英语语言学-语言学知识点讲课资料 146页

语言学知识点\nI语言学导论II语言学主要分支学科III语言学的流派和理论\n\n1.designfeatureoflanguage（语言的定义特征)definingpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication\n1.designfeatureoflanguage语言定义特征1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二层性)3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)CulturalTransmission(文化传递性)\n1）Arbitrariness(任意性):定义：theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.举例：书,book,livre喜欢，like，aimer\n2）Duality（二层性）:定义：thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevel.举例：Sounds>syllables>words>phrases>clauses>sentences>texts/discourses\n3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Languagecanbeusedtocreatenewmeaningsbecauseofitsduality举例1：/k/,/a:/,/p/----carporpark举例2：England,defeated,FranceEnglanddefeatedFrance.FrancedefeatedEngland.\n4）Displacement（替代性）:定义：Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizesomethingwhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.\n5）CulturalTransmission（文化传递性）:定义：languageispassedonfromgenerationtogenerationthroughteachingandlearningratherthaninstinct.反例：印度狼孩\n3.Designfeature定义特征1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二层性)3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)CulturalTransmission(文化传递性)如何记忆:五性，创意遗传\n4.ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1)descriptive&prescriptive2)synchronic&diachronic3)langue&parole4)competence&performance\n1)Descriptive（描述性）vs.Prescriptive（规定性）Descriptive:describinghowthingsare.prescriptive:prescribinghowthingsoughttobe\nImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics举例：Don'tsayX.Peopledon'tsayX.Thefirstisaprescriptivecommand,whilethesecondisadescriptivestatement.\n2).Synchronic（共时性）vs.Diachronic（历时性）synchronic:takesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.diachronic:thestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.\n举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronicstudies(共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronicstudies(历时研究)\n2.世界语言分类\n2.世界语言分类\n\nImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics3).langue（语言）&parole（言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）,fatherofmodernlinguisticslangue:abstractlinguisticsystemparole:actualrealizationoflangue\nImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics举例：汉语系统langue每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语parole\nImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics4)Competence（语言能力）andperformance（语言运用）theorist:Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence:user'sknowledgeofrulesaboutthelinguisticsystem.performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinconcretesituations.\n5.ScopeofLinguistics(语言学的研究范围)1）按研究内容来分2）按研究导向来分\n语言学分类-按研究内容分\n语言学分类-按研究内容分\n\n语言学分类-按研究导向分\n语言学分类-按研究内容分\n语言学分类-按研究内容分\n考点:1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念:清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念:音子，音位,超音段特征\nPhoneticsstudiesallspeechsoundsinhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,transmittedandhowtheyarereceived.Phonology:aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.区别:meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）\n举例:too和tea中的/t/发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处,音系学不研究\nPhoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.\n语音学分类articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学):speaker’sproductionacousticphonetics（声学语音学）:transmission’smediumauditoryphonetics(听觉语音学):receiver’sreception\n如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别:联想:mathematics,physics,mechanicsphonetics语言学，-ics科学性更强geology,sociology,astrologyphonology音系学，-ology人文性更强\nHowspeechsoundsaremadeSpeechorgans\n\nPositionofthevocalfolds(声带):voicing(浊音)andvoiceless(清音)\nVoiceless(清音)：vocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingtheairstreamgothroughwithoutcausingobstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocalcordsheldtogether,lettingtheairstreamvibrates浊音:[b,z,d]\nThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.\n音系学定义：studyofhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.音系学重要概念:phone音子，phoneme音位(音系研究的基本单位)supra-segmentalfeatures超音段特征\nPhone(音子)：aphoneticunit;thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringcommunicationareallphones举例:too和tea中的/t/发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too和tea中的/t/两个不同的音子\nPhoneme(音位):phonologicalandabstractunit,aunitofdistinctivevalue;thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.举例：tea和sea,/t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morpheme\nWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme\nWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme(音位)\nWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme\nWhatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme\nSuprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)Suprasegmentalfeatures:phonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:\nSupra-segmentalfeatures(超音段特征)：stress（重音）举例:perfect(adj)和perfect(v)tone(声调)/pitch(音高):定义:soundfeaturewhicharecausedbythedifferingrateofvibrationofthevocalfolds.举例:mā妈,má麻,mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如me\nintonation（语调）：pitch,stress,andsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation.举例:\nMorphology形态学1.学科定义2.语素的定义和分类3.词的分类（classificationofwords）\n形态学研究的基本单位1.morpheme(语素）.Themostbasicelementofmeaninginlanguage，anelementthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutalteringitsmeaning.举例：ballfootballballs\n\nTypesofMorphemesFreemorphemesvs.Boundmorphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.\nTypesofBoundMorphemeInflectionalmorpheme(屈折语素)=inflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)：changethegrammaticalmeaning(number,aspect,case,tense)Derivationalmorpheme（派生语素）=inflectionalaffix(派生词缀）:changethelexicalmeaning\ndis+like+sderivationalfreeinflectionalmorpheme\nlight+en+edfreederivationalinflectionalmorpheme\nDerivationalmorpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-,un-,multi-,micro-改变词性：en-,-full,-mentInflectionalmorpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess,-s,改变动词的时,态，体:-ing,-ed,改变形容词的级：-er,-est\n词的分类-按构词法分\n如何区分派生词（derivationalword）和合成词(compoundword):拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。Businessman:business+manPlayboy:play+boyMouthful:mouth+fulLighten:light+en\n词的分类-按词义分\n词的分类-按开放性分\n词的分类-按在句子重要性分\n分类方法按构词法分简单词:dislike,light派生词:dislike,lighten合成词:cat-like,light-weight按词义分语法词:冠,介，代，连词词汇词:名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:冠,介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类:名，动，形，副,介次要词类：冠，代，连词\nSyntax句法考点1.定义2.句法范畴3.句子类型\n1.Syntax定义：:studiesinternalstructureofsentenceandrulesofsentence-formation\nCategory(范畴):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchassentence,anounphraseoraverb(起相同作用的一类语言单位)Syntacticalcategory(句法范畴):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinsentence-formation.（在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位）\nSyntacticalcategory(句法范畴)Word-----------lexicalcategoryPhrase---------phrasalcategoryClause---------clausalcategorySentence\nLexicalCategory词法范畴=PartsofSpeech词类\n分类方法按构词法分简单词:dislike,light派生词:dislike,lighten合成词:cat-like,light-weight按词义分语法词:冠,介，代，连词词汇词:名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:冠,介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类/范畴:名，动，形，副,介次要词类/范畴：冠，代，连词\nphrasespecifierheadcomplementacarfivemetersaway\n72SentenceTypes(句子类型)simpleSentencecomplexnon-simplecompound\n4.句子分类：Simplesentence简单句Coordinatesentence并列句Complexsentence复杂句\nsimplesentence简单句定义：alsocalledindependentclause,containsasubjectandaverb,anditexpressesacompletethought.\n练习：JimandMikeplayfootballeveryafternoon.(simplesentence)Marygoestothelibraryandstudieseveryday.(coordinatesentence)\ncoordinatesentence并列句:containstwoindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinator(并列连词)suchasand,or,butetc.Coordinatorsareoftenprecededbyacomma.例句:ItriedtospeakSpanish,andmyfriendtriedtospeakEnglish.Lilywenttoplayfootball,butMariawentshopping.\nYouhavetodoitonewayortheother.SimplesentenceTheworkerswerecheerful,oratleasttheyappearedtobecheerful.Coordinatesentence\ncomplexsentence定义：Acomplexsentencehasanindependentclausejoinedwithoneormoredependentclausesbyoneormoresubordinators(从属连词)suchasif,when,because,althoug.\nAsheisgrowingold,heseldomgoesout.Heisgrowingold,whereashebecomeshealthier.如何区分并列和复杂句---看连词表示的关系并列，选择和转折关系---并列句时间，条件，原因和让步关系---复杂句\nSemantics考点：1.定义：studyofmeaning2.两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义3.五种词语语义关系\nLudwigWittgenstein:‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’.Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference（指称）:howlanguagereferstotherealphysicalworld(语言指代外部物质世界)Sense（涵义）:inherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandthemeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.(语言形式的内在意义)\nconceptsymbolizesreferstosymbolreferent(word)standsfor(object)\n\nSynonymy同义Synonymy同义:samenessorsimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.\n同义分类举例dialecticalsynonym地域同义词：举例:fallandautumn,flatandapartmentstylisticsynonym风格同义词：举例:copandpolice,kidandoffspringcollocationalsynonym搭配同义词：举例:accuseof,chargewith,rebukeforSemanticallydifferentsynonym语义稍有不同的同义词:举例:surpriseandastound,blameandrebuke\nAntonymy反义Antonymy反义:oppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningarecalledantonyms.Antonymy反义关系分类：gradableantonymy等级反义complementaryantonymy互补反义converseantonymy反向反义\nGradableantonymy等级反义young--------middle-aged---------------oldbig--------middle-sized---------------smallgood-------------average-----------------bad\nComplementaryantonymy互补反义alive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss\nConverseantonymy反向反义buy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employee\nHyponymy上下义关系Hyponymy上下义:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate/hypernym上义词:themoregeneraltermHyponym下义词:themorespecificterm\n举例:hypernym上义词:animalHyponym下义词:bird,fish,tiger,cat如何记忆:hyper---向上hype炒作hypo---向下hypothesis假设\nAnimalbirdfishinsectanimalhumananimaltigerlionelephant...\nPolysemy一词多义Polysemy:thesameonewordhasmorethanonemeaning.Suchawordiscalledpolysemicword.举例:Fish:1.鱼2.鱼肉3.水生动物4.捕鱼5.寻找\nHomonymy同音/同形异义词:wordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Identicalinsound:homophones同音词Identicalinspelling:homograph同形词Identicalinboth:completehomonyms同音同形词\nhomophones同音词：举例:knightandnight,pieceandpeacehomograph同形词举例:tear(v)andtear(n),lead(v)andlead(n)completehomonyms同音同形词:fast(adj)andfast(n)\n如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象:beauty,fish,ball,scalebeauty:美丽；美女fish:鱼；鱼肉；水生动物；捕鱼；寻找ball:球；舞会scale:规模；鱼鳞看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没有就是同音同形词\nPragmatics语用学考点:定义和与语义学的区别：studyofmeaningincontextorinuse言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为）会话原则\n2.SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)MainIdea:thingscanbedonewithwords\nConstatives(叙事句)vs.performatives（施为句）Constatives（叙事句）:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish.\nPerformatives（施为句）:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc.\nThreeSpeechActs(三种言语行为)Alocutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringwords,phrase,sentences.Itisanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryact（言外行为）:anactofexpressionspeaker’sintention;itisanactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryact（言后行为）:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.\n三种话语行为-举例老师对学生说:Youhaveleftthedooropen.Locutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringthewordsof“you”,“have”,“left”,“the”,“door”,“open”Illocutinaryact(言外行为):theactofexpressingtheteacher’sintentionofaskingthestudenttoclosethedoor.Perlocutionaryact(言后行为):theeffectoftheutterance:studentgoestoclosethedoor\n103IllocutionaryActTheory美国哲学家JohnSearle(约翰-塞尔，1932-)在Austin理论基础上把言外行为进一步分为5类：陈述（assertives），指示(directives)，承诺(commissives)，表达(expressives)，宣告（declaratives）\nConversationalImplicature（会话含义理论）Theorist：英国语言学家HerbertPaulGrice(格莱斯，1913-1988)MainIdea:Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.\nTheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作原则)MaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner（方式准则）\nTheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作原则)MaximofQuality（数量准则）Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner（方式准则）\nMaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）：Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner（方式准则）\nMaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）：Berelative.MaximofManner（方式准则）\nMaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner(方式准则)：Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.\nMacro-Linguistics宏观语言学\nSociolinguistics社会语言学1.定义2.语言变体languagevariety3.双语\nSociolinguistics社会语言学1定义：Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Speech语言变体双语\nSociolinguistics社会语言学定义Speechvariety/languagevariety语言变体:refertoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.双语\n\n\n\nPidgin(洋泾浜语/皮钦语)：aspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeaksdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.上海洋泾浜\n上海话中的洋泾浜英语“蹩脚”（BILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的）“瘪三”（BEGSIR，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。“赤佬”是英语“CHEAT”（欺骗）和中文“佬”的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。\n119Frompidgintocreoles(克里奥语):Pidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageasaresultofintermarriage,itisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue.举例.French-basedHaitianCreole,EnglishbasedjamaicaCreole\nSociolinguistics社会语言学定义语言变体双语\nBilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia(高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）\nBilingualism(双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.举例：Canada(FrenchandEnglish),Wales(WelshandEnglish)Diglossia(高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）\nBilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia(高低双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.举例：Switzerland:HighGermanasthestandard(public,official)SwissGermanasthevernacular(informal,daily)Multilingualism（多语现象）\nBilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia(高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）:alinguisticsituationinwhichmorethantwolanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.举例：Singapore(English,Chinese,Malay)\nBilingualism(双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakersDiglossia(高低双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplayMultilingualism（多语现象）:alinguisticsituationmorethantwovarietiesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers\n人类语言学AnthropologicalLinguistics定义:studyoftherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguage假说：Sapir-WhorfHypothesis(萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说)：structureofthelanguagepeopleuseinfluencesthewaytheythinkandbehave(简言之,语言影响人的思想行为)\n127Sapir-WhorfHypothesisEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.\n128English:horseshoeFrench:feracheval——ironforhorseGerman:hufeisen——hoofironTheEskimoshavecountlesswordsforsnow.TheArabs,forcamels.\n心理语言学Psycholinguistics:thestudyofthementalprocessoflanguagecomprehensionandproduction.计算机语言学ComputationalLinguistics:studyoftheuseofcomputerstoprocessandproducehumanlanguage.\n语言学理论流派\n考点：四大学派的代表人物及其理论名称\n1.FatherofModernLinguistics现代语言学之父2.PragueSchool布拉格学派3.LondonSchool伦敦学派4.AmericanStructuralism美国结构主义5.Transformative-GenerativeGrammar转换生成语法\n1.FatherofModernLinguistics现代语言学之父Saussure索绪尔(瑞士)代表作\nSaussure’snewconcepts:LangueandParole(语言和言语)Signifierandsignified（能指和所指）\n2.PragueSchool布拉格学派：Stressedsynchroniclinguistics（强调共时语言学）N.Trubetzkoy(1890-1938)特鲁别茨柯依J.Firbas(1921-2000)费尔巴斯\n136PragueSchoolPhonologyN.Trubetzkoy’(特鲁别茨柯依)contributions:definedthesphereofphonologicalstudies,andgaveanaccuratedefinitionofthephoneme.\n137J.Firbas(费尔巴斯)FSP（functionalSentencePerspective,句子功能前景）：distributionofinformationinsentenceCD（Communicativedynamism,交际动力）isusedtomeasuretheinformationamountaparticularsentenceconstituentcontains\n1383.TheLondonSchoolMalinowski(1884-1942)马林诺夫斯基Firth(1890-1960)弗斯Halliday(1925-)韩礼德Allthreestressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage\n马林诺夫斯基费孝通王铭铭\n1403.TheLondonSchoolMalinowski(1884-1942)马林诺夫斯基Firth(1890-1960)弗斯Halliday(1925-)韩礼德Allthreestressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage\n141Halliday(韩礼德，1925-).Systematic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能语法):systemicgrammar:internalrelationsinLasasystemnetwork,meaningpotential.functionalgrammar:Lasameansofsocialinteraction,usesorfunctionsoflanguageform.\n1423.AmericanStructuralismMajorLinguists：Boas（博厄斯）Sapir（萨丕尔）Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）\nSapir-Whorfhypothesis:thelanguageinfluencesthewayonethinksandbehave(语言影响人的思想行为)\n5.Transformative-GenerativeGrammar转换生成语法NOAMCHOMSKY乔姆斯基(1928-)Transformative-GenerativeGrammar转换生成语法Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用\n145PhrasestructurerulesSNPVPVPVNPNPDetNVact,beat,catch,dive,…Nman,boy,book,flower,...\n146