.Bykeepingarecordoflearnersinandoutsideofclassroomactivitiesandonlineselflearningdata,keepingfilesonlearnersstudyresults,conductinginterviewsandholdingmeetings,learnerslearningprocessisunderobservation,evaluationandsupervision,thuscontributingtotheenhancementoftheirlearningefficiency.Summativeassessmentreferstofinaltestsandthepapertheyareexpectedtofinishateachmidterm.Learnerswillhavetofinishtwonecessarycoursespapersbythemidandtheendofthefirstterm.Bythetimestudentswillhavefinishedthiscoursein2005,theywillhaveafinalexaminationtoevaluatehowmuchprogresshavebeenmadeduringthecourselearning.《英语语言学》进度安排TimeTable-.可修编.\n.-周次日期教学容TeachingTopics教学模式备注1Aug.30th--Sept.5thChapterOne:LanguageandLinguisticsSection1LANGUAGELanguage;Designfeatures,Origin,FunctionsTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware2Sept.6th--12thSection2LINGUISTICS(I)WhatisLinguistics?Mainbranchesoflinguistics3Sept.13th-19thSection3LINGUISTICS(I)Macrolinguistics;Distinctionsinlinguistics4Sept.20th--26thChapterTwo:SpeechSoundsSection1PHONETICSSpeechproduction&phonetictranscriptionTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware5Sept.27th--Oct.3rdSection2PHONOLOGY(I)Phonologicalanalysis;phonemes&allophones6Oct.4th--10thSection3PHONOLOGY(II)Distinctivefeatures;Syllables;Stress7Oct.11th--17thChapterThree:LexiconSection1WORDWordsenses/identification/classificationTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware8Oct.18th--24thSection2WORDFORMATIONTypesofmorphemes;Inflection&formation9Oct.25th--31stSection3LEXICALCHANGEPhonologicalchange;semanticchange10Nov.1st--7thChapterFour:SyntaxSection1THESTRUCTURALAPPROACHThetraditional/structuralapproachTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware11Nov.8th--14thSection2THEGENERATIVEAPPROACHDeep/surfacestructure;Thestandardtheory12Nov.15th--21stSection3THEFUNCTIONALAPPROACHFunctionalsentenceperspective13Nov.22nd--28thChapterFive:MeaningSection1THEREFERENTIALTHEORYSenserelationsTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware14Nov.29th--Dec.5thSection2PONETIALANALYSIS15Dec.6th--12thSection3SENTENCEMEANINGAnintegratedtheory;logicalsemantics16Dec.13th--19thChapterSix:languageprocessinginMindSection1LANGUAGEPREHENSIONWordrecognition;BasicprocessinreadingTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussioncourseware17Dec.20th--.26thSection2DISCOURSEINTERPRETATIONSchemataandinferencedrawing18Dec.27th--Jan.2ndSection3LAGUAGEPRODUCTIONSpeech/writtenproduction19Jan.3rd--.9th`05REVISIONANDEXAMInclass-.可修编.\n.-Chapter1ClearingtheGroundInstructorDateDaySsNo.SsLevelClasslengthJianbinCuiAug.30--Sept.19thFriday98Advanced50minsObjectives(students)Bytheendofthechapter,learnerswillbebetterabletoknowwhatlanguageis,whatgenerallinguisticsis,andwhatEnglishLinguisticsisabout,howlanguageisrelevanttolinguistics.Whattherelationshipexistsbetweenlanguageandlinguistics.Focus:UnderstandingofEnglishLanguageandEnglishlinguistics.Aims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnersunderstandlanguageandlinguistics.Aid:on-linecoursewareTopic:Chapterplan周次日期教学容Teachingcontents教学模式1Aug.30th--Sept.5thChapterOne:LanguageandLinguisticsSection1LANGUAGELanguage;Designfeatures,Origin,FunctionsTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussion2Sept.6th--12thSection2LINGUISTICS(I)WhatisLinguistics?Mainbranchesoflinguistics3Sept.13th-19thSection3LINGUISTICS(II)Macrolinguistics;DistinctionsinlinguisticsSectionOneLanguageOutlineofProcedures:1.5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptoflanguageandlinguisticsbythefollowingquestions.-.可修编.\n.-Q1.Whatislanguage?Q2.Whatislinguistics?Q3.WhatisEnglishlinguistics?Q4.Whatisgenerallinguistics?2.27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.GenerallinguisticsEnglishlinguisticsLanguageDesignfeaturesoflanguageOriginoflanguageFunctionsofLanguage3.10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:Discussthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.4.6mins.PlenarySummary5.2mins.Homework:Definethefollowingterms.designfeatures,function,emic,duality,arbitrariness,synchronic,metalanguage,performanceWhyStudyLanguage?Languageissuchanintegralpartofourlifeandhumanitythattoomuchaboutithasbeentakenforgranted.Forsomepeople,languagemaynotevenbeaworthysubjectforacademicstudy.Theytakeitasatoolforaccesstosomeotherfieldsratherthanstudyitasasubjectinandofitself.However,ifyoupauseandthinkofthefollowingmythsaboutlanguage,itisindeednecessarytoreconsiderhowmuchwereallyunderstandthenatureoflanguageanditsroleinourlife.Andyoumaybesurprisedtorealizethatsomeofourmostdamagingracial,ethnic,andsocioeconomicprejudicesarebasedonourlinguisticignoranceandwrongideasaboutlanguage.Myth1.Languageisameansofmunication.Myth2.Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence.Myth3.Thefunctionoflanguageistoexchangeinformation.Myth4.EnglishismoredifficulttolearnthanChinese.Myth5.BlackEnglishisnotstandardandshouldbereformed.Thelistofmythsmaygoonandbytheendofthiscourseifyoulookbackonthem,wehopeyoumayfindthesewidelyestablished-.可修编.\n.-viewsnotsotruthfulafterall.ThefollowingaresomefundamentalviewsaboutLANGUAGE,whichyoumayinstinctivelyagreewithouthavingthoughtaboutthereasons,oryoumaynotagreeatthemoment.Followthiscourseandyouwillfindtheyarediscussedinmoredetailintheensuingchapters.1．Childrenlearntheirnativelanguageswiftly,efficientlyandwithoutinstruction.2．Languageoperatesbyrules.3Alllanguageshavethreemajorponents;asoundsystem,asystemoflexicogrammarandasystemofsemantics.4．Everyonespeaksadialect.5．Languageslowlychanges.6．Speakersofalllanguagesemployarangeofstylesandasetofjargons.7．Languagesareintimatelyrelatedtothesocietiesandindividualsthatusethem.8．Writingisderivativeofspeech.Somepeoplefindthesubjectoflanguageintriguingandusefulformanydifferentreasons.Languagecanbeusedasawayoffindingoutmoreabouthowthebrainworks,orhowdamagetothebrainresultsincertainkindoflanguagedisorders,howchildrenlearnlanguage,howpeoplelearnandteachdifferentlanguages,whattherelationshipbetweenmeaningandperceptionis,whattheroleoflanguageisdifferentcultures,whypeopleusedifferentvarietiesoflanguage,whytherearelinguisticdifferencesbetweendifferentgroups,andhowscientistsmaketheputerworkinamorehuman-likemanner.Thiscoursebookwillserveasastartingpointfromwhichyoumaygoonresearchinginoneoftheaboveandotherlanguage-relatedfields.Letusmentionherethemoregeneralandmorebroadlyeducationalconcerns.Wecanallnotethatlanguageplayscentralroleinourlivesasindividualsandsocialbeings.Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.Theunderstandingoflanguageshouldnotbeconfinedtolinguists,asitisavitalhumanresourcethatallofusshare.Whatislanguage?-.可修编.\n.-Webster’sNewWorldDictionaryoffersseveralmostfrequentlyusedsensesoftheword“language”,namely,[1](a)Humanspeech;(b)Theabilitytomunicatebythismeans;(c)asystemofvocalsoundsandbinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedfortheexpressionormunicationofthoughtsandfeelings;(d)Thewrittenrepresentationofsuchasystem;[2](a)Anymeansofexpressingormunicating,asgestures,signs,oranimalsounds;(b)aspecialsetofsymbols,letters,numerals,rulesetc.usedforthetransmissionofinformation,asinaputer;…(p.759)Sufficeittosayherethatthoughweusethewordinitsvarioussenses,wefocushereonitsprimarysense:namely,[1](a)(b)(c)(d).Togivethebarestofdefinition,languageisameansofverbalmunication.Itisinstrumentalinthatmunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandmunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.Languagelearningandusearedeterminedbytheinterventionofbiological,cognitive,psychosocial,andenvironmentalfactors.Inshort,languagedistinguishesusfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthatanyanimalmunicationsystem.DesignfeaturesoflanguageWewouldallagreethatlanguageisessentialtohumanbeingsbutwemayfindithardtospecifywhatmakesourlanguageadvantageousoveranimal“languages”.Inordertomate,propagateandcooperateintheircolonies,specieslikebirdsandbeesalsomunicatebysingingordancing,followingaveryelaborateroutinetoo.Aretheyusinglanguagetoo?Notreally.AsBertrandRussellonceobserved:“Nomatterhoweloquentlyadogmaybark,hecannottellyouthathisparentswerepoorbuthonest.”Sowhatmakeshumanlanguagesoplicatedandflexible,sounrestrainedbytheimmediatecontextandsocapableofcreatingnewmeanings,inaword,sodistinctivefrom-.可修编.\n.-languagesusedbyotherspecies?ThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbycalledDFESIGNFEATURES.Thefollowingarethefrequentlydiscussedones.3.1ArbitrarinessThewidelyacceptedmeaningofthisfeature,whichwasdiscussedbySaussure,firstreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Forinstance,wecannotexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/.HoweverthereseemstobedifferentlevelsofARBITRARINESS.ArbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaningYoumayobjecttothiswhenyouthinkofwordswithdifferentdegreesofonomatopoeia,namely,wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe.e.g.InChinese,.Theselinguisticformsseemtohaveanaturalbasis.ButinEnglish,totallydifferentwordsareusedtodescribethesound.Forexample,thedogbarkswowwowinEnglishbutwangwangwanginChinese.Buttherearesomemisunderstandingsabouttheonomatopoeiceffect.Asamatteroffact,arbitraryandonomatopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.Forexample,WiddowsoncitesalinefromKeats’OdetoaNightingaletoillustrate:Ex.1-1Themurmurushauntoffliesonsummereves.Ifyoureaditaloud,youmayfeeltheconnectionbetweenthesoundsandthemeaning.Buttheeffectdoesnotreallyresultfromthewhisperingsoundsthemselves,foryouwillhavetoknowthemeaningsofthewordsmurmurus,summer,evesbeforesettingupsuchaconnection.Totestthis,justthinkofusingthesimilarsoundingwordmurderoustosubstitutemurmurs,andnoconnectionwhatsoeverwillbeestablishedbetweenthesoundsandthelittlenoisesoftheflyingmosquitoes.“Itisonlywhenyouknowthemeaningthatyouinferthattheformisappropriate.”(Widdowson,1996:6)Thisalsoappliestomanycasesoftheso-calledonomatopoeicwords.ArbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevelAccordingtosystemic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionalists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.Bysyntaxwerefertothewaysthatsentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammarofarrangement.Asweknow,theorderofelementsinasentencefollowscertainrules,andthereisacertain-.可修编.\n.-degreeofcorrespondencebetweenthesequenceofclausesandtherealhappenings.Inotherwords,syntaxislessarbitrarythanwords,especiallyinsofarasthiskindoforderisconcerned.pare:Ex.1-2Hecameinandsatdown.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.Whenwesay(a)werefertothesequenceofactions;ifwesay(b)thereaderswilltakeitasmeaningtheoppositesequenceofrealhappenings—perhapshegotintohiswheelchairandpropelledhimselfintotheroom.In(c)withthehelpoftheword“after”wecanreversetheorderoftheclauses.Thereforethefunctionalistsholdthatthemoststrictlyarbitraryleveloflanguageexistsinthedistinctiveunitsofsoundsbywhichwedistinguishpairsofwordslikepinandbin,orfishanddish.ArbitrarinessandconventionWhatthenisthelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaning?ItisamatterofCONVENTION.Herewehavetolookattheothersideofthecoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality.Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.Forlearnersofaforeignlanguage,itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismoreworthnoticingthatitsarbitrariness.Duality“ByDUALITYismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelareposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization”(Lyons,1982:20)Roughlyspeaking,theelementsofthespokenlanguagearesounds,whichdonotconveymeaninginthem.Theonlyfunctionofsoundsistobinewithoneanothertoformunitsthathavemeaning,suchaswords.Wecallsoundshereprimaryunitsasopposedtosuchsecondaryunitsaswords,sincetheprimaryunitsaremeaninglessandthesecondaryunitshavedistinctandidentifiablemeaning.Thepropertyofdualitythenonlyexistsinsuchasystem,namely,withbothelements(primaryunits)andunits.Manyanimalsmunicatewith-.可修编.\n.-specialcalls,whichhavecorrespondingmeanings.Thatis,theprimaryunitshavemeaningsbutcannotbefurtherdividedintoelements.Sowesayanimalmunicationsystemsdonothavethisdesignfeatureofhumanlanguage—thepropertyofduality.Consequently,themunicativepowerofanimallanguageishighlylimited.Totalkaboutdualitywemustnoticethatlanguageishierarchical.Ifwelistentoforeignlanguagewedonotunderstand,itmayseemthatfluentspeakersseemtobetalkinginacontinuousstream.However,nolanguageistrulycontinuous.Toconveydiscretemeaningstherehavetobediscreteunitsandthefirsttaskindecodinganewlanguageisfindingoutthesediscreteunits.Thelowestlevelconsistsofdozensofbitsofmeaninglesssounds,whichoccurinchumpsthatwecallsyllables.Asyllableisthesmallestunitthatisnormallyspokenbyit.Scoresofsyllablesbeethecarriersofhundredsofmeaningfulsegmentsofwordsthatarecalledmorphemes,suchastheprefixtrans-orthesuffix–ism.Withthousandsofwordsweassociatemillionsofmeanings,andontopofthesemillions—astronomicalnumberofpossiblesentencesanddiscourses.AsBallingerandSearsputit,“Stratification—thisorganizationoflevelsonlevel—isthephysicalmanifestationofthe‘infiniteuseoffinitemeans’,thetraitthatmostdistinguisheshumanmunicationandthatprovidesitstremendousresourcefulness.”(19813-4)Nowwecanperceivetheadvantageofduality,whichliesinthegreatproductivepowerourlanguage,isendowedwith.Alargenumberofdifferentunitscanbeformedoutofsmallnumberofelements—forinstance,tensofthousandsofwordsoutofasmallsetofsounds,around48inthecaseoftheEnglishlanguage.Andoutofthehugenumberofwords,therecanbeendlessnumberofsentences,whichinturncanformunlimitednumberoftexts.CreativityBycreativitywemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Oneofthereasonswhylanguageisactuallyafarmoreplicatedentitythantrafficlightsisthatwecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.Therearenumerousexamplestoillustratethatwordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthings,andcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevereacrossthatwordbefore.Forexample,thisabilityisoneofthethingsthatsets-.可修编.\n.-humanlanguageapartfromthekindofmunicationthatgoeson,forexample,betweenbirds,whichcanonlyconveyalimitedrangeofmessage.(LindaThomas,1998:7)Iflanguageisdefinedmerelyasasystemofmunication,thenlanguageitnotuniquetohumans.Asweknow,birds,bees,crabs,spiders,andmostothercreaturesmunicateinsomeway,buttheinformationimpartedisseverelylimitedandconfinedtoasmallsetofmessages.Thecreativityoflanguagepartlyoriginatesfromitsdualitywhichwejustdiscussedintheabovesection,namely,becauseofdualitythespeakerisabletobinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.Languageiscreativeinanothersense,thatis,itspotentialtocreateendlesssentences.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthispossibility.Forinstance,wecanwriteasentencelikethefollowingandgoonendlessly:Ex.1-3Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho…DisplacementDISPLACEMENTmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconcepts,whicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofmunication.Thus,IcanrefertoConfucius,ortheNorthPole,eventhoughthefirsthasbeendeadforover4000yearsandthesecondissituatedfarawayfromus.Mostanimalsrespondmunicativelyassoonastheyarestimulatedbysomeoccurrenceofmunalinterest.Forinstance,awarningcryofabirdinstantlyannouncesdanger.Suchanimalsareunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”.Humanlanguageis,unlikeanimalmunicationsystems,stimulusfree.Anyexternalstimulusintheworldoranyinternalstateneednottriggerwhatwearetalkingabout.Thehoneybee,exhibitsdisplacementalittlebit:hecanrefertoasourceoffood,whichisremotetimeandspacewhenhereportsonit.Adogcannottellpeoplethatitsmasterwillbehomeinafewdays.Ourlanguageenablesustomunicateaboutthingsthatdon’texistordon’tyetexist.Displacementbenefitshumanbeingsbygivingthemthepowerto-.可修编.\n.-handlegeneralizationsandabstractions.Indeedwordsareoftenusednotinsuchimmediatelyphysicalcontextwhentheydenoteconcreteobjects.Theyareoftenusedwithadeferenceforreferentialapplication.Oncewecantalkaboutphysicallydistantthing,weacquiretheabilitytounderstandconcepts,whichdenote“nothings”suchastruthandbeauty.Inaword,theintellectualbenefitsofdisplacementtousarethatitmakesitpossibleforustotalkandthinkinabstractterms.(Fowler,1974:8)Originoflanguage“Inthebeginningwastheword.”“AndtheLordsaid,thepeopleisone,andtheyhaveallonelanguage;andthistheybegintodo;andnownothingwillberestrainedfromthem,whichtheyhaveimaginedtodo.”(Genesis)Thesepiecesofscriptureseemtosuggestsomemysteriousoriginofthelanguage.Therearesomewell-knowntheoriesabouttheoriginoflanguagethoughsomeofthemhavenowbeendiscredited.Thebow-wowtheoryInprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.Onomatopoeicwordsseemtobeaconvenientevidenceforthistheory.Butinourdiscussionbelowwecanfindtheyareverydifferentinthedegreeofresemblancetheyexpresswiththenaturalsounds.Thistheorylackssupportiveevidence.Thepooh-poohtheoryInthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.Asforevidence,wecanonlycitetheuniversaluseofsoundsasinterjections.Whatmakesthetheoryproblematicisthatthereisonlylimitednumberofinterjectionsinalmostalllanguages.Besides,interjectionssuchasOh,Ah,aiyobearlittlerelationshipwiththesoundsystemofalanguageandthereforearenotgoodevidence.The“yo-he-he”theoryAsprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgrunts,whichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.Wedohaveprosodicuseofrhythmsinlanguages,butrhythmicgrunts-.可修编.\n.-arefardifferentfromlanguageinitspresentsense.Thetheoryisagainatmostaspeculation.Wemaygoonwithallsortsoffancifulspeculations,butsufficeittosayherethatsofarfruitlesssearchfortheoriginoflanguagesreflectspeople’sconcernwiththeoriginofhumanityandmayeupwithenlighteningfindingsinfuture.Andonethingwecansayforcertainisthatlanguageevolveswithinspecifichistorical,socialandculturalcontexts.FunctionsoflanguageLinguiststalkabouttheFUNCTIONSoflanguageinanabstractsense,thatis,notintermsofusinglanguagetochat,tothink,tobuyandsell,toreadandwrite,togreetpeople,etc,theysummarizethesepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassificationsofthebasicfunctionsoflanguagelikethefollowing:ForJacobson,languageisaboveall,asanysemioticsystem,formunication.Whileformanypeople,thepurposeofmunicationisreferential,forJacobson(andthePragueschoolstructuralists),referenceisnottheonly,noteventheprimarygoalofmunication.Inhisfamousarticle,LinguisticsandPoetics,Jacobsondefinedthesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,(1960:21-22)namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,andcode,contact.Inconjunctionwiththeses,Jacobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofmunication,namely:referential(toconveymessageandinformation),poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake),emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions),cognitive(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughmandsandentreaties),phatic(toestablishmunionwithothers)andmetlingualfunction(toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings).Theycorrespondtosuchmunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcode.Jacobson’s(1960)viewsofthefunctionsoflanguagearestillofgreatimportance;seethefollowingfigure.Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetfunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehasIDEATIONAL,INTERPRESONALandTEXTUALfunctions.Ideationalfunctionconstructsamodelofexperienceandconstructslogicalrelations,interpersonalfunctionenactssocialrelationshipsandtextualfunctioncreatesrelevancetocontext(Halliday,1994)-.可修编.\n.-Inhisearlierworks,Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment,hatis,instrumental,regulatory,representational,interaction,personal,heuristicandimaginative.Stillotherclassificationsemploydifferentcategoriesandusedifferentterms,butallsharealotinmonaboutthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.Ourlistbelowisasummaryfortheconvenienceofpresentation.Thecategoriescanstillbesomewhatoverlapping.InformativeFormostpeopletheinformativefunctionispredominantlythemajorroleoflanguage.Languageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenfeelneedtospeaktheirthoughtsaloudaswhentheyareworkingonamathproblem.Theuseoflanguagetorecordthefactsisaperquisiteofsocialdevelopment.Thisisindeedanimportantfunctionoflanguage.Itisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.Hallidaynotesthat“Languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’:thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.Inservingthisfunction,languagealsogivesstructuretoexperience,andhelpstodetermineourwayoflookingatthings,sothatitrequiressomeintellectualefforttoseetheminanyotherwaythanthatwhichourlanguagesuggeststous.”(inLyons,1970,p.142-3)4.1InterpersonalfunctionByfarthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguageistheinterpersonalfunction,bywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Intheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar,thisfunctionisconcernedwithinteractionbetweentheaddresserandaddresseeinthediscoursesituationandtheaddresser’sattitudetowardwhathespeaksorwritesabout.Forexample,thewaysinwhichpeopleaddressothersandrefertothemselves(e.g.DearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant)indicatethevariousgradesofinterpersonalrelations.“Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrules,whichincludethemunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself—forexampletherolesofquestionerandrespondent,whichwetakeonbyaskingor-.可修编.\n.-answeringaquestion;…Throughthisfunction…socialgroupsaredelimited,andtheindividualisidentifiedandreinforced,sincebyenablinghimtointeractwithothers’languagealsoservesintheexpressionanddevelopmentofhisownpersonality…?(Halliday,inLyons,1970,142-3)Attachedtotheinterpersonalfunctionoflanguageisitsfunctionoftheexpressionofidentity.Forexample,thechantingofacrowdatafootballmatch,theshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublicmeetings,thestage-managedaudiencereactionstoTVgamesshowsallsignalwhoweareandwherewebelong.Languagemarksouridentity,physicallyintermsofage,sex,andvoiceprints;psychologicallyintermsoflanguageandpersonality,intelligence;geographicallyintermsofaccents,dialects;ethnicallyandsociallyintermsofsocialstratification,class,status,rolessolidarityanddistance.(DavidCrystal,1992:17)Theinterpersonalfunctionissuchabroadcategorythatitisoftendiscussedundervariousothertermsasinthefollowingperformative,emotive,expressiveandphaticfunctionoflanguage.Theyseemtoemphasizedifferentaspectsoftheinterpersonalfunction.4.1PerformativeThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalstudyoflanguagerepresentedbyAustinandSearle,whosetheorynowformsthebackboneofpragmatics.(seesection8.1below)Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.Forexample,inChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosaysuisuipingan(everyyearbesafeandhappy)asameansofcontrollingtheforceswhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlives.5.4Emotivefunction-.可修编.\n.-Accordingtosomeinvestigations,thoughtheconveyingofsomeinformationoccursinmostusesoflanguage,itprobablyrepresentsnotmotethan20percentofwhattakesplaceinverbalmunication(Nida,1998:17).Theemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.AccordingtoDavidCrystal(1992:17),itisameansofgettingridofournervousenergywhenweareunderstress.E.G.swearwords,obscenities,involuntaryverbalreactionstobeautifulartorscenery;conventionalwords/phrases,e.g.God,My,Damit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh,Ow…Itisalsodiscussedunderthetermexpressivefunction.Theexpressivefunctioncanoftenbyentirelypersonalandtotallywithoutanyimplicationofmunicationtoothers.Forexample,amanmaysayouch!Afterstrikingafingernailwithahammer,orhemaymutterdamnwhenrealizingthathehasforgottenanappointment.ExclamationssuchasMan!Ohboy!Andhurrah!Areusuallyutteredwithoutanypurposeofmunicatingtoothers,butasessentiallyaverbalresponsetoaperson’sownfeelings.Suchexpressiveutterancescanalsobeamunalresponseofagroupofpeoplewhoreinforceoneanother’sexpressiveuseoflanguagetoshowtheirsolidarity.(Nida,1998:21)5．5PhaticmunionThetermPHATICMUNIONoriginatesfromMalinowsky’sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobiandIslanders.Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage,Ex.1-4Mrs.Psneezesviolently.Mrs.Q:Blessyou.Mrs.P:Thankyou.Weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainafortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.RitualexchangesabouthealthorweathersuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Nicedayoftenstatetheobvious.Yettheyindicatethatachannelofmunicationisopenifitshouldbeneeded.Anddifferentcultureshavedifferenttopicsofphaticmunion.AccordingtoDavidCrystal,theweatherisnotanuniversal-.可修编.\n.-conversationfillersastheEnglishmightliketothink.Rundiwomen(inBurndi,CentralAfrica),upontakingleave,routinelyandpolitelysay“Imustgohomenow,ormyhusbandwillbeatme.”Broadlyspeaking,thisfunctionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslangs,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,andswitchestosocialandregionaldialects.Wehavetolearnalargerepertoireofsuchusagesiftheyaretointeractfortablywithdifferentpeople.5．6RecreationalfunctionTherecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedlysolimitedinusefulness.However,noonewilldenytheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.IntheLatinandIslamicworldsaswellasinsomeareasofChina,thereiswidespreadseofverbaldueling,inwhichonesingerbeginsasongofusuallyfewlinesandchallengeshisopponenttocontinuethecontentorprovidearejoinderinasimilarrhythmandrhymescheme.Suchverbalduelsmaylastforafewhoursandisperformedforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.Ifyouobservechildren’splay,youwillfindthepowerofsound.Sometimesevennonsensicallyricsperformarecreationalfunctioninthegame:therepetitiverhythmshelptocontrolthegame,andthechildrenplainlytakegreatdelightinit.Adultsalsohavetheirwaytoappreciatelanguageforitsownsake.Forinstance,poetrywritinggivesthemthepleasureofusinglanguageforitssheerbeauty.WearegettingverycloseheretoJacobson’spoeticfunction.MetallingualfunctionOurlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Forexample,Icanusethewordbooktotalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpressionthewordbooktotalkaboutthesign“book”itself.Toorganizeanywrittentextintoacoherentwhole,writersemploycertainexpressionstokeeptheirreadersinformedaboutwheretheyareandwheretheyaregoing.Forinstance,insteadofsayingthelionatetheunicornallroundthetown,theysayallaroundthetownthelionatetheunicorn.Thechangeinlinearorderchangesourperspectiveabouttheconcernsoftheclause.ThisistheMETALINGUALfunctionof-.可修编.\n.-language.Thismakesthelanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive:Wehumanbeingcantalkabouttalkandthinkaboutthinking,andthusonlyhumanscanaskwhatitmeanstomunicate,tothink,tobehuman.SectionTwoLinguistics(I)OutlineofProcedures:1.5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptoflanguageandlinguisticsbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatislanguage?Q2.Whatislinguistics?Q3.Whatistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandlinguistics?2.27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.Linguistics.PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmatics3.10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussthedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonology.1.6mins.PlenarySummary2.2mins.Homework:Answerthefollowingquestions.1.Doesthetrafficlightssystemhaveduality,why?2.WhichbranchoflinguisticsdoyouthinkwilldeveloprapidlyinChinaandwhy?1.Whatislinguistics?Havingdiscussedaboutthedesignfeaturesandfunctionsoflanguage,theobjectoflinguistics,wenowetothebusinessitself—abriefdiscussionofwhatislinguisticsanditsstatusasascience.Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageor,-.可修编.\n.-alternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsisarichandexcitingfield.However,therehavebeenargumentsaboutwhetherlinguisticsisascience,especiallywhenitwasjustingintobeing.Butnowtheargumentsdieawayandlinguisticshasfirmlyestablisheditsplaceasamajorbranchofsocialscience.Asarecognizedacademicsubject,itisanareawithimmenseresearchpotential,andascholarly“industry”whichproducesalargeamountofbooks,dissertationsandpaperseveryyear;itspreoccupationsareexpressedinsuchspecializedjournalsaslanguage,JournalofLinguistics,Lingua,AppliedLinguisticsetc.,andatregularconferences.Thejustificationforalltheseboomingventuresshouldbeobviousfromourpreviousdiscussion.Languageissovaluabletotheindividual,socriticaltotheefficientfunctioningofhumansocieties,andinitselfsoimpressivelyintricateandprofoundinstructure,thatitisboundtoattractagreatamountofintellectualattention.Andsincethisattentionmustproducestudieswhichhhavepracticalimportance(e.g.inspeechtherapy,education,techniquesoftranslationandmanymore“applied”concerns),linguisticsisboundtobeanacademicallyandeconomicallyfavoredpursuit.Itisalsoasubjectoftheoreticalimportance;foronething,structuralismoriginatingfromSaussure’sviewshasinfluencedmanyotherrelatedsocialsciencessuchasliterarystudiesandsocialstudies.InChinathestudyoflanguagehasalonghistorybutmodernlinguisticsstillhasalongwaytogotoenjoya“boom”.Asascience,linguisticsnowhasasetofestablishedtheories,methodsandsub-branches.Asforitsdata,nowtheargumentoverintuitionorcorpusalsofadeaspeoplerealizetheadvantagesofbothandascorpuslinguisticsdevelopsrapidlywiththeadventofputertechnology.Lyonspredictedintheseventiesbypointingoutthatlinguisticsisempirical,ratherthanspeculativeorintuitive:itoperateswithpubliclyvariabledataobtainedbymeansofobservationorexperiment(Lyons,1982:38)1.MainbranchesoflinguisticsItisgenerallyagreedthatlinguisticsshouldincludeatleastfiveparameters,namely,phonologic,morphologic,syntactic,semanticandpragmatic.Thefollowingarethesemainbranchesoflinguistics.-.可修编.\n.-PhoneticsPHONETICSstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.Oncewedecidetobeginananalysisofspeech,wecanapproachitonvariouslevels.Atonelevel,speechisamatterofanatomyandphysiology.Wecanstudyorganssuchastongueandlarynxandtheirfunctionintheproductionofspeech.Atanotherlevel,wecanfocusonthespeechsoundsproducedbytheseorgansbyidentifyingandclassifyingtheindividualsounds.Thisisthedomainofarticulatoryphonetics.Wecanalsoinvestigatethepropertiesofthesoundwaves—acousticphonetics.Asspeechisintendedtobeheardorperceived,itisthereforepossibletofocusonthewayinwhichalisteneranalysesorproducesasoundwave—auditoryphonetics.Thefourlevelscanbeintegratedthoughinthiscoursebookwewillfocusonarticulatoryphonetics.Asolidknowledgeofphoneticscanserveasagoodfoundationforphonology.Withoutit,hestudyofphonologywouldbeclueless.PhonologyPHONOLOGYstudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeashepointofdeparture.Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Englishhasapproximatelyforty-fivephonemes.Ifyourepeatthe/p/soundtentimes,eachproductionwillvaryslightlyforsomephysiologicalreasons.Inaddition,the/p/sounddiffersfromthatinpoororsoupbecauseeachisinfluencedbythesurroundingsounds.Evenso,each/p/soundissimilarenoughsoasnottobeconfusedwithanotherphoneme.Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsoundsthatthehumanvoiceiscapableofcreatingwhereasphonologyisthestudyofasubsetofthosesoundsthatconstitutelanguageandmeaning.Thefirstfocusesonchaoswhilethesecondfocusesonorder.-.可修编.\n.-MorphologyMORPHOLOGYisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning—morphemesandword-formationprocesses.Althoughmanypeoplethinkofwordsasthebasicmeaningfulelementsofalanguage,manywordscanbebrokendownintostillsmallerunits,calledmorphemes.Morphemesservedifferentpurposes.Somederivenewwordsbychangingthemeaningorthepartofspeech;othersonlyrefineandgiveextragrammaticalinformationaboutthealreadyexistingmeaningofaword.Asmorphemesarepairingsofsoundswithmeanings,therearemanyplexitiesinvolved.Languagesdifferintheirdegreesofdependenceonthemorphologicalponents.InLatin,forexample,meaningischangedthroughtheuseofmanymorphologicalendings.Incontrast,inEnglishwordorderisusedmorethanmorphologicaladditionstoconveymuchofthemeaningoftheutterance.Forinstance,Thedogseestherabbit.Ifwechangetheorderofthewordsandgettherabbitseesthedog.,thesentencemeaningchanges.ButinLatinandalsoinRussian,dogandrabbittakeonsomemorphologicalendingsdependingonwhethertheyaresubjectorobjectofthesentence,andcanthereforechangeplaceswithoutaffectingthemeaningofthesentence.SyntaxSYNTAXisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences.Theformorstructureofsentenceisgovernedbytherulesofsyntax.Thesespecifywordorder,sentenceorganization,andtherelationshipsbetweenwordswordclassesandothersentenceelements.Weknowthatwordsareorganizedintostructuresmorethanjustwordorder.Forexample:Ex.1-5Thechildrenwatched[thefireworkfromthehill].Thechildrenwatched[thefirework][fromthehill].Hereisasinglestringofwordsthatwithoutanychangeofordercanhavetwoquitedifferentmeanings,eachcorrespondingtopossiblestructure.SemanticsSEMANTICSexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Itisnotonlyconcernedwithmeaningsofwordsaslexicalitems,butalso-.可修编.\n.-withlevelsoflanguagebelowthewordandaboveit,e.g.meaningofmorphemesandsentences.Thefollowingarewhatthekeyconceptslooklike:semanticponents,denotationofwords,senserelationsbetweenwordssuchasantonymyandsynonymy,senserelationsbetweensentencessuchasentailmentandpresupposition.PragmaticsPRAGMATICSisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguageperformancecaninfluenceinterpretation.Inotherwords,pragmaticsisconcernedwiththewaylanguageisusedtomunicateratherthanwiththewaylanguageisstructured.Itregardsspeechperformanceasprimarilyasocialactruledbyvarioussocialconventions.Somekeyconceptssuchasreference,force,effect,andcooperativeprinciplesmayappearmonsensical,yetpragmaticsisjustaboutoneofthemostpromisingfieldsoflinguisticstudies.Takeconversationforexample,sincelanguageistransmittedprimarilyviathespeechmode,pragmaticrulesgovernanumberofconversationalinteractions,suchassequentialorganization,repairoferrors,roleandspeechacts.Organizationofconversationsincludestakingturns,opening,maintainingandclosingaconversation,establishingandmaintainingatopicetc.SectionThreeLinguistics(II)OutlineofProcedures:1.5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptoflanguageandmacrolinguisticsbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatispsycholinguistics?Q2.Whatismacrolinguisticsabout?Q3.Whatispetence?Q4.Whatissynchroniclinguistics?2.27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.PsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAnthropologicallinguisticsputationallinguisticspetenceandperformance-.可修编.\n.-LangueandparolEticvs.EmicDescriptivevs.prescriptiveSynchronicvs.diachronic3.10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussthedifferencesbetweendescriptivevs.prescriptiveaswellassynchronicvs.diachronic.4.6mins.PlenarySummary5.2mins.Homework:Answerthefollowingquestions.1.CanyoumentionsometypicalexpressionofphaticmunioninChinese?2.Whyispetenceandperformanceanimportantdistinctioninlinguistics?-.可修编.\n.-MacrolinguisticsLinguisticsisnottheonlyfieldconcernedwithlanguage.Otherdisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnography,thescienceoflawandartificialintelligenceetc.arealsopreoccupiedwithlanguage.Ontheotherhand,although“Saussure’sgoalwastoestablishtheautonomyoflinguistics,givingitawell-definedobjectandfreeingitfromrelianceonotherdisciplines,withitsingofagelinguisticsisdevelopinginteractivelinkswithothersciences.Thecentralgoalofdescribingtheunderlyingsystemremains;thisistheprovinceofgeneral,descriptivelinguistics.Butsincelanguagehasbothindividualandsocialaspects,itisnaturallyofinteresttopsychologistsandsociologistsamongothers”(Hartley,1982:16).ItisnotsurprisingthereforewehavesomebranchesofMACROLINGUISTICSthatshowaninterdisciplinarynaturefromtheverynames.PsycholinguisticsPSYCHOLINGUISTICSinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.Thereisthepsycholinguisticstudyofgrammar.Thepsycholinguisticconstraintsontheformofgrammararestudied.Italsostudieslanguagedevelopmentinthechild,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition;biologicalfoundationsoflanguage;andabigtopic—relationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition.(Slobin,1979)SociolinguisticsSOCIOLINGUISTICSisanumbrellaterm,whichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyofthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,thecharacteristicsoftheirfunctions,andthecharacteristicsoftheirspeakersasthesethreeconstantlyinteractandchangewithinaspeechmunity.Itseekstodiscoverthesocietalrulesandnormsthatexplainandconstrainlanguagebehaviorandthebehaviortowardlanguageinspeechmunities.Italsoseekstodeterminethesymbolicvalueoflanguagevarietiesfortheirspeakers.-.可修编.\n.-Thoselanguagevarietiesetohavesymbolicorsymptomaticvalue,inandofthem,isaninevitableconsequenceoftheirfunctionaldifferentiation.AnthropologicallinguisticsAsascience,thestudyoflanguagesissomewhatolderthananthropology.Thetwodisciplinesbecamecloselyassociatedintheearlydaysofanthropologistsenlistedthehelpoflinguiststostudyunwrittenlanguages.Incontrastwithotherlinguists,then,anthropologicallinguistsareinterestedprimarilyinthehistoryandstructureofformerlyunwrittenlanguages.Theyareconcernedwiththeemergenceoflanguageandalsowiththedivergenceoflanguagesoverthousandsofyears.Becauseanunwrittenlanguagemustbeheardinordertobestudied,itdoesnotleaveanytracesonceitsspeakersdiedoff.Anthropologicallinguistsmustbegininthepresent,withparisonsofcontemporarylanguages.Thentheymaydrawinferencesaboutthekindsofchangeinlanguagethatmayhaveoccurredinthepastandthatmayaccountforsimilaritiesanddifferencesobservedinthepresent.Theytypicallyasksuchquestionsas:Didtwoormorecontemporarylanguagesdivergefromamonancestrallanguage?Iftheyarerelated,howfarbackintimedidtheybegintodiffer?putationallinguisticsPUTATIONALLINGUISTICSisaninterdisciplinaryfield,whichcentersontheuseofputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage(alsoknownas“naturallanguage”,todistinguishitfromputerlanguages).Tothisfield,linguisticscontributesanunderstandingofthespecialpropertiesoflanguagedata,andprovidestheoriesanddescriptionsoflanguagestructureanduse.puterSciencecontributestheoriesandtechniquesfordesigningandimplementingputersystems.Somecurrentapplicationareasincludetranslatingfromonelanguagetoanother(MachineTranslation),findrelevantdocumentsinlargecollectionsoftext(InformationRetrieval),andansweringquestionsaboutasubjectarea(expertsystemswithnaturallanguageinterfaces).ImportantdistinctionsinLinguistics-.可修编.\n.-Descriptivevs.prescriptiveSynchronicvs.diachronicLangueandparolepetenceandperformanceEticvs.EmicChapter2SpeechSoundsInstructorDateDaySsNo.SsLevelClasslengthJianbinCuiSept.20th--Oct.10thFriday98Advanced50minsObjectives(students)Bytheendofchaptertwo,thelearnerswillbebetterabletoknowwhatEnglishspeechsoundisallabout.Focus:EnglishsoundperceptionAims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnerstoknowmoreaboutphoneticsandphonology.Aid:on-linecoursewareTopic:Chapterplan周次日期教学容Teachingcontents教学模式4Sept.20th--26thChapterTwo:SpeechSoundsSection1PHONETICSSpeechproduction&phonetictranscriptionTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussion5Sept.27th--Oct.3rdSection2PHONOLOGY(I)Phonoticalanalysis;phonemes&allophones6Oct.4th--10thSection3PHONOLOGY(II)Distinctivefeatures;Syllables;StressSectionOnePhoneticsOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormsoundproductionandsoundperceptionbythe-.可修编.\n.-followingquestions.Q1.WhatisEnglishphonetics?Q2.WhataretheEnglishsoundsegments?Q3.WhatisReceivedPronunciation?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.SpeechproductionandperceptionSpeechorgansSegments,divergences,andphonetictranscriptionConsonantsofEnglishMannersofarticulationPlacesofarticulationVowelsofRPThecriteriaofvoweldescriptionThetheoryofcardinalvowelsVowelglides10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussthemannersofarticulation.6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Definethefollowingterms.articulatoryphonetics,vowel,phoneme,mannerofarticulation,broadandnarrowtranscription,allophone1.SpeechProductionandPerceptionHumanbeingsarecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebeeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Languageisfirstandforemostasystemofvocalsymbols’,aswehaveseeninthediscussionoflanguage.Speechsoundshadexistedlongbeforewritingwasinvented,andeventoday,insomepartsoftheworld,therearestilllanguagesthathavenowritingsystems.Therefore,thestudyofspeechsoundsisamajorpartoflinguisticsand,inthischapter;wewilllookatwaysofstudyingspeechsoundsandthepatternsinwhichtheyareused.Wewillbeginwiththestudyofsounds,whichiscalled“PHONETICS’,andthengoontothestudyofsoundpatterns,“PHONOLOGY”.Aswecanimagineeasily,SpeakerAarticulatesthespeechsound.ItisthentransmittedtoandreceivedbySpeakerB.Consequently;aspeechsoundgoesthroughathree-stepprocessasshownbelow.Naturally,thestudyofsoundsisdividedintothreemainareas,-.可修编.\n.-eachdealingwithonepartoftheprocess.ARTICULATORYPHONETICSisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.ACOUSTICPHONETICSisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech.AUDITORYPHONETICSisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.Forthepurposeofthisbook,wewillconcentrateonlyonArticulatoryPhonetics,whichdealswithhowsoundsareproducedandignoretheotherareasofstudy.2.SpeechOrgansSPEECHORGANSarealsoknownasVOCALORGANS.Theyarethosepartsofhehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Theorgans,however,arenotusedforspeechalone,astheirprimaryfunctionistofulfillthebasicbiologicalneedsofbreathingandeating.Inspiteofthis,thereseemstohavebeenconsiderableevolutionaryjustificationforthemtofulfillthespecialtaskofspeechastheyhavebeenformedinsuchawaythattheycanfunctionefficientlyfortheactofspeech.Itisstrikingtoseehowmuchofthehumanbodyisinvolvedintheproductionofspeech:theLUNGS,theTRACHEA(orwindpipe),theTHROAT,theNOSE,andtheMOUTH.Insidethemouth,weneedtodistinguishtheTONGUEandvariouspartsofthePALATEwhile,insidethethroat,wehavetodistinguishPHARYNX,theupperpart,fromLARYNX,thelowerpartcontainingtheCOCALFOLDS(orVOCALCORDS).Thispharnx,mouth,andnosefromthethreecavitiesoftheVOCALTRACT.Themouthandthenoseareoftenreferredto,respectively,astheORALCAVITYandtheNASALCAVITY.3.MannersofArticulationThereareseveralbasicwaysinwhicharticulationcanbeacplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably’ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachotherSTOP(orPLOSIVE):FRICATIVE:(MEDIAN)APPROXIMANT:(LATERAL(APPROXIMANT):Placesofarticulation-.可修编.\n.-BILLABIAL:LABIODENTAL:DENTAI:ALVEOLAR:POSTALVEOLAR:RETROFLES:PALATAL:VELAR:UVULAR:PHARYNGEAL:GLOTTAL:VowelsTheCriteriaofVowelDescriptionAswehavediscussedearlier,thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream(2.4.1).Intheproductionofvowels,thereisnoobstructionofairasisthecasewithconsonants.Therefore,thedescriptionofthevowelscannotbedonealongthelinesofthedescriptionoftheconsonants.Togetoutofthisproblem,vowelsarenormallydescribedwithreferencetofourcriteria:.Thepartofthetonguethatisraised—front,center,orback..Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:HIGH,MID(oftendividedintoMID-HIGHandMID-LOW),andLOW..Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips.Variousdegreesofliproundingorspreading..Thepositionofthesoftpalate—raisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowels,whichhavebeenanalyzed.SectionTwoPhonology(I)OutlineofProcedures:1.5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofphonologybythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatisbroadtranscription?Q2.Whatisnarrowtranscription?Q3.Whatarephonemes?-.可修编.\n.-2.27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.CoarticulationandphonetictranscriptionBroadandnarrowtranscriptionsPhonologicalanalysisPhonemesandallophonesMinimalpairsThephonemetheoryAllophones1.10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussminimalpairs.4.6mins.PlenarySummary5.2mins.Homework:Answerthefollowingquestions.1.Whatorgansareinvolvedinspeechproduction?2.Howisthedescriptionofconsonantsdifferentfromthatofvowels?-.可修编.\n.-TheTheoryofCardinalVowelsTheideaofasystemofCARDINALVOWELSwasfirstsuggestedbyA.J.Ellisin1844andwastakenupbyA.M.BellinhisVisibleSpeech(1867).ThesystemwearenowconsideringhereisthemostfamousofallandwasputforwardbyDanielJonesinanumberofwritingsfrom1917onward,particularlyinhisOutlineofEnglishPhonetics(1962).ForJones,thecardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.Whenthecardinalvowelsareexplained,examplesareusuallygivenfromvariouslanguagestohelpthestudent.Itshouldnotbethoughthoweverthatthecardinalvowelsareactuallybasedonwhateverexamplesaregiven.VowelGlidesAsinEnglishandChinese,languagesfrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.TheformerareknownasPUREorMONOPHTHONGVOWELSandthelatter,VOWELGLIDES.Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalledDIPNHTHONGS.AdoublemovementproducesTRIPHTHONGS.DiphthongglidesinEnglishcanbeheardinsuchwordsasway[wei]tide[taid],how[hau],toy[tI,andtoe[tou].Triphthongalglidesarefoundinwordslikewire[war]andtower[tau]TheVowelsofRPAswithconsonants,wewillexaminetheEnglishvowelsintheformofRP.Differentwritershaveusedvarioussymbolsfortherepresentationofvowels.SectionThreePhonology(II)OutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofphonologybythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatisassimilation?-.可修编.\n.-Q2.Whatissyllable?Q3.Whatisstress?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.PhonologicalprocessesAssimilationPhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesRuleorderingDistinctivefeaturesSyllablesThesyllablestructureSonorityscaleSyllabificationandthemaximalonsetprincipleStress10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:Discussthedistinctivefeatures.6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Answerthefollowingquestions.1.Whatisassimilation?2.GivethedescriptionsofthefollowingsoundsegmentsinEnglish.[p];[l];[d];[k]3.-.可修编.\n.-SyllablesInthissectionandthenext,wewillconsiderSUPRASEGMENTALFATURES–thoseandthenext,wewillconsiderSUPRASEGMENTALFATURES—thoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmantalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.Ourdiscussionsofarhasbeenconcentratedonthesingle-lineorLINARapproachofphonology,asinitiatedbyChomskyandHalle’smonumentalbookTheSoundPatternofEnglish(SPE,1968).InSPE,wordsareheldtoconsistofsequencesorstringsofconsonantsandvowelsandtheword“SYLLABLE’doesnotevenappearintheindex.Atreediagram,however,oftenrepresentsthesyllabictheory.SuchtheoriesareoftenknownasNON-LINEARorMULTILEVELPHONOLOGY.StressSTRESSreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[]isusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto,.Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables,theformerbeingmoreprominentthanthelaterusuallyduetoanincreaseinloudness,lengthorpitch.Thismeansthatstressisarelativenotion.Atthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithleasttwosyllables.Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.ChapterThreeLexiconInstructorDateDaySsNo.SsLevelClasslengthJianbinCuiOct.11th--31stFriday98Advanced50minsObjectives(students)Bytheendofthechapter,thelearnerswillbebetterabletoknowwhatEnglishLexiconisabout,howlanguageisrelevanttolexicon,whattherelationshipexistsbetweenlanguageandlexiconuse.-.可修编.\n.-Focus:lexicalchangeAims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthelearnersunderstandwordformation.Aid:on-linecoursewareTopic:Chapterplan周次日期教学容Teachingcontents教学模式7Oct.11th--17thChapterThree:LexiconSection1WORDWordsenses/identification/classificationTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussion8Oct.18th--24thSection2WORDFORMATION9Oct.25th--31stSection3LEXICALCHANGESectionOneWordOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofwordbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatisword?Q2.Whatisvocabulary?Q3.Whatislexicon?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.ThreesenseofwordIdentificationofwordClassificationofword10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussthreesensesofword.6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Definethefollowingterms.Inflection,root,blending,pound,derivation,lexeme,stem,bound-.可修编.\n.-morpheme,loss,open-class,dissimilation1.Whatisword?WORDisaunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionis,perhaps,abitvague,astherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itfollowsthatitishardtodefine“word”inthescientificsense.Nevertheless,itisagreedthatthreesensesareinvolvedindefining“word”,noneof,which,ofcourse,issatisfactorytocopewithallthesituations2.Threesensesof“word”AphysicallydefinableunitAlthoughlanguageisproducedasacontinuousstretchofutteranceorwriting,onecanstillfindpausesandblankseverynowandthen.Thus,wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanksasseeninthefollowingexamples.ThemonfactorunderlyingasetofformsAgrammaticalunit3.IdentificationofwordsInadditiontothethreesensesof“word”mentionedabove,whicharehelpfulindefining“word”inspiteoftheirinadequaciestoaccountforallthelanguagedata,thereareotherfactorswhichhelpustoidentifywords.StabilityRelativeuninterruptibilityAminimumfreeform4.ClassificationofwordsAlthoughwecangeneralizesomemonfeaturesofwords,wecanalsofindthisorthatdifferenceamongvariouswords.VariableandinvariablewordsGrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsClosed-classwordsandopen-classwordsWordclass-.可修编.\n.-SectionTwoTheFormationofWordOutlineofProcedures:1.5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofwordformationbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatismorpheme?Q2.Whataretypesofmorpheme?Q3.Whatisinflection?2.27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.MorphemeandmorphologyTypesofmorphemesInflectionandwordformationTheconceptionofphonologyandmorphology3.10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discusstypesofmorphemesandmorphology.1.6mins.PlenarySummary2.2mins.Homework1.Findthesourcesofthefollowingblends.Bash,smash,glimmer,clash,motel,workaholic,bit,modem,2.Determinetheoriginetermfromwhichthefollowingwordswereback-formed.asset:______diagnose:_____tuit:________loaf:_________greed:_____burgle:_______enthuse:_____amusing:_____1.Morphemeandmorphology2.TypesofMorpheme3.InflectionandwordformationSectionThreeLexicalChangeOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptoflexicalchangeofwordbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatisinvention?Q2.Whatisblending?-.可修编.\n.-Q3.Whatisback-formation?Q4.Whatisacronomy?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.LexicalchangeproperPhonologicalchangeMorpho-syntacitialchangeSemanticchangeOrthographicchange10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discusssemanticchange.6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Answerthefollowingquestions.Arethereanyaffixesthatattachproductivelytoverbs,contributenoorveryspecificmeaning,anddonotchangecategory?-.可修编.\n.-LexicalchangeproperInventionBlendingAbbreviationAcronymBack-formationAnalogicalcreationBorrowingPhonologicalchangeLossAdditionMetathesisAssimilationMorpho-syntacticalchangeSemanticchangeBroadeningNarrowingMeaningshiftClassshiftFolketymologyChapterFourSyntaxInstructorDateDaySsNo.SsLevelClasslengthJianbinCuiNov.1st—Nov.21stFriday98Advanced50minsObjectives(students)Bytheendofthechapter,thelearnerswillbebetterabletoknowwhatEnglishsyntaxisabout,howlanguageisrelevanttosyntax,whattherelationshipexistsbetweenlanguageandsyntax.Focus:EnglishLanguageandEnglishsyntaxAims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovinglearnersunderstandlanguage&syntax.-.可修编.\n.-Aid:on-linecoursewareTopic:Chapterplan周次日期教学容TeachingContent教学模式10Nov.1st--7thChapterFour:SyntaxSection1THESTRUCTURALAPPROACHTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussion11Nov.8th--14thSection2THEGENERATIVEAPPROACH12Nov.15th--21stSection3THEFUNCTIONALAPPROACHSectionOneTheStructuralApproachOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofthetraditionalapproachandthestructuralapproachbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatisthetraditionalapproach?Q2.Whatisstructuralapproach?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.ThetraditionalapproachNumber,genderandcaseTenseandaspectConcordandagreementThestructuralapproachSyntacticalandparadigmaticrelationsImmediateconstituentanalysisEndocentricandexocentricconstructions10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussSyntacticalandparadigmaticrelations6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Definethefollowingterms.Category,syntamaticrelation,c-mond,rheme,surfacestructure-.可修编.\n.-WhatisGrammar?Thepartofthestudyoflanguagewhichdealswiththeformsandstructureofwords(morphology),withtheircustomaryarrangementinphrasesandsentences(syntax),andnowoftenwithlanguagesounds(phonology):usuallydistinguishedfromthestudyofwordmeaning(semantics)Thesystemofwordstructuresandwordarrangementsofagivenlanguageatagiventime.Abodyofrulesforspeakingandwritingagivenlanguage.WhatisSyntax?ThewordSYNTAX,derivedoriginallyfromGreek,ismadeupoftwomorphemes:[syn]and[tax].Theformermeans“together”’andthelatter“toarrange”,hencetheliteralmeaning“asettingouttogether’or“arrangement”.Inlinguistics,itreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarebinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.Sincesentenceisusuallyregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofalanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecenterofgrammaticalstudy.Differentlinguistictheoriesfirstdifferintheirtreatmentofsentencestructure.Inthischapter,weintroducesomeoftherepresentativeapproachestosyntax.TheTraditionalApproachTraditionally,asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformation,therefore,involvesagreatdealofthestudyoftheword,suchas,theclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermsofsubject,predicate,etc.Thesepartsofspeechandfunctionsaresometimescalledcategories.Butthetermcategoryisalsomorespecificallyusedforthedefiningpropertiesofunitslikenounandverb.Forexample,thenounisusuallysaidtohavethecategoriesofnumber,gender,case;andtheverbthecategoriesoftense,aspect,voice.Inthissection,weshalldiscussbrieflysomeofthesecategories.Andtheinterrelationshipbetweentheformsofthenoun,verb,adjective,etc.concerningcertaincategorieswillbedealtwithundertheheadingsofconcordandgovernment.Numbers,genderandcase,Tenseandaspect,concordandgovernmentTheStructuralApproachTheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussurestartedtheSTRUCTURALapproachtotheanalysisoflanguageinthebeginningofthe-.可修编.\n.-twentiethcentury.Inasense,allthelinguistictheoriesafterhisarestructuralinthattheyallregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(orsystem),notasis9olatedbits.Inthissection,however,weshallonlydiscussoneofSaussure’smainideasandtheAmericanstructuralistmodelofsentenceanalysis.Twooftheotherimportanttheorieswillbepresentedinthelatersections.SectionTwoTheGenerativeApproachOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:ClassbrainstormstheconceptofGenerativeapproachbythefollowingquestions.Q1.WhatisGenerativeapproach?Q2.Whatisgovernmentandbiding?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.DeepandsurfacestructureThestandardtheoryGovernmentandbiding10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discusssurfacestructure6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Answerthefollowingquestions.1.WhatisthecriterioninICanalysis?2.InWhatwaysisICbetterthantraditionalparsing?-.可修编.\n.-TheparticulartypeoflinguistictheoryoriginatedwithAmericanlinguistNormChomsky.Thistheoryhasundergoneanumberofchangeseversinceitsfirstappearancein1957,andinthissectionweshallonlybebaletogiveverysketchdescriptionofitsmainfeaturesinformally.TheadvantagesofICarethattheinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,andambiguities,willberevealed.e.g.mysmallchild’scotmysmallcotforachildmycotforasmallchildthecotofmysmallchildTheproblemswithIC:Someadvocatorsinsistedonbinarydivisions.Anyconstruction,atanylevelwillbecutintotwoparts.Butthisisnotalwayspossible.e.g.oldmenandwomenold+menandwomenoldmen+andwomenold+men+and+oldwomenThemostseriousproblemisthattherearestructuralambiguities,whichcannotberevealedbyICanalysistheloveofGodthelovegivenbyGodtheloveforGodItisinthefaceofproblemsofthiskindinAmericanstructuralismthattheAmericanlinguistNormChomskyesalongwithhistransformational-generativegrammarin1957.ThisparticulartypeoflinguistictheoryoriginatedwithAmericanlinguistNormChomsky.Thistheoryhasundergoneanumberofchangeseversinceitsfirstappearancein1957.DeepandSurfaceStructuresDeepStructuresmaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetweentheunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.Incontrast,SurfaceStructuresisthefinal-.可修编.\n.-stagesinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeople,actuallyproduceandreceive.InSyntacticStructures(1957),Chomskyproposedalinguisticmodelconsistingofthreeponents.Phrasestructureponent,transformationalponent,morph-phonemicponent.Thephrasestructureponenthasphrasestructurerulesas:S:NP+VPVP:V+NPNP:Det+NDet:the,a,…N:man.ballV:hit,took,…S:NP+VPDetNVNPthemanhitDetNaballThetransformationalponent,somethingnewinthetheoryponent,somethingnewinthetheory,hastransformationalrules,whichchangethedeepstructuresgeneratedbythephrasestructureponentintosurfacestructures.Chomskythoughtatthattimethatthesentencesliketheactiveandthepassive,thedeclarativeandtheinterrogative,andthepositiveandthenegativeareeachderivedfromthesamedeepstructure.Thedifferencebetweenthemsimplyesfromtheoperationofrelevanttransformations.Forexample,theoperationofthepassivetransformationalruletoadeepstructureJohnwillfinishthepapertomorrowissomethinglikethis:NP1+AUX+V+NPJOHN+WILL+FINISH+THEPAPER(TOMORROW)NP2+AUX+BE+EN+V+NP1thepaper+will+be+en+finish+by+John(tomorrow)Now:theloveofGod,isanonlysurfacestructure.Thereareinfacttwodeepstructures:GodlovessomebodySomebodylovesGodTheStandardTheoryandAfterIn1965ChomskypublishedhissecondimportantbookAspectsof-.可修编.\n.-theTheoryofSyntaxandintroducedsomemodificationstohisfirstmodel.ThemostimportantofthemisthatatthesuggestionofJohnKatzandothersheaddedasemanticponenttoit.Thisisanaturaldevelopmentinthattransformational-generativegrammarpurportstobeadescriptionoftheidealspeaker-hearer’sknowledgeofhislanguage,whichinevitablyincludeshisknowledgeaboutmeaning.Thegr4ammarnow3hasthefollowingshapediagrammatically:TheBASEponentandthetransformationalponenttogethermakeupthesyntacticponent.Inotherwords,alanguageisnowseenasconsistingofthreemajorparts:syntax,semanticsandphonology.Thebaseponentitselfisdividedintotwosub-ponents:categoriesandlexicon.Thesub-ponent—categories,orcategoryponent,containsrewritingrulesmoreorlessthesameatthephrasestructurerulesinthefirstmodel.Onedifferenceisthatattheendofaderivationtherearenolongerrulesinsertingwordsdirectlyas“N-man,ball,etc.”,butruleswithfeaturespecificationsforthewordstobeinsertedlike“N[+N,+mon,-Count,+Abstract],or“V[+V,+---NP,+---thatS’]”.Thefeaturesofeachwordarespecifiedinthelexicon.Forexample,nounswillbesyntacticallysubcategorizedasmon,+monnounsasCount,+CountnounsasAnimate,-monnounsalsoatAnimate,+AnimatenounsasHuman,and–countnounsasAbstract,etc.Inotherwords,inadditiontothegeneralfeatureof+N,nounsmayhavethefollowingderivationoffeatures:N[+N,mon][+mon][Count][+Count][Animate][-mon][Animate][+Animate][Human][-Count][Abstract]Thusthewordsinceritywillhavethefeaturesof[+N,+mon,-Count,+Animate,+Human].Nowwecanseesomefeaturesareredundant.Somethingwhichis[+Abstract]willbenaturally[+mon]and[-Count],sosinceritymaybesimplyspecifiedas[+N,+Abstract].Similarlyboymaybesimplyspecifiedas[+N,+mon,+Human].Verbsaresubcategorizedaccordingtothecontexttheyoccurin.Forexample,elapsemaybespecifiedas[+V,+---#].Thatis,itmay-.可修编.\n.-occurwithnothingfollowing,whichisadifferentwayofsayingthatitisanintransitiveverb.Theverbeatisspecifiedas[+V,+---NP,+---#],meaningthatitcanoccurwithanounphraseasitsobject,orwithoutanyobject.Andgrowisspecifiedas[+V,+---NP,+---#,+---Adjective],believeas[+V,+---NP,+---thatS’].Amorepletespecificationwithhavetoincludethekindofsubjectaverbtakesaswell.Therefore,frightenmaybespecifiedas[+V,+---NP,+[+Abstract]Aux---Det[+Animate]…]Andonlywhenawordsatisfiesthefeaturespecificationsinaphrasestructurerulewillithavethepossibilityofbeinginserted.Inasensewecansaywordsofthesamefeaturespecificationsareinaparadigmaticrelationwitheachother,theycanoccur4inthesamesyntacticcontext.Sub-categorizationofthistypeisintendedtoensurethegenerationofsentenceslikeSinceritymayfrightentheboy,butnotTheboymayfrightensincerity;Aweekelapsed,butnottheboyelapsed;JohnbelievedthatBillwille,butnotJohnelapsedthatBillwille;Revolutionarynewideasappearinfrequently,butnotColorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.Itisnotdifficulttosee,however,thetoachievethisaimalotmoreworkwillbeneeded.Itisnecessary,forexample,tospecifythatelapserequiresatemporalsubject.Eventhen,onemayhavetoexplainwhyOnecannotelapseabookisacceptable,thoughthesame,orevenmore,syntacticrestrictionareviolatedasinTheboyelapsed.ThelinguisticmodelpresentedinAspectsseemedtobequiteprehensiveandmatureparedwiththefirstmodelandcametobeknownasthestandardtheory.Nevertheless,linguistsbegantofindproblemswithitbeforelong.Oneofthemistheprinciplethattransformationsdonotchangemeaning.Chomsky(1972)arguedthatthisprinciplecouldn’tbeheldwiththepassive3transformation,forexample.OnemaysayEinsteinhastaughtmephysics,butnotEinsteinhastaughtmephysics,sinceheisdeadnow.Andthereareothercasesshowingevidentlythatsurfacestructurealsohassomebearingonsemanticinterpretation.Intheendthelinguisticmodelhasbeenextendedas:Itwassoondiscovered,however,thateventhisextendedversionisnotadeq1uateenough.Thereweresuggestionsthatifweintroducethenotiontrace;allthenecessaryinformationforsemanticinterpretationmayefromthesurfacestructure.Thatis,afterthemovementofanelementtherewillbeatraceleftintheoriginalposition.Lookatthepassivetransformationagain.The-.可修编.\n.-passiveDamsarebuiltbybeaversdiffersfromthe3activeBeaversbuiltdamsinimplyingthatbeaversbuildalldams.IfweaddatraceelementrepresentedbythelettertafterbuiltinthepassiveasDamsarebuilt5tbybeavers,thenthedeepstructureinformationthattheworddamswasoriginallytheobjectofbuiltisalsocapturedbythesurfacestructure.Inotherwords,thesemanticponentcouldrelyentr5irelyontheoutputofsurfacestructureasfollows:Tracetheoryprovestobenotonlytheoreticallysignificantbutalsoempiricallyvalid.Postal(1971)noticedaninterest6ingtphe3nomenonasexemplifiedbyex.4-15(a)and(b):Ex.4-15WhosaidMarykissedhim?WhodidhesayMarykissed?Theinterrogativethatmaybecoreferentialwithhimin(a)butnotwithhein(b).Ontheevidenceofthistype,Postalsuggestedthatthereisaruleforbiddingtheinterrogativetocrossoverapronounwiththesameindexwhenmovingfromoneplacetoanother.Nowthatwehavetracetheory,thisphenomenoncanbebetteredaccountedforbyresortingtoamoregeneralnotionofanaphoricreference.Thatis,apronounwillnotbeboundbyitsantecedent,i.e.nottobecoreferentialwiththe4letter,inthelowestNPorS,butmaybecoreferentialwithitinalargerstructure;whilealexicalNPlikeJohnisfree,notbound,everywhere.pare(c)and(e),(d)and(f)respectively.who[tsaidMaryKissedhim]who[hesaidMarykissed]JohnsaidMarykissedhimHesaidMarykissedJohnGovernment,building,etcInApril1979,ChomskydeliveredaseriesoflecturesinPisa,Italy,whichwererevisedlaterandp8blishedin1981underthetitleofLecturesonGovernmentandBinding.Agrammarisnowsaidtohavetwosystems:arulesystemandaprinciplesystem.Therulesystemhasfourponents:lexicon,sy6ntax(categoricalponentandtransformationalponent),phoneticformponentandlogicalformsponent,relatedwitheachotherinthefollowingway:Inotherwords,lexiconisnolongerpartofsyntax,thoughitisstillpartofthebaseponent.AnotherthingtonoteisthatChomskyhasgivenupthetermsof“deepstructure”and“surfacestructure”for“D-structure”and“S-structure”inthattheremay-.可修编.\n.-bedifferentlevelsofdeepstructureandsurfacestructureandD-structureandS-structureareonlytwoofthem.Thetransformationalponentnowhasonlyonerule–movea.Thatis,anyelementmaybymovedtoanotherplace,ormoregenerallychangedinsomeway,aslongastherelevantconditionsaresatisfied.Andthisspecificconditions,alsoknowasprinciples,arespecifiedintheprinci0plesystem.Thesystemofprinciplesincludes(i)boundingtheory,(ii)governmenttheory,(iii)-theory,(iv)bindingtheory,(v)casetheoryand(vi)controltheory.InthissectionweshallconcentrateonthetwotheoriesofGOVERNMENTandBINDING,andmentionandother,whenrelevant,onlyinpassing.Nowrecallthenotiongovernmentint6hetr4adit6ionalapproach,whereitreferstoatypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions.Andweusedgavehimandtohimasexamples,inwhichgaveandtoaregovernorsrespectivelyandhimisagovernedinboth.Thenotionusedinthegenerativeapproachisverysimilartothat.Thetwoexamplesarealsoinstancesofthegenerativegovernment.Thedifferenceisthatthelatterisdefinedmorerigorouslyandcoversawiderareaofrelations,notjustovertheformofwords.Considerspeakthelanguage,whichhasthefollowinglabeledtreediagram:Therelationbetweenspeakandthelanguageisthesameasthatbetweengaveandhim,andindeedspeakissaidtogovernthelanguage.Nowconsiderspeakaboutthelanguage,whichmaybediagrammaticallyrepresentedas:EX-17InthiscasetherearetwoGOVERNMENTrelations:notonlyaboutgovernsthelanguageasinthecaseoftohim,speakisalsosaidtogovernthewholeprepositionalphraseaboutthelanguage.Isthereanythingsim9ilarbetweenthesetwogovernmentrelations?Isthesome3thingmoregeneralthansimplytherelationbetweenaverb,orapreposition,anditsobject?Chomskysuggeststhatthereis.Oneofthesimilarities,orofthemoregeneralfeatures,inthesetwogovernmentrelations,istechnicallycalledconstituentmand,C-MANDforshort,whichisformallydefinedas:Ac-mandsBifAdoesnotdominateBandeveryRthatdominatesAalsodominatesB,asshowninthediagrambelow.Ex.4-18Ifwehaveatreediagramlikethefollowing,thenBc-mandsC,E,F,butnotD,whichisdominatedbyB;andCc-mands,B,D,but-.可修编.\n.-notE,F.SincethereisnobranchingatBnode,DmayberaisedtoB’sposition,andhasthesamec-mandrelationsasB.Ex.4-19Relatingthisdefinitionwithspeakaboutthelanguage,wecansaythatthenodeVPdominatesbothVandPP,butVdoesnotdominatePP,sothatVc-mandsPP.bythesametoken,PPalsoc-mandsV.InplainEnglishthen,theterm‘c-mand”referstotherelationbetweenaselementandanotherofthesamelevelandunderthesamenodeinatreediagram,andanyothersunderthelatterelementaswell.Buttobeagovernor,anelementc-mandinganothermustsatisfyanothercondition,i.e.itmustbeahead.Thisnotionesfromthestructuralapproach,aswediscussedearlierinconnectionwillendocentricconstructions,butitisalsomodified,evendrasticallychangedtosomeextent.WementionedthenthatprepositionalphasesandEnglishbasicsentencesaretypicalexamplesoftheoppositetype,exocentricconstructions.Andtherearedifferentviewsconcerningverbplusobjectconstructions.Nowinthegenerativeapproach,thesethreeconstructionsarealsocalledendocentricandhaveheads,whicharethepreposition,theINFL,andtheverbrespectively.Thisexplainswhyspeakgovernsaboutthelanguage,andaboutgovernsthelanguage.Thelastquestioninspeaksaboutthelanguageis:canwesayspeakgovernsthelanguagehere,too?Theanswerisnegative.Thereisathirdconditionforane3lementtogovernanother,namely,itmustberelatedtotheotherdirectly,notinter5ruptedbyanythirdelement,suchasaboutinthiscase.Tosummarize,anelementgovernsanotherifthetwoareunderthesamenodedirectly,andtheformeristheheadoftheconstruction.Thenotiongovernmentisveryuseful.Inthethissection,however,weshallonlydiscussoneofitsusesinrelationtobindingtheory,whichisexpressedbyChomsky(1981:188)asBindingTheoryAnanaphorisboundinitsgoverningcategory.Apronominalisfreeinitsgoverningcategory.Anr-expressionisfree.AquantifierbindsthenotionBINDINGisborrowedfrombogic,whichreferstotherelationbetweenaquantifierandavariable,thatis,avariable.Inlogicalterms,expressionslikeMenarerationalarenotacceptable.TheargumentmendonotrefertoaparticularentityasSocratesdoes,thereforetheexpressiondoesnothaveatruth-value.Onecannotdecidewhetheritistrueornot.Theremustbeaquant6ifierlikeallorsometobindtheargumentmen.-.可修编.\n.-Inthegenerativeapproach,bindingreferstotherelationbetweendifferentreferringwordandthesubjectofasentencecontainingit.ThetermANAPHORisusedinanarrowsensetoincludeonlyreflexiveslikereciprocalsandmyselflikeeachother.“Tobebound”herereferstotherelationbetweenananaphoranditsaccessiblesubject.Thatis,theformerwillbecoreferentialwiththelatter.Andtheymustbeinthesamegoverningcategory,which(alsoknownas“localdomain”,“bindingdomain”)istheminimaldomain,orthelowestnodeinthetree-diagram,containingadependentelement,itsgovernorandanaccessiblesubject.Inthiscontext,itisusuallythelowestSorNPnode.“Apronominal”referstopronounsotherthanreflexivesandreciprocals.“Tobefree”istheoppositeof“tobebound”,i.e.notcoreferentialwiththesubject.And“Ar-expression”,astheabbreviationof“areferential-expression”,coversalltheotherrepressionsexceptanaphorsandpronominals,e.g.John,Bill,theman.Thusinex.4-20(a),(b)and(c),theanaphorshimself,eachotherarebound,i.E.coreferentialwiththeaccessiblesubjectsJohn,theyandBillrespectivelyintheirowngoverningcategoriesJohnlikeshimself,Theyhiteachother,andBill’scriticismofhimself.In(d)thepronounisfreeinitsgoverningcategory;itisnotcoreferentialwithJohn.In(e),thepronounis,asin(d),notlocallybound,i.e.notcoreferentialwithJohn;butitmaybecoreferentialwithBill.Andin(f),ther-expressionthemanisnotcoreferentialwitheitherBi8llorJohn;itisfreeinbothdomains.Ex.4-20Johnlikeshimself.Theyhiteachother.Johndoesn’tlikeBill’scriticismofhimself.BillsaysJohnlikeshim.BillsaysJohnlikeshim.BillsaysJohnlikesthemany.Nowthereareproblemsinbindingtheory.Ananaphorandapronominaldonotalwayscontrast.Therearesituationsinwhichthey-.可修编.\n.-maybeinterpretedinthesameway.Forexample,inex.4-21and22bothhimselfandhimarecoreferentialwithJohn.Ex.4-21Johnpulledtheblankettowardshimself.Johnpulledtheblankettowardshim.Ex.4-22(7)Johnfoundasnakenearhimself.Johnfoundasnakenearhim.Sentencesex.4-23and24notonlyexhibitthesameproblemas21and22,butalsotheproblemthattheanaphorisboundoutsidethegoverningcategory.Ex.4-23JohnthoughtthatMaryknewthatAnnandhehadwrittenpaper.JohnthoughtthatMaryknewthatpaperhadbee3nwrittenbyAnnandhim.Ex.4-24JohnthoughtthatMarycriticizedeveryonebuthimself.JohnthoughtthatMarycriticizedeveryonebuthim.Onhebasisoftheseexamples,SusumuKuno(1987)suggeststhatanaphoricreferenceisnotsimplyamatterofreference,italsoinvolvesthepointofviewtakenbythespe3aker:whetherhelooksattheevenfromtheprotagonist’sviewornot,whichistechnicallyknownaslogophoricity.Ithedoes,ananaphorwouldbeused,andotherwiseapronominalwouldbechosen.ThissuggestiondoesworkinEnglish.ButChinesemayposeotherproblems.Considerthefollowingsentences:Ex.4-25(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)ItseemsthatthereisnodefinitedomaininwhichtheChinesereflexiveisbound.Therearesuggestions;therefore,thatisnotatruereflexive.Itmaybeinthemiddleofdevelopmentfromanordinarypronountoareflexive.InhislatestmodelTheMinimalistProgram(p.211),Chomskyhasmadesomechangestothebindingconditions:Ifaisananaphor,interpretitascoreferentailwithac-mandingphraseinD.Ifaisanr-expression,interpretitasdisjointfromeveryc-mandingphrase.Ifaisanr-expression,interpretitasdisjointfromevery-.可修编.\n.-c-mandingphrase.Otherimportantchangesinthislatest6theoryincludetheviewthatthecognitivesystemofthelanguagefacultyconsistsofaputationalsystemCSandalexicon(p.6).AndtherelationbetweenCS(whichismadeupofD-Structure,S-Struct8ure,LFandPF)andLexiconisasfollows:Thereareonlytwooperationsintheputationalsystemnow:MergerandMove.Theformerisresponsibleforbiningtwoexistingelementstoformathird,whilethelatterthemovementofelements.Mostprinciples,orcondit6ions,areeliminated,andtheclassicalphrasestructurerulesarereducedtobareessentials.Asaresult,ungrammaticalexpressionslikehappygomaybegenerated.Thereforeacheckingtheoryisproposedtoblockthegenerationofanythinglikehappygo.SectionThreeTheFunctionalApproachOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:ClassbrainstormstheconceptofTheFunctionalApproachbythefollowingquestions.Q1.WhatisTheFunctionalApproach?Q2.Whatisfunctionalsentenceperspective?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.FunctionalsentenceperspectiveSystemic-functionalgrammar10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discusssystemic-functionalgrammar6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Answerthefollowingquestions.1.Inwhatsenseistheanalysisofasentenceintermsofthemeandrhemefunctional?2.HowdoesHallidayrelatethefunctionsperformedbylanguagetoitsstructures,orsystems?Thoughgenerativeapproachhasbeeninfluentialinthepast40-.可修编.\n.-years,wecannotignoreanotherimportantapproachtothestudyoflanguage:thefunctionalapproach.TheFunctionalApproachThoughthegenerativeapproachhasbeenveryinfluentialinthepast40oddyears,wecannotignoreanotherimportantapproachtothestudyoflanguage:thefunctionalapproach.Thesetwoapproaches,oneforma,representedbyChomskynowadays,andtheotherfunctional,tobediscussedbelow,hasalwaysbeeninexistenceeversincethestudyoflangu8agebeganthousandsofyearsago.Evenintheheydayoftransformational-generativegrammar,therewereeloquentvoicesfromthefunctionalside.Hu(1991)summarizedthemainfuncti9onalschoolsatthepresenttime.Inthissection,however,weonlyhavespacetodiscusstwooftheminsomedepth:thePragueschoolandsystemic-functionalgrammarFunctionalsentenceperspectiveOneofthemainideasofthePragueLinguisticCircleisthatasentencemaybeanalyzedfromthefunctionalsideaswellasthegrammaticalside.VilemMathesius,file-longchairmanoftheCircle,heldthatapartfromtheanalysisofasentenceintermsofsubjectandpredicatefromtheformalpointofview,theremayalsobeafunctionalanalysisintermsofTHEMEandRHEME.TheoriginalCzechwordsheusedarevychodistevypovedi(thebasis,orthestartingpoint,oftheutterance)andjadrovypooviedi(thenucleus,orthecore,oftheutterance).Sometimeshealsousedwordslikezaklad(foundation),tema(theme)forthefirstterm.Inhisterminology,thefirsttermrefersto“thatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds”,andthesecond“whatthespeakerstatesaout,orinregardto,thestartingpointoftheutterance”(Danes1974).Mathesiusbelivedthatthegrammaticalanalysisandfunctionalanalysisarenotthesameandshouldbestrictlydistinguishedfromeachother.Grammaticalsubjectandpredicatemayhaveevolvedfromthefixedmannerofexpressingthemandrheme,butthereisnotlongeranyexactcorresponde3ncebetweenthemnow.InEnglish,wordorderhasagrammaticalfunction,andthemeandrhemeareoftenexpressed;by76thegrammaticalsubjectandpredicate.Neverthelessthereareforma,empty,subjectslikeitinIt’srainingandthereinThere’samanoutside.InCzech,wherewordorderismore-.可修编.\n.-flexible,therearemorediscrepancies.Forexample,themeaningFatherwrotethislettermightbeexpr4essedintwodifferentorders.Ex.4-26Tatineknapsaltenhledopis.(fatherwrotethisletter)Tenhledopisnapsaltatinek.(thisletterwrotefather)ButthesecondarrangementisnotpossibleinEnglishasitstands.Thesentenceinthesameorderhastobeexpressedeitherinthepassiveasin(c),orbythecleftstructureasin(d)(c)Thisletterwaswrittenbyfather.(d)Itwasthisletterthatfatherwrote.Inotherwords,theCzechsentenceasshownin(b)maybeanalyzedinthesamewayas(a)ingrammaticalterms,butinfunctionalterms,ithasadifferentst6ructurefromthatin(a).Thethemeandrhemearedifferentinthesetwosentences.Mathesiusmaintainedthatitisnaturalforthespeakertostartfromtheknowntotheunknown,andthetheme-rhemeorderistheusualoneinunemotionalnarration,whichiscalledobjectiveorder.Inemotionalnarration,however,itmaybepossibletoreversetheorder,toputrhemebeforetheme.Andthisisasubjectiveorder.Theanalysisofasentenceintermsofthemeandrhemeisalsoreferredtoasaktualniclenenivetne(actualsentencedivision)byMathesiusinCzech,whichisnowknownasthefunctionalsentenceperspective“becausethispatterningisdeterminedbythefunctionalapproachofthespeaker”.AnotherversionofthesameanalysisiscarriedoutintermsofMUNICATIVEDYNAMISM,CDforshort,whichwasfirstusedbyJ.Firbas(1964),thoughthedifferentdegreesofthethematicandrhematiccharacterofsentenceelementswereevenmentionedbyMathesius.ByCDFirbasmeans“theextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthemunication”(p.270).Inhisview,themeisconstituted“bythesentenceelement(s)carryingthelowestdegree(s)CDwithinthesentence”,and“neednotnecessarilyconveyknownorsuchascanbegatheredfromtheverbalandsituationalcontext”(p.272).Insteadofastrictbipartitionoftheinformation-bearingstructureofthesentence,thisanalysispresentsanunevendistributionofCDoverthesentence,assigningvariousdegreesofthematicity,orrhematicity,todifferentsentence-.可修编.\n.-elements.Systemic-functionalgrammarTheBritishbornAustralianlinguistMichaelAlexanderKirkwoodHallidayhasdevelopedthislinguistictheory.Asthenamesuggests,ithastwocharacteristics:systemicandfunctional.TheSYSTEMICpartesdirectlyfromthefir5stlinguisticschairinBritainJohnRupertFirth.Attheriskofoversimplification,itmeanslanguageelementsformintosystems.Theuseoflanguageinvolvesanetworkofsystemsofchoices.Theitemsinasystemareinachoicerelationwitheachother.Aswementionedinthesectiononthestructuralapproach,thisideaisrelatedtooneofthetworelationsrecognizedbySaussure–paradigmaticrelation,theotherbeingSyntagmaticrelation.ItischaracteristicofHalliday’stheorythatmoreattentionispaidtoparadigmaticrelationsthantoSyntagmaticrelations,whichisthemainconcernofChyomsky.FromBronislawMalinowski,Hallidayhasinheritedtheideathatlanguageisasocialphenomenon,andemphasizesthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothefunctionsitperforms.AsananthropologistMalinowskiattachedgreatimportancetothesocialfunctionoflanguage.Inhisopinion,“Language,initsprimitivefunction,[is]toberegardedasamodeofaction,ratherthanasacou8ntersignofthough”(1923:296).Languageoriginally“wasneverusedasameremirrorofreflectedthought”,which“isaveryfar-fetchedandderivativefunctionoflanguage”.“Initsprimitiveuses,languagefunctionsasalinkinconcertedhumanactivity,asapieceofhumanbehavior.Itisamodeofactionandnotaninstrumentofreflection”(ibid.:313).HallidayalsoobservedthattheGermanpsychologistKarlBuhlerhadatripartiteclassificationoflanguagefunctions:representative,concerningthecontentmunicated;expressive,relatingtothepsychologicalormoralattitudeofthespeaker;andappellative(vocative),relatingtotheinfluenceoflanguageonthehearer.AndRomanJacobson,theRussianbornlinguist,animportantmemberofthePragueschool,bu9iltasix-functionclassificationonthebasisofB(hler.HerenamedBuhler’sfirst“referential”,second“emotive”,-.可修编.\n.-third“conative”,andaddedthreeothers:metalinguistc,usedtotalkaboutlanguageitself;poetic;relatingtotheartisticorcreativeuseoflanguageingeneral;andphatic,borrowedfromMalinowskiforthefunctiontoe4stablishandmaintainsocialrelations.WhatisnewinHallidayisthathehastriedtorelatethefunctionsoflanguagetoitsstructures.Hearguesthattherearethreegeneralfunctionsoflanguage:ide4ational(whichissubdividedintoexperientialandlogical),interpersonalandtextual.Andtheyarerelatedtothreegrammaticalsystems:transitivity,moodandtheme.Inhiswords,“Languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’:thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.Wemaycallthistheideationalfunction”.“Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelations:fortheexpressionofsocialroles,whichincludedthemunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself—forexampletherolesofquestionerorrespondent,whichwetakeonbyaskingoransweringaquestion;andalsoforgettingthingsdone,bymeansoftheinteractionbetweenonepersonandanother.Throughthisfunction,whichwemayrefertoasinterpersonal,socialgroupsaredelimited,andtheindividualisnidentifiedandreinforced,sincebye3nablinghimtointeractwithotherslanguagealsoservesintheexpressionanddevelopmentofhisownpersonality.”“Finally,languagehastoprovideformakinglinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesit6uationinwhichitisused.Wemaycallthisthetextualfunction,sincethisiswhatenablesthespeakerorwr5itertoconstruct‘texts’,orconnectedpassagesofdiscoursethatissituationallyrelevant;andenablesthelistenerorreadertodistinguishatextfromrandomsetofsentence4s”(1970143).Alongthelineof19thcenturylinguists,HallidaystatesinthesamearticlethatThesubject,initstraditionalsense,is[…]aplexoffourdistinctfunctions,threeint5hestructureoftheclause:actor(‘logicalsubject’):ideational;-.可修编.\n.-modalsubject(grammaticalsubject’):interpersonal;theme(‘psychologicalsubject’):textual;togetherwithafourthfunctionwhichisthestructureofthe‘informationunit’:given(‘psychologicalsubject’)textual.(ibid.:164)WhenwritingAnIntroductiontoFunctionalGrammarin1985,Hallidaychangedhisviewalittlebit.Hearguesthattheso-calledpsychologicalsubject,grammaticalsubjectandlogicalsubject“havetobeinterpretedaswhattheyreallyare—threeseparateanddistinctfunctions.Thereisnosuchthingasageneralconceptof‘Subject’ofwhichthesearedifferentvarieties.Theyarenotthreekindsofanything;theyarethreequitedifferentthings”(1994[1985]:32).Andhepropose3storeplacetheearlierlabelsbyseparateoneswhichrelatedmorespecificallytothefunctionsconcerned,namely:Theme,SubjectandActor.Inhisview“sentence”ismoreaunitinwriting,andhepreferstousetheterm“clause”asabasicunitofstructure.Consequently,ThemeisdefinedasafunctionintheclauseasamessagetogetherwithRhome,andthegrammaticalstructuretheyconstituteiscalledthematic.“TheThemeistheelementwhichservesasthepointofdepartureofthemessage;itisthatwithwhichtheclauseisconcerned.Theremainderofthemessage,thepartinwhichtheThemeisdeveloped,iscalledinPragueschoolterminologytheRhome”(ibid.:37).Subjectisafunctionofthemoodsystem,togetherwiththefiniteverbaloperator,intheclauseasanexchange,whiletherestoftheclauseisknownasResidue.Itisanelementexpressingthemoodofaclauseinthesensesoftheindicative,theimperative,andwithintheSubjectplusFiniterealizesthefeatureindicativeandtheabsencetheimperative.Withintheindicative,theorderofSubjectandFiniteissignificant:theorderofSubjectbeforefiniterealizesthedeclarative,theorderofFinitebeforeSubjectrealizes-.可修编.\n.-theyes/nointerrogative,andinaWH-interrogativetheorderisSubjectbeforeFinitewhentheWHelementistheSubject,otherwiseFinitebeforeSubject.Actorisafunctionintheclauseasarepresentation,boththerepresentationsofouterexperienceandinnerexperience.Ourmostpowerfulimpressionofexperienceisthatitconsistsof“goingson”,ortechnically“processes”.Hallidayrecognizessixprocesses;material,mental,relational,behavioral,verbalandexistential.Thefirstthreearethemajorones,andthelatterthreeminor.TheMATERIALprocess,alsoknownasaprocessofdoing,isconcernedwiththerepresentationofouterexperience.AndActor,asarepresentativeofthefunctioninthissystemparabletoThemeandSubjectintheothertwo,isinfactonlyoneoftheimportantparticipantsinthisprocess.TheMENTALprocess,alsoknownasaprocessofsensing,isconcernedwiththerepresentationofinnerexperience.TheRELATIONALprocess,alsoknownasaproce3ssofbeing,isconcernedwiththerelationbetweenoneexperienceandanothertheBEHAVIOURALprocessisparticularlyconcernedwithphy7siologicalandpsychologicalbehavior,likebreathing,smiling,dreaming.TheVERBALprocessmayalsobecalledaprocessofsayinginthebroadsense,andcoversanykindsofsymbolicexchangeofmeaning.Andthelastprocess,theEXISTENTIAL,isarepresentationofsomethinginexistenceorhappening.ChapterFiveMeaningInstructorDateDaySsNo.SsLevelClasslengthJianbinCuiNov.22nd--Dec.12th-Friday98Advanced50minsObjectives(students)Bytheendofthechapter,thelearnerswillbebetterabletoknowwhatsemanticsisabout,howlanguageisrelevanttosemantics,whattherelationshipexistsbetweenlanguageandsemantics.Focus:EnglishlanguageandEnglishsemanticsAims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthestudentsunderstandlanguageandsemantics.-.可修编.\n.-Aid:on-linecoursewareTopic:Chapterplan周次日期教学容Teachingcontents教学模式13Nov.22nd--28thChapterFive:MeaningSection1THEREFERENTIALTHEORYTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussion14Nov.29th--Dec.5thSection2PONETIALANALYSIS15Dec.6th--12thSection3SENTENCEMEANINGSectionOnetheReferentialTheoryOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofthereferentialtheorybythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatissemantics?Q2.Whatisthereferentialtheory?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.SemanticsMeaningofmeaningThereferentialtheorySenserelations10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussSenserelations6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Definethefollowingterms.Conceptualmeaning,sense,denotation,connotation,referenceSemanticsThesubjectconcerningthestudyofmeaningiscalledSEMANTICS.Morespecifically,semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.Meaninghasalwaysbeenacentraltopicinhumanscholarship,thoughtheterm“semantics”hasonlyahistoryofalittleoverahundred-.可修编.\n.-years.TherewerediscussionsofmeaningintheworksoftheGreekphilosopherPlatoasearlyasinthefifthcenturybeforeChrist.InChina,LaoZihaddiscussedsimilarquestionsevenearlier.Thefactthatovertheyearsnumerousdictionarieshavebeenproducedwithaviewtoexplainingthemeaningofwordsalsobearswitnesstoitslongtradition.Nevertheless,semanticsremainstheleastknownareainlinguistics,paredwithphonetics,phonology,morphologyandsyntax.Meaningsof“meaning”Onedifficultyinthestudyofmeaningisthattheword“meaning”itselfhasdifferentmeanings.IntheirbookTheMeaningofMeaningwrittenin1923,C.K.OgdenandI.A.Richardspresenteda“representativelistofthemaindefinitionswhichreputablestudentsofmeaninghavefavored”(p.186).Thereare16majorcategoriesofthem,withsub-categoriesalltogether,numbering22.ThereferentialtheoryThetheoryofmeaning,whichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothething,itrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory.Thisisaverypopulartheory.Itisgenerallypossible,aswehaveshownintheprevioussection,toexplainthemeaningofawordbypointingtothethingitrefersto.Inthecaseofpropernounsanddefinitenounphrases,thissespeciallytrues.Whenwesay“ThemostinfluentiallinguistNoamChomskyteachesatMIT”,wedouse“themostinfluentiallinguist”and“NoamChomsky”tomeanaparticularperson,and“MIT”aparticularinstitutionofhigherlearning.SectionTwoponentialAnalysisOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofponentialanalysisbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatisponentialanalysis?Q2.Whatisthemeaningsmallerthanword?-.可修编.\n.-27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.SemanticfeaturesSemanticponents10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discusstheponentialanalysis.6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:TranslatethefollowinglogicalformsintoEnglish,wherea=Ann,B=Bill,C=Carol,M=mother,andxandyarevariableswhichmaybetranslatedas“someone,“anyoneor”everyone”dependingonthequalifier:(a)M(a,b)(b)L(b,c)&L(c,b)-.可修编.\n.-Wordsareindifferentsenserelationswitheachother.Somewordshavemoresimilarsensesthanothers.Forexample,thesenseofdeskismorecloselyrelatedtothatoftablethantochair.Converselywecansaythesenseofdeskismoredifferentfromthatofchairthanfromtable.Andthesenseofdeskisincludedinthesenseoffurniture,orthesenseoffurnitureincludesthatofdesk.Asaresultthesenseofawordmaybeseenasthenetworkofitssenserelationswithothers.Inotherwords,sensemaybedefinedasthesemanticrelationsbetweenonewordandanother,ormoregenerallybetweenonelinguisticunitandanother.Itisconcernedwiththeintra-linguisticrelations.Incontrast,aswealludedtoearlier,referenceisconcernedwiththerelationbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto,ormoregenerallybetweenalinguisticunitandanon-linguisticentityitrefersto.Therearegenerallythreekindsofsenserelationsrecognized,namely,samenessrelation,andoppositenessrelationandinclusivenessrelation.SynonymyAntonymyHyponymySectionThreeSentenceMeaningOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:ClassbrainstormstheconceptofSentencemeaningbythefollowingquestions.Q1.WhatisSentencemeaning?Q2.Whatislogicalsemantics?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.AnintegratedtheoryLogicalsemantics10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussLogicalsemantics6mins.PlenarySummary-.可修编.\n.-2mins.Homework:Definethefollowingterms.hyponymy,proposition,predicatelogic,relationaloppositesAnintegratedtheoryLogicalsemanticsChapterSixLanguageProcessinginMindInstructorDateDaySsNo.SsLevelClasslengthJianbinCuiDec.13th--Jan.2ndFriday98Advanced50minsObjectives(students)Bytheendofthechapter,thestudentswillbebetterabletoknowwhatpsycholinguisticsisabout,howlanguageisrelevanttomind,whattherelationshipexistsbetweenlanguageandmind.Focus:EnglishlanguageandhumanmindAims:Iwillbeworkingonimprovingthestudentsunderstandlanguageandmind.Aid:on-linecoursewareTopic:Chapterplan周次日期教学容Teachingcontents教学模式16Dec.13th--19thChapterSix:languageprocessinginMindSection1LANGUAGEPREHENSIONTeacherpresentationon-lineandclassdiscussion17Dec.20th--.26thSection2DISCOURSEINTERPRETATION18Dec.27th--Jan.2ndSection3LAGUAGEPRODUCTIONSectionOneLanguageprehension-.可修编.\n.-OutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:ClassbrainstormstheconceptofLanguageprehensionbythefollowingquestions.Q1.WhatisLanguageprehension?Q2.Whatismind?Q3.Howdoyouunderstandlanguage?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.PsycholinguisticsLanguageprehensionLexicalambiguityWordrecognitionSyntacticprocessingSemanticsandsentencememoryBasicprocessinreading10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:studentsdiscussBasicprocessinreading.6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.HomeworkDefinethefollowingterms:Contextaffect,cohorttheory,languageperception,storystructure,modularIntroductionWhystudylanguage?LANGUAGEisamirrorofthemindinadeepandsignificantsense.Itisaproductofhumanintelligence,createdanewineachindividualbyoperationsthatliefarbeyondthereachofwillorconsciousness.(Chomsky,ReflectionsonLanguage,1975)Thestudyof“languageandmind”aimstomodeltheworkingsofthemindinrelationtolanguages.Sincestructuresandconnectionsinthemindareinevitableunobservable,researchersputforwardhypothesesbasedonfragmentaryclues.Thisaccountsforthehighdegreeofcontroversythatsurroundsalmostallareasofthesubject.Thelabelmostusuallygiventothestudyof“languageandmind”ispsycholinguistics,atermwhichisoftenperceivedasbeingtrendy.Ithasthereforebeensomewhatoverusedinrecentyears,andcanbefoundappliedtojustaboutanylinguistictopic.PSYCHOLINGUISTICS-.可修编.\n.-“proper”canperhapsbeglossedasthestorage,prehension,productionandacquisitionoflanguageinanymedium(spokenorwritten)Whystudypsycholinguistics”PSYCHOLINGUISTICSisconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructures.Lessmodestly,itsometimesalsoproducesfindings,whichmaketheirownmarkonlinguisticresearch,leadingtothemodificationoftheoreticalideas.Ifweviewthetaskofpsycholinguisticsinthelightofthegeneralparadigmofcognitivepsychology,itbeesidentifiedwiththesearchforbehaviou8ralmanifestationsoflinguisticconstructs.Aspsychology,initsmodernguise,usesandexperimentalmethodology,italsofollowsthatsuchbehavioralmanifestationswillbestudiedunderexperimentalconditions,anditisreasonabletoseethelastthirtyyearsorsoofpsycholinguisticsintermsoftheconstructionofingeniouslaboratorytechniquesforpursuingthisgoal.ItisperhapsusefultodistinguishpsycholinguisticsfromthePSYCHOLOGYOFLANGUAGE,whichdealswithmoregeneraltopicssuchastheextenttowhichlanguageshapesthought,andfromthePSYCHOLOGYOFMUNICATION,whichincludesnon-verbalmunicationsuchasgesturesandfacialexpressions.ApossibledividewithinpsycholinguisticsisofthosewhostylethemselvesCOGNITIVEPSYCHOLINGUISTSasopposedtoEXPERIMENTALPSYCHOLINGUISTS.Theformerareconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferencesaboutthecontentofthehumanmind,whereasthelatteraresomewhatmoreconcernedwithempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoaparticularword.Inpracticethetwoschoolsofthoughtoftenoverlap,butextremesupportersofeachwayofthinkingsometimesperceivethegapasbeingalargeone.LexicalambiguitySyntacticprocessingSemanticandsentencememoryWordrecognition;BasicprocessinreadingSectionTwoDiscourseInterpretationOutlineofProcedures:-.可修编.\n.-5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Classbrainstormstheconceptofdiscourseinterpretationbythefollowingquestions.Q1.Whatisschemataandreferencedrawing?Q2.Whatistextinterpretation?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.SchemataandreferencedrawingTextinterpretation10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discusstextinterpretation6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.HomeworkJustifythefollowingsentenceswithTrue(T)orFalse(F):1.Linguisticmunicationsareusuallypresentedtousintheformofwrittentextorspeech.Whiletheprocessofprehensionappearstobesimilarinbothcases,someoftheinitialstagesofprocessingdiffer.()2.Analysisofeyemovementsduringreadinghasrevealedthatalloftheirinformationfromtextisextractedduringtheperceptualspan.()SectionThreeLanguageProductionOutlineofProcedures:5mins.Wholeclass.Aim:ClassbrainstormstheconceptofLanguageproductionbythefollowingquestions.Q1.WhatisLanguageproduction?Q2.WhatarethemeansofLanguageproduction?27mins.Wholeclass.Aim:Teacherpresentsonline.SpeechproductionWrittenproduction10mins.Studentsingroups.Aim:discussSpeechproduction-.可修编.\n.-6mins.PlenarySummary2mins.Homework:Herearesomemoreexamplesofgardenpathsentences.Canyoufigureoutwhatthestructureofthesesentencesis?1.Theboatfloateddownstreamsank.2.WhileMarywasmendingthesockfelloffherlap.3.ThedaughteroftheKing’ssonadmireshimself.SpeechproductionWrittenproduction师学院外国语言文学系2004---2005学年第一学期英语语言学考试试题(A)AchievementTestofEnglishLinguisticsforEnglishMajors`02(A)(TermV),WTU2005-1-5GeneralDirectionsThistestpaperhasfourpartsandcoverswhathavebeenplannedonEnglishLinguistics.Thistestisexpectedtobefinishedwithin100mins.WriteallyouranswersontheAnswerSheet.I.LinguisticKnowledgeDirections:Thereare10linguistictermsinthispart,usetheknowledgeyou’velearnttodefinethefollowingterms.(20%)1arbitrariness2performance3synchronic4designfeature5coarticulation6blending7assimilation8concord9semanticponent10broadandnarrowtranscriptionII.LinguisticTheoryDirections:Thereare20unfinishedstatementconcerninglinguistictheorystudies.Fillineachofthefollowing20blankswith-.可修编.\n.-linguistictheoriesyouacquire,writeyouranswerontheanswersheet.(40%)11.TheseventypesofwordmeaningrecognizedbyG.Leechsofarareconceptualmeaning,connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,colocativemeaningand_____.12.Thedesirefeaturesoflanguagearearbitrariness,duality,creativity,and_____.13.Thefunctionsoflanguageincludesinformative,interpersonal,performative,emotive,phatic,recreationaland_____.14.Themainbranchesoflinguisticsshouldincludephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,_____andpragmatics.15.Thebranchesofmacrolinguisticshavepsycholinguistic,sociolinguistics,_____,andputationallinguistics.16.Phoneticsisthestudyofsoundsanditcanbedividedintothreemainareas,whichare_____,acousticphoneticsandauditoryphonetics.17.ThepresentsystemoftheIPA(InternationalphoneticAssociation)wasdevelopedinthe1920sbytheBritishphonetician_____,whoputforwardcardinalvowels,whichareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging.18.ThemostmonmodelaccentofTEFL(TeachingofEnglishasaForeignLanguage)isreferredtoas_____.19.EugeneNida(1964)claimsthatthefivetypesofsub-culturalmunicationisecologicalculture,linguisticculture,religiousculture,materialculturaland_____.20._____isthemonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme.21._____studiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.22.Apartfrompoundandderivation,newwordsandexpressionsarecreatedbymeansofinvention,blending,abbreviation,acronym,back-formation,analogicalcreationand_____.23.Theformationofnewpronunciationincludesfactorsasloss,addition,metathesisand_____.24.Concerningvocabularysemanticchange,therearebroadening,narrowing,meaningshift,classshift,_____andorthographicchange.25.Thestudiesoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarebinedtoformsentencesinalanguageorthestudyoftheformationofsentencesiscalled_____.26.Therepresentativeapproachestosyntaxarethetraditionalapproach,thestructuralapproach,thegenerativeapproachand-.可修编.\n.-_____.11.InSaussure'sview,languageisasystemofsigns,eachofwhichconsistsofsignified(concept)and_____.12.Thetheoryofmeaningthatrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitreferstoorstandsfor,isknownas_____.13.Forponentialanalysisorsemanticponents,themeaningofthewordWOMANmaybeanalyzedinto“Human”,“Adult”and“_____”.14.ForHalliday,learninglanguageislearningto_____.II.Short-QuestionAnswerDirections:Explaineachofthefollowinglinguisticviewsinnomorethan80words.Writeyouranswersontheanswersheet.(20%)31.Whatissemanticchange?32.Whatdoestherefentialtheoryreferto?III.EssayQuestionDirections:Developthefollowingtopicintoa200-300-wordessay.(20%)33.WhatarethedifferencesbetweenTraditionalApproachandtheStructuralApproach?KeystoTestA,2005I.1.Arbitrariness:itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.2.Performance:itreferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.3.synchronic:asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent)asitspointofobservation.4.designfeaturesthefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatures.Itincludesarbitrariness,duality,creativityanddisplacement.5.coarticulation:speechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.6.blending:itisarelativelyplexformofpounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstword-.可修编.\n.-andthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.1.assimilation:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Forexample,NASALIZATION,DENTALIZATION,andVELARIZATIONallinstancesofASSIMILATION.2.concord:alsoknownasagreement,maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.3.semanticponent:Itreferstothemeaningofawordisnotanunanalysablewhole.Itmaybeseenasaplexofdifferentsemanticfeatures.Therearesemanticunitssmallerthanthemeaningofaword.4.broadandnarrowtranscription:whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledaBROADRANSCRIPTION.ThustheuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasaNARROWTRASCRIPTION.II.11.thematicmeaning12.displacement13.metalingual14.semantics15.anthropologicallinguistics16.articulatoryphonetics17.DanielJones18.acronym19.socialcultural20WORD21.MORPHOLOGY22.borrowing23.assimilation24.folketymology25.syntax26.thefunctionalapproach27.SIGNIFIER(soundimage)28.thereferentialtheory29.Female30.munication.III.31.Sincelanguageissymbolic,eachwordservesasasymbolinrelationtoaspecificmeaning.Inthissense,weneedinfinitenumbersofwordsorsymbolstocodethephysicalentitiesandourexperiences,whichwillultimatelyproveimpossibleandobstructthesmoothoperationofmunication.Inthiscase,wewillgiveanewconcepttoanoldform,thusthemeaningofaformismultiplied.Therearethreekindsofsemanticchanges,namely,broadening,narrowing,andmeaningshift.32.Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory.Thisisaverypopulartheory.Itisgenerallyimpossibletoexplainthemeaningofawordbypointingtothethingitrefersto.IV.-.可修编.\n.-33.Thedifferencesbetweentraditionalapproachandstructuralapproach:Traditionalapproachis:Usually,asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformation,therefore,involvesagreatdealofthestudyoftheword,suchas,theclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermsofsubject,predicate,etc.Theirpartsofspeechandfunctionsaresometimescalledcategories.Butthetermcategoryisalsomorespecificallyusedforthedefiningpropertiesofunitslikenounandverb.Thestructuralapproachis:TheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussurestartedthestructuralapproachtotheanalysisoflanguageinthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.Inasense,allthelinguistictheoriesafterhimarestructuralinthattheyallregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure,notasisolatedbits.-.可修编.\n.-师学院外国语言文学系2004---2005学年第一学期英语语言学考试试题(B)AchievementTestofEnglishLinguisticsforEnglishMajors`02(B)(TermV),WTU2005-1-5GeneralDirectionsThistestpaperhasfourpartsandcoverswhathavebeenplannedonEnglishLinguisticsfortermV.Thistestisexpectedtobefinishedwithin100mins.WriteallyouranswersontheAnswerSheet.I.LinguisticKnowledgeDirections:Thereare10linguistictermsinthispart,usetheknowledgeyou’velearnttodefinethefollowingterms.(20%)1.Duality2.petence3.Diachronic4.Morpheme5.Pragmatics6.Phoneme7.Synonymy8.Government9.Orthographicchange10.DeepandsurfacestructureII.LinguisticTheoryDirections:Thereare20unfinishedstatementconcerninglinguistictheorystudies.Fillineachofthefollowing20blankswithlinguistictheoriesyouacquire,writeyouranswerontheanswersheet.(40%)11._____isaparablyabstractunittobesetuptoshowhowwordsworkinthegrammarofalanguage.12.______advocatedtreatingsentenceas“themaximumfreeform”andword“theminimumfreeform”.13.Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedintoGRANNATICALWORDSand_______.14.Phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlineswhilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetween______.15.Affixislimitedinnumberinalanguage,andisgenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffix,and_____.16._____isanymorphemeorbinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.17.Tobemorespecific,thereistwofieldsMorphologyconcerns:thestudyofINFLECTIONS(alsocalledINFLECTIONALMORPHOLOGY)andthestudyof______.18.poundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentricpoundandthe_____pound.-.可修编.\n.-19.Thereareseveraltypesofprocesseswithregardtoborrowing.ThereareLoanwords,Loanblend,Loanshiftand_____.20.Thereareusuallytwotermsofnumber:Singularand_____.21.TheSyntagmaticrelationisnowadaysalsoreferredtoastheHORIZONTALrelationor______relation.22.TheparadigmaticrelationisalsoknownastheVERTICALrelation,or____relation.23.Endocentricconstructionsmaybefurtherdividedintotwosubtypes:SUBORDINATEand_________.24.InthebookSyntacticstructurespublishedin1957,Chomskyproposedalinguisticmodelconsistingofthreeponents:PhraseStructureponent,_______andMorpho-phonemicponent.25.Thebaseponentsitselfisdividedintotwosub-ponents:categoriesand______.26.Thereareonlytwooperationsintheputationalsystemnow:Mergerand_____.27.Hallidayarguesthattherearethreegeneralfunctionsoflanguage:ideational,interpersonaland_____.28.In1974,G.Leechrecognizes7typesofmeaninginhissemantics,asfollows:Conceptualmeaning,Connotativemeaning,Socialmeaning,Affectivemeaning,Reflectedmeaning,Colocativemeaningand_______.29.Therearegenerallythreekindsofsenserelationsrecognized,namely,Samenessrelation,Oppositenessrelation,and______.30.Englishvocabularyhastwomainsources:Anglo-Saxonand_____.I.Short-QuestionAnswerDirections:Explaineachofthefollowinglinguisticviewsinnomorethan80words.Writeyouranswersontheanswersheet.(20%)31.Doesthetrafficlightsystemhaveduality,why?32.Inwhatsenseistheanalysisofasentenceintermsofthemeandrhemefunctional?II.EssayQuestionDirections:Developthefollowingtopicintoa200-300-wordessay.(20%)33.Whatistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandlinguistics?-.可修编.\n.-KeystoTestB,2005I.1.Duality:itismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelareposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.2.petence:alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledhislinguisticpetence.3.Diachronic:itisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.4.Morpheme:itisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.5.Pragmatics:itisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguageperformancecaninfluenceinterpretation.Inotherwords,pragmaticsisconcernedwiththewaylanguageisusedtomunicateratherthanwiththewaylanguageisstructured.6.Phoneme:severaltheorieswereputforwardanddiscussedbutforthepracticaltaskofdescribingsound-system,theminimalpairstestshowsthatthewordphonemesimplyreferstoaunitofexplicitsoundcontrast.7.Synonymy:itisthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.8.Government:itisanothertypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions.9.Orthographicchange:changescanalsobefoundatthegraphiticlevel.SincewritingisarecordingofthesoundsysteminEnglish,phonologicalchangeswillnodoubtsetoffgraphiticchanges.10.Deepandsurfacestructure:theformermaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.Thelatteristhefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.II.11.Word12.LeonardBloomfield13.LEXICALWORDS/FUNCTIONWORDS.14.squarebrackets15.infix.16.ASTEM17.WORD-FORMATION18.exocentric19.Loantranslation.-.可修编.\n.-20.Plural21.CHAIN22.CHOICE23.COORDINATEconstructions24.Transformationalponent25.lexicon26.Move27.textual28.Thematicmeaning29.inclusivenessrelation30.Latin.III.31.No.Nodiscreteunitsonthefirstlevelthatcanbebinedfreelyinthesecondleveltoformmeaning.Thereisonlysimpleone-to-onerelationshipbetweensignsandmeaning,namely,red---stop,green---goandyellow---getreadytogoorstop.32.Theanalysisofasentenceintermsofthemeandrhemeisfunctionalinthesensethatthisdistinctionhastodowiththesemanticsideoftheconstituentsofasentenceratherthantheformalside.Theyhavetodowiththeinformationconveyed,whethertheknowornew,themoreimportantorlessimportant.Incontrast,theanalysisofasentenceintermsofsubjectandpredicateisformal,e.g.thesubjectwillbeinthenominativeforminlanguageswithcasedistinctions,theformofthepredicateverbwillhavetobeinagreementwiththesubjectincertaincategories.IV.Thedefinitionoflanguage:Peoplehavetalkedaboutthisquestionforsomanyyears.Surely,therearesomanydifferentdefinitionsforlanguage,namely,humanspeech,theabilityofmunicatebythismeans,asystemofvocalsoundsandbinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedfortheexpressionormunicationofthoughtsandfeelingsetc.Butthebarestofdefinitionoflanguageisameansofspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Generallyspeaking,languageisthevocalarbitrarysystemofsymbolsusedforhumanmunication.Itisinstrumental,socialandconventional.Languagelearningandusearedeterminedbytheinterventionofbiological,cognitive,psychosocial,andenvironmentalfactors.Inshort,languagedistinguishesusfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalmunicationsystem.Thedefinitionoflinguistics:Itisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageor,alternatively,asthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itisamainbranchofsocialscience.Relationship:Languageisthearbitrarysystemofsymbolsusedforhumanmunication.linguisticisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-.可修编.