语言学练习语言学教程胡壮麟主编 20页

Exerciseoflinguistics语言学练习（语言学教程胡壮麟主编）IExplainthefollowingtermsinEnglish.1.Homonymy同音（或同形）异义关系：Thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameformiscalledhomonymy.,i.e.differentwordsareidentical(相同的)insoundorspelling,orinboth.例：forinstance,1)同形异义词homographs:cloze[kləuz]----close [kləuz],sow/səʊ/----sow/soʊ/(US);2)同音异义词homophones:flower----flour,dear---deer,etc.3)同形同音词perfecthomonyms：angle---angle,bank---bank.2.predicationanalysis(述谓分析法)（语义分析）isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argument(logicalparticipant)andpredicate(relationelement).Thepredicateisthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.(instance)3tenorofdiscourse（话语意旨）The“tenorofdiscourse”isaboutthevariationrelatingto,orresultingfrom,whattheuseristryingtodowithlanguage,suchasteaching,persuading,advertising,instructing,etc.Thegenericsituationofadiscourseisoftendeterminedintermsoftenorofdiscourse.Forexample,anadvertisementisbydefinitionanattempttopersuadethroughlinguisticandvisualmeans,andasermonisdesignedtoexhortandteach.4.Arbitrariness任意性：referstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignshavenonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thereisnologicconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds.Forinstance,wecannotexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/(1.3.1)5.Performance(语言运用)：thelanguageactuallyusedbypeopleinspeakingorwriting.(1.9.4)Aspeaker’slanguageperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.(nervousness,)6.Dysphonia(语言障碍)isthemedicaltermfordisordersofthevoice:animpairmentintheabilitytoproducevoicesoundsusingthevocalorgansThus,dysphoniaisaphonation（发声）disorder.Thedysphonicvoicecanbehoarseorweak,orexcessivelybreathy,harsh,orrough,butsomekindofphonationisstillpossible(contrastedwiththemoresevereaphoniawherephonationisimpossible).7.ReceivedPronunciation（标准发音P34）isawayofpronouncingBritishEnglishthatisoftenusedasastandardintheTeachingofEnglishasaForeignLanguage.TheabbreviationRPisalso第20页共20页\nused.(ManypeoplealsocallitBBCEnglish,OxfordEnglish.ItisalsowidelyusedinpublicschoolsandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.)8.endocentricconstruction(向心结构)：isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCENTREorHEAD．(4.2.3.1)usually,nounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypes.Suchasthesetwooldstonebridges,willbeleaving,verylate.9.Homogram(同形异义异源词)awordwhichhasthesamespellingasanotherbutdifferentmeaning,derivation,orpronunciation.Sameas"homograph".'Bow'meaningthefrontofaship,'bow'meaningaloopmadeinastringorribbonand'bow'meaningadeviceusedtoshootarrowsareallhomograms.10.mannerofdiscourse（话语方式）：isthelinguisticreflectionoftherelationshipbetweenthelanguageuserandthemediumoftransmission.Languageiseitherspokenorwritten.Spokenlanguagemaybespontaneousorprepared,andwrittenlanguagemaybespokenortoberead.11.Allophone音位变体：variantsofthesamephoneme.Iftwoormorephoneticallydifferentsoundsdonotmakeacontrastinmeaning,theyaresaidtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme.Tobeallophones,theymustbeincomplementarydistributionandbearphoneticsimilarity.Ex.inthewords/pit//tip//spit/,thedifferent/p/’saretheallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/.12.designfeature结构特征：thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguageofanimals.(Therearearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability.)13.Synchronic共时性:synchronicstudyisthedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime,usuallybutnotnecessarilythepresent,(asifitstoppeddeveloping).Forexample,anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”maybesynchroniciftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE.14.Diachronic历时性：saidofthestudyofdevelopmentoflanguageandlanguagesovertime.(Diachronicstudyisthedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.)forexample,theessay“OntheUseofTHE”maybediachroniciftheauthorclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergone第20页共20页\ntremendousalteration15.competence语言能力:AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentenceamtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.16.Performance语用能力：thelanguageactuallyusedbypeopleinspeakingorwriting.Speaker’sperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.17.Langue语言：F.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic.18.Parole言语：F.deSaussurerefers“parole”totheactuallanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Paroleisspecifictothespeakingsituation,anditisanaturallyoccurringevent.ForSaussure,paroleisamassofconfusingfacts,thusnotsuitedforsystematicinvestigation.19.Phonology音系学：thestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.20Consonant辅音：amajorcategoryofsoundsegments,producedbyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction,21.Vowel元音：amajorcategoryofsoundsegments，producedwithoutobstructionofthevocaltractsothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthorthenose.22.distinctivefeatures区别特征：ameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds,firstsuggestedbyRomanJacobsoninthe1940sandthendevelopedbynumerousotherpeople.23.IPA国际音标：asetofstandardphoneticsymbolsintheformofachart(theIPAchart),designedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationsince1888.ItwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Thelatestversionhasbeenrevisedin1993andupdatedin2005,seep.28.第20页共20页\n24.morpheme语素：thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Forexample,theword“tourists”containsthreemorphemes.Thereisoneminimalunitofmeaning,tour,anotherminimalunitofmeaning-ist(meaning"personwhodoessomething"),andaminimalunitofgrammaticalfunction-s(indicatingplural).25.Inflection屈折变化：isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixessuchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcasestowhichtheyareattached,26.root词根：referstothebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithoutlossofidentity.Thatistosay,itisthatpartofthewordthatisleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Intheword“internationalism”,aftertheremovalofinter-,-aland-ism,thepartleftistherootnation.27loanword借词：theborrowingofaprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightchange,insomecases,tothephonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.Forinstance,Englishborrowedaupair,encore,coupd'etatandothersfromFrench,alfresco(intheopenair)fromItalian,teafromChinese,sputnikfromRussianandmoccasin(atypeofshoe)fromanAmericanIndianlanguage.28Loanshift转移借词：isaprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.Forexample,theItalianpontemeans"bridge"intheliteralsense,whenitreferstoatypeofcardgame,themeaningwasborrowedfromEnglish.29Loanblend混合借词：isaprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandtheresthasbeenborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.Forexample,thefirstpartsofthewordscocnutandChina-townfromSpanishandChineserespectively,butthesecondpartsareoftheEnglishorigin,30Assimilation同化：referstothechangeofasoundbytheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled"contact"or"contiguous"接近assimilation.Theassimilationprocessesasworkcouldbeexplainedbythe“theoryofleasteffort”;thatis,inspeakingwetendtouseaslittleeffortsaspossiblesothatwedonotwanttovarytoooftentheplacesofarticulationinutteringasequenceofsounds.Assimilationtakesplaceinquickspeechveryoften.Forinstance,inexpressionsuchasimmoral,illegal,impolite,thenegativeprefixesim-,il-orir-shouldbein-etymologically.Sometimesassimilationmayoccurbetweentwosoundsthatarenotfarseparated.Forinstance,discussingshortly(/s/becomes/ʃ/)andconfoundit(/ə/becomes/au/).Thisis第20页共20页\ncalled"noncontiguous"or"distantassimilation.”P2131Dissimilation异化：referstotheinfluenceofonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanther,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent,Forexample:marbre(French)--marbleperegrinus(Latin)—pilgrim.32category范畴：Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,andsoon.33gradableantonymy:等级反义关系Gradableantonomyisthesenserelationbetweenantonymswhichdifferintermsofdegree.Thereisanintermediategroundbetweenthetwo.Thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilyassertionoftheother.Forexample,somethingthatisnot"good"isnotnecessarily"bad".Itmaysimplybe"so-so"or"average".34.Converseantonymy逆向反义关系：Converseantonymyisaspecialtypeofantonymythatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.Forexample,XbuyssomethingfromYmeansthesameasYsellssomethingtoX.XistheparentofYmeansthesameasYisthechildofX.Itisthesamerelationshipseenfromtwodifferentangles.35prepositionallogic命题逻辑：Propositionallogic，alsoknownaspropositionalcalculus命题算法orsententialcalculus,isthestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositions;howthetruthofa'composite'propositionisdeterminedbythetruthvalueofitsconstituentpropositionsandtheconnectionsbetweenthem.36.predicatelogic谓词逻辑：Predicatelogic,alsocalledpredicatecalculus,studiestheinternalstructureofsimplepropositions.Inthislogicalsystem,propositionslikeSocratesisamanwillbeanalyzedintotwopares:argumentandpredicate.Anargumentisatermwhichreferstosomeentityaboutwhichastatementisbeingmade.Andapredicateisatermwhichascribessomeproperty,orrelation,totheentity,orentities,referredto.InthepropositionSocratesisaman,therefore,Socratesistheargumentandmanisthepredicate,37logicconnective:逻辑联结词Alogicalconnectiveisalogicalelementwhichhelps第20页共20页\ntoconstructacompositepropositiononthebasisofsimpleproposition(s).thereare5usuallogicalconnectives:thenegativeconnective~,theconjunctive&,thedisjunctiveconnectiveV,theimplicational(orconditional)connective---andtheequivalent(orbiconditional)connective=.38.construaloperations(识解操作)areconceptualizingprocessesusedinlanguageprocessbyhumanbeings.Thatis,construaloperationsaretheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflinguisticexpressions.39Performative施为句：Aperformativeisasentencelike"InamethisshiptheQueenElizabeth",whichdoesnotdescribethingsandcannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteringofaperformativesentenceis,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.Verbslike"name"areknownasperformativeverbs.40.ostensivecommunication明示交际：“ostensivecommunication”，or"inferentialcommunication",isashorthandfor"ostensive-inferentialcommunication".Thatis,communicationisnotsimplyamatterofencodinganddecoding,italsoinvolvesinferenceonthepartofthehearerandostension(makingclearofone'sintentiontoexpresssomething)onthepartofthespeaker.41.structuralsyllabus结构教学大纲influencedbystructuralistlinguistics,thestructuralsyllabusisagrammarorientedsyllabusbasedonaselectionoflanguageitemsandstructures,Thevocabularyandgrammaticalrulesincludedintheteachingmaterialsarecarefullyorderedaccordingtofactorssuchasfrequency,complexityandusefulness,(11.4.3)Thesyllabusinputisselectedandgradedaccordingtogrammaticalnotionsofsimplicityandcomplexity.Thesesyllabusesintroduceoneitematatimeandrequiremasteryofthatitembeforemovingontothenext.42.Corpus语料库acollectionoflinguisticdata,eithercompiledaswrittentextsorasatranscriptionofrecordedspeech.Themainpurposeofacorpusistoverifyahypothesisaboutlanguage,forexample,todeterminehowtheusageofaparticularsound,word,orsyntacticconstructionvaries.Thetwomostimportantfactorsinacorpusarethesizeandtypesoftextsselected.43.pidgin洋泾滨语Pidginisnotanyone'sfirstlanguage.Itisablendingofseverallanguages,developingasacontactlanguageofpeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesandtrytocommunicationwithoneanotheronaregularbasis.44phrasestructuregrammar短语结构语法（12.4.3）Phrasestructuregrammaristhe第20页共20页\nsecondmodelputforwardbyChomsky,whichconsistssolelyofphrase-structure(PS)rulesthatformalizesomeofthetraditionalinsightofconstituentstructureanalysis.Thisgrammarhasgreatergenerativepowersthanafinitestategrammarbecauseitcanprocesssentencesthatcannotbeprocessedbythelater.???45.segmentalanalysis切分分析法：isamethodofsentenceanalysisfordescribingtheconnectivemorphologyofsentence.Segmentalanalysisdescribessentenceintermsofwhicheachelementsofsentenceconnectstoeachother,andthecharacteristicsofthoseconnections.答案尚不确定。46wordparadigm词形变化表：Awordparadigmisalistofalltheformsofaword,especiallyinaninflectedlanguagesuchasLatin,RussianorGreek.Inwordparadigm,thepatternsofinflectionsareusedtosorttheverbs,nouns,andotherpartsofspeechofalanguageintogroupsthataremoreeasilystudied.47areallinguistics区域语言学：aschoolofhistoricalandcomparativelinguisticsthatdeniestheexistenceofphoneticlawswithoutexceptions,questionsthevalueofattemptstotraceindividuallanguagesbacktoacommonancestrallanguage,andchieflyemphasizesthestudyofthetransmissionthroughspaceoflinguisticinnovationswhichisconsideredastakingplacequitereadilyevenbetweenlanguagesthatarenotofcommonorigin—calledalsoneolinguistics.48Allomorph语素变体：Amorpheme,likeaphoneme,isalinguisticabstraction,whichmustberealizedascertainphoneticformsorvariantsindifferentphoneticenvironments.Eachofthephoneticformsorthevariantsisamorph.Asinglemorphememaybephoneticallyrealizedastwoormoremorphs.Thedifferentmorphsthatrepresentorwhicharederivedfromonemorphemeiscalledtheallomorphsofthatmorpheme.Inpractice,somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“bark”ect.Inotherinstancestheremaybeconsiderablevariation,thatistosay,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Forexample,thepluralinEnglishcanberepresentedbythevoiceless/s/,thevoiced/z/,thevowel-consonantstructure/iz/,thediphthong/ai/foundintheirregularformof/mais/,thenasalsound/n/in/ɔksn/,thelongvowel/i:/in/ti:θ/andthezeroform/i:/of/ʃi:p/andothers.Eachwouldbesaidtobeanallomorphofthepluralmorpheme.49Antonymy反义关系：isthenameforoppositenessrelation.Therearethreemainsub-types:gradableantonymy(i.e.shortandlong),complementaryantonymy(i.e.alive--dead),andconverseantonymy(i.e.buy--sell).第20页共20页\n50.componentialanalysis成分分析法（5.4）“Componentialanalysis”definesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.Forexample,wemay“clip”thefollowingword“Man”,“Woman”,“boy”and“Girl”sothatwehaveonlyseparatedpartsofthem.Girl:+Human–Adult–MaleMan:+Human+Adult+Male Woman:+Human+Adult–MaleBoy:+Human–Adult+Male51.fieldofdiscourse话语场:isthelinguisticreflectionofthepurposiveroleofthelanguageuserinthesituationinwhichatextoccurs.Thelanguagepeopleusealwaysreflectstheirdesiretomakesense.Purposiverolesmaybetechnicalornon-technical.Non-technicalrolessuchasestablishingpeoplecontacthaveanumberofpossiblerelated“fields”suchasweather,health,currentnews,etc.,whiletechnicalrolesrelatetospecialfields,likemorphology,sociolinguistics,etc..52suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征：arethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.(2.5)53.Competence语言能力AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Itenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstable.54.placeofarticulation发音部位：Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish/w/hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthatoftongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”.55.cognitivelinguistics认知语言学：isanewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguagethatemergedinthe1970sasareactionagainstthedominantgenerativeparadigmwhichpursuesanautonomousviewoflanguage.Cognitivelinguisticsisbasedonhumanexperienceoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.56.perlocutionaryact言后行为（或以言成事行为）：Theperlocutionaryactconcernstheconsequentialeffectsofalocutionuponthehearer.Bytellingsomebodysomethingthespeakermaychangetheopinionoftheheareronsomethingormisleadhim,orsurprisehim,orinducehimtodosomethingetc..Whetherornottheseeffects第20页共20页\nareintendedbythespeaker,theycanberegardedaspartoftheactthatthespeakerhasperformed.57.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis萨丕尔---沃尔夫假设认：isatheoreticassumptionwhichsuggeststhatourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers'uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Inaloosesense,thistermcanbeinterchangeablyusedwithlinguisticrelativityandlinguisticdeterminism.58.Agreement一致关系：Agreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).Forinstance,thesyntacticrelationshipbetweenthispenanditinthefollowingdialogue:-----Whoseisthispen?-----Oh,it'stheoneIlost.59recursiveness递归性：byrecursiveness,wemeanthatthereistheoreticallynolimittothenumberoftheembeddedclausesinacomplexsentence.Thisistruealsowithnominalandadverbialclause,e.g.“Isawthemanwhokilledacatthathadkilledaratthathadkilledachickenwhich…”60Relevance关联性：relevance(asacomparativenotion):SperberandWilsonhavedefinedthenotionrelevanceinthreeways.Intheirview,relevanceisacomparativeconcept,sotheyalsohaveanextent-conditionsformatasfollows:Extentcondition1:anassumptionisrelevantinacontexttotheextentthatitscontextualeffectsinthiscontextarelarge.Extentcondition2:anassumptionisrelevantinacontexttotheextentthattheeffortrequiredtoprocessitinthiscontextissmall.61conversationalimplicature会话含义：Thisisatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.Inthissense,implicatureiscomparabletoillocutionary语内表现行为forceinspeechacttheoryinthattheyarebothconcernedwiththecontextualsideofmeaning,or言外之意inChinese.62cooperativeprinciple合作原则：ThisistheprinciplesuggestedbyGriceabouttheregularityinconversation,whichreads"Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirection第20页共20页\nofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged".Therearefourcategoriesofmaximsunderit,namely,quantitymaxims,quality,maxims,relationmaxim,andmannermaxims.63.streamofconsciousnesswriting意识流写作:thetermwasoriginallycoinedbythephilosopherWilliamJamesinhisPrincipleofPsychology(1890)todescribethefreeassociationofideasandimpressioninthemind.ItwaslaterappliedtothewritingofWilliamFaulknerJamesJoyce,VirginiaWoolfandothersexperimentingearlyinthe20thcenturywiththenovelisticportrayalofthefreeflowofthought.Thiscognitivemeanderingisallinthemostfreeversionofdirectthought.Itisalsocharacterizedbyahighlyellipticalsentencestructure,withasmanygrammaticalwordsaspossiblebeingremovedconsistentlyallowingthereadertobeabletoinferwhatisgoingon.Thelanguageisnotverycohesive,andbreakstheGriceanmaximsofQualityandManner.Butwemustassumethatapparentlyunreasonablewritingbehaviorisrelatedtoarelevantauthorialpurpose.ItistheassumptionthatJoyceisreallycooperatingwithusatadeeperlevel,eventhoughheisapparentlymarkingourreadingdifficult,thatleadsustoconcludethatheistryingtoevokeamindworkingassociatively.64.Interlanguage中介语:Theinterlanguageisthetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguage.Interlanguageisoftenunderstoodasalanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.Itisimperfectcomparedwiththetargetlanguage,butitisnotmeretranslationfromthelearner’snativelanguage.However,interlanguageshouldnotreallybeseenasabridginglanguagebetweenthetargetlanguageandnativelanguage.Interlanguageisadynamiclanguagesystem,whichisconstantlymovingfromthedepartureleveltothenative-likelevel.Therefore,“inter”actuallymeansbetweenthebeginningstageandthefinalstage.Therearemanyexamplesofinterlanguage,suchasInohaveabook.Ilikereadbooks.65.Exocentric离心结构：Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable"centre"or"Head"insidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.InthesentenceTheboysmiled,neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.第20页共20页\nIIAnalyzethefollowingquestionsinEnglish.1.WhatisTGgrammar?327+338ByaGENERATIVEGRAMMAR,Chomskysimplymeans"asystemofrulesthatinsomeexplicitandwell-definedwayassignsstructuraldescriptionstosentence".“thusagenerativegrammarattemptstospecifywhatthespeakeractuallyknows.”Features:(1)rationalism(2)innateness(3)deductivemethodology(4)emphasisoninterpretation(5)formalization(6)emphasisonlinguisticcompetence(7)stronggenerativepowers(8)emphasisonlinguisticuniversals.Example:TheprocessoftransformingJohnsawMaryintoMarywasseenbyJohncanberepresentedalgebraicallyas:NP1+Aux+V+NP2NP2+Aux+be+en+V+NP1Thus,TGmethodcannotonlydescribethesurfacestructureofasentence,butalsointerprettheinternalgrammaticalrelationshipswithasentence,gettingclosertothetruthoflanguagethanICanalysis.2.WhatisthemainideaofJ.Austin’stheory?(JohnLangshawAustin,speechacttheory)1)Austin,theOxfordphilosopher,wasthefirstpersonputtingforwardthespeechacttheorythatisaboutlanguageusedto“dothings”.Inthebeginningoftheresearch,Austinclassifiedutterancesintotwotypesofsentences:performativesandconstatives.“Performatives”areutterancesthat“dothings”byspeciallexicalmeans(suchas“hereby”,“I”,verbinthepresenttense,“you”beingtheaddressee,etc.)inspecialsituation(suchasonaboat,whenmanypeopleareathand,etc.).Othertypesofutteranceswhichareintendedfornarration,description,etc.,arecalled“constatives”.2)Austinsuggestedthreebasicsensesinwhichoneisdoingsomethingwhensayingsomething,andheisperformingthreeactssimultaneously:locution,illocution,perlocution.3)“Locution”meanstheutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference;“illocution”isthemakingofastatement,offer,promise,etc.,inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit;“perlocution”isthebringingaboutoftheeffectsontheaudiencebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstancesofutterance.3.Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?designfeature：thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguageofanimals.Designfeaturesoflanguage(1)arbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignshearnonatural第20页共20页\nrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Forinstance,wecannotexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/(1)dualityismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructuressuchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.(3)creativitymeanslanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness,(4)displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.4.Whatisthedifferencebetweenmeaning,意义concept,概念connotation,内涵sense,意思implication,含义denotation,外延notation,意念reference,所指/参照implicature意涵andsignification字义/正确意义之间的区别?1)“Meaning”referstotheassociationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealworld.2)”concept”or“notion”istheimpressionofobjectsinpeople’smind.3)“connotation”istheimpliedmeaning,similarto“implication”and“implicature”.4)“sense”isthelexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.5)”denotation”,like“sense”,isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjects,butmakestheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.6)“reference”istheword-objectrelationship.7)“implicature”,initsnarrowsense,referstoconversationalimplicatureachievedbyintentionallyviolatingoneofthefourCPmaxims.8)“signification”,incontrastwith“value”,meansthemeansthemeaningofawordtaughttopupils,whichinanactualcommunicationsituationmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue,like“what’sthis”?5.Whatisregister?语域Asituationalfactorcalledgenericsituation,whichisconcernedwiththeaddresserandtheaddressee’srelationshiptoexperience,toeachotherandtothemediumoftransmission,reflectsthepartofroleplayedbylanguageandalsoselectsthepartwhichcanbeplayedbyotherformsofintentionallycommunicativebehavior.Thissecondgroupoflanguagevarietyiscalled“register”or“distypicvariety”.Thustheselectionofoneregisterratherthananotherindifferentsituationiscloselyrelatedwiththequestionofuse.6.Whatisthefieldofdiscourse话语场,themodeofdiscourse话语方式andthetenorofdiscourse话语意旨?1)The“fieldofdiscourse”isthelinguisticreflectionofthepurposiveroleofthelanguageuserinthesituationinwhichatextoccurs.Thelanguagepeopleusealwaysreflectstheirdesiretomakesense.Purposiverolemaybetechnicalornottechnical.Non-technicalrolessuchasestablishingpersonalcontacthaveanumberofpossible第20页共20页\nrelates“fields”suchasweather,health,current,news,etc.,whiletechnicalrolesrelatetospecialfields,likemorphology,sociolinguistics,etc.2)the“modeofdiscourse”isthelinguisticreflectionoftherelationshipbetweenthelanguageuserandthemediumoftransmission.Languageiseitherspokenorwritten.Spokenlanguagemaybespontaneousorprepared,andwrittenlanguagemaybespokenorjusttoberead.3)the“tenorofdiscourse”isaboutthevariationrelatingto,orresultingfrom,whattheuseristryingtodowithlanguage,suchasteaching,persuading,advertising,instructing,etc.Thegenericsituationofadiscourseisoftendeterminedintermsoftenorofdiscourses.Forexample,anadvertisementisbydefinitionanattempttopersuadethroughlinguisticandvisualmeans,andasermonisdesignedtoexhortandteach.7.Whatislanguageacquisition?Howdoesachildacquirehismothertongue?1)”languageacquisition”referstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.,howhecomestounderstandandtospeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.Itseemsachilddevelopshislanguagewithoutmuchinstruction.2)theABCofthefirstlanguageisacquiredintheshortperiodbetweentheageof1.5andthatof4.thisisusuallydeemedasthecriticalperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition.Thefollowingishowachilddevelopshismothertongue.a)0-6months:aseriesofsounds;calledthebabblingperiod.b)8months:syllables;c)1year:simplecommands;afewwords;d)18months:onsetofspeech;e)2years:two-wordphrases;creation,tobeabletonameallthingsaround;f)2.5years:tounderstandalmosteverythingsaidtohim;g)3years:1,000words;grammaticalcomplexityequalsthatofcolloquialadultspeech;h)4years:tomastertheessentialsofthemothertongue.8.Howdolinguistsassociatelinguisticswithforeignlanguageteaching(FLT)?语言学与外语教学的联系：1）bothlinguisticsandlanguagetakinglanguageastheirsubject.Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,soitisobviouslyrelatedwithlanguageteaching.However,linguisticsandlanguageteachingdifferintheirattitudetowardslanguage,theirgoalsandtheirmethods.2)linguisticsregardslanguageassystemofforms,butthefieldoflanguageteachingconsidersitasasetofskills.Linguisticsresearchisconcernedwiththeestablishmentoftheorieswhichexplainthephenomenaoflanguageuse,whereas,languageteachingaimsatthelearner’smasteryoflanguage.3)appliedlinguisticsservestoreconcileandcombinelinguisticsandlanguageteaching.9.Whatislanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD)?练习册第12章第21题原题第20页共20页\n10.WhatisCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)?关键期假说CPHclaimsthatthetimespanbetweenearlychildhoodandpubertyisthecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition,duringwhichchildrencanacquirelanguagewithoutformalinstructionsuccessfullyandeffortlessly.Iflanguageinputdoesn'toccuruntilafterthistime,theindividualwillneverachieveafullcommandoflanguage—especiallygrammaticalsystems.11.WhatisContrastiveAnalysis?（对比分析）练习册第12章第12题原题12.WhatisthetraditionoftheLondonSchool?练习册第12章第5题原题13.WhatisInputHypothesis?练习册11章第三题原题14.WhatarethespecialfeaturesofAmericanstructuralism?AmericanstructuralismisabranchofsynchroniclinguisticsthatemergedintheUnitedStatesatthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.First,itdescribeseverythingthatisfoundinalanguageinsteadoflayingdownrules.However,itsaimisconfinedtothedescriptionoflanguages,withoutexplainingwhylanguageoperatesthewayitdoes.Secondly,structuralgrammarisempirical,aimingatobjectivityinthesensethatalldefinitionsandstatementsshouldbeverifiedorrefutable.However,ithasproducedalmostnocompletegrammarcomparabletoanycomprehensivetraditionalgrammars.Thirdly,structuralgrammarexclaimsalllanguage,recognizinganddoingjusticetotheuniquenessofeachlanguage.Butitdoesnotgiveanadequatetreatmentofmeaning.Lastly,structuralgrammardescribeseventhesmallercontraststhatunderlieanyconstructionoruseofalanguage,notonlythosediscoverableparticularuse.15.Describethethreecategoriesofconceptualmetaphors.练习册低6章第8题原题16.Whatislinguisticdeterminismandlinguisticrelativity?绝对论，相对论LinguisticdeterminismandlinguisticrelativityaretwopointsinSapir-WolfHypothesis.Theformerclaimsthatlanguagedeterminesthought.Thelaterclaimsthatthereisnolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguage.17.Whatisspeechactandwhatisindirectspeechact?1)Speechactmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedto“dothings”.ThetheorywasfirstproposedbyJ.AustinandJSearle.Typicalutterancesare:“Iherebydeclarewar.”“Ibetyoufivepoundsitwillsnowtomorrow.”Inthesecasestheutteringiftherelevantwordsistheleadingevent,withoutwhichtheactionspecifiedcannotbedone.2)An“indirectspeechact”meansthatsomesentences,intheutteranceandtheseemingperformanceofaspeechact,performacertainillocutionaryactindirectly.For第20页共20页\nexample,“canyoupassmethesaltplease?”isaquestion,butitismoreofarequestthanofaninterrogationaboutthehearer’ssalt-passingability.Theproblemishowitispossibleforthespeakertosayonethingandmeananother,andhowitispossibleforthehearertounderstandtheindirectspeechact.Itisthesharedbackgroundinformationandthegeneralpowerofrationalityandthepowerofinferenceonthepartofthehearerthatcooperationmakesitpossible.Forexample,A:“Let’sgotomovietonight.”B:“Ihavetostudyforanexam.”B’sremark,whichseemstobeastatement,likeanewsannouncement,isactuallyarefusal.Thefirstspeaker(A)hastoinferalot,buteasily:“Imadeaproposal;Iexpectedhimtoacceptordecline,buthedidn’ttellmeinanexplicit,directway;sohisillocutionmustbedifferentfromtheliteralmeaning;Iknowthatthestudyforanexammeansalotoftime;goingtothetheatremeanssometime;sohisprimaryillocutionaryactisprobablyarejectiontomyproposal.”18whatistheSemanticTriangle?OgdenandRichardpresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence.etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thusthesymbolofawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredthesubjectisthemeaningoftheword.conceptornotionSymbol(word)-------------------referent,object19 Whatislanguage?“Language”isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itissystem,sincelinguisticselementsatearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Itsbeingasystemaccountsforitslearnabilityandteachability.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenaword(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguagehavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,“本”inJapanese,“书”inChinese.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconversation.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages,developedor“new”.Writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonly第20页共20页\nlearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimaryvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.20.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?1)humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalscommunicationsystemdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Let’sborrowC.F.Hocket’sChartthatcompareshumanlanguagewithsomeanimals’system,formWangGang.2)linguistshavedonealotoftryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“AmericanSignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidnotmadethelinguisticcirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.3)ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.Wecantakethe“wolfchild”asanexample.21.Whatislingusitics?“linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguage,butheoughttohaveawideexperienceofdifferenttypesoflanguage,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietyorcommunities.22Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance?AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.23inwhatwaydolangue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydo第20页共20页\ntheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?语言，语言能力和语言潜势的共同点，差异，每组二分法的对立面的异同？Language,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconversations;competenceispropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,languageisaninvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancethatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledperole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Parole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.24 Whatistheassimilationrule?同化规则Whatisthedeletionrule?省略规则1)The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthenasal/n/thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant/n/assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-”servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas/in//iŋ]/or/im/whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete/indiskri:t/(alveolar)inconceivable/iŋk-nsi:v-bl/(velar)input/imput/(bilabial)2)the“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographically正确拼法represented.Whentheletter“g”ismute不发音in“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestartedas:deletea/g/whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling.25Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?1)“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.2)Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.26Whatismorphology?形态学“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphology(曲折形态)andlexicalderivationalmorphology（派生形态）.第20页共20页\n27WhatisICAnalysis?Whatareimmediateconstituents(andultimateconstituents)直接成分分析法，直接成分（最终成分）？“ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituteelementswithoutknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents”,andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.Forexample,“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented“John/left//yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(/),andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit(//)thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:“John”,“left”,and“yesterday”.28Whatisendocentric?练习册第四章第5个名词解释29Whatisgovernment?支配关系“Government”requiresthatonewordofaparticularclassinagivensyntacticclassshallexhibittheformofaspecificcategory.InEnglish,governmentappliesonlytopronounamongthevariablewords,thisis,prepositionsandverbsgovernparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtotheirsyntacticrelationwiththem,e.g.“Ihelpedhim;hehelpedme.”30Whatishypotacticrelation?从属关系Whatisparatacticrelation?并列关系Hypotacticrelationandparatacticrelationareappliedtothestudyofsyntacticbetweensentences.“Hypotacticrelation”(subordinateclauses)referstoaconstructionwhereconstituentsarelinkedbymeansofconjunction,e.g.“Welivenearthesea.Soweenjoyahealthyclimate.”“Paratacticrelation”(coordinateclauses)referstoconstructionswhichareconnectedbyjuxtaposition,并排punctuationorintonation,e.g.,“Thedoorwasopen.Hewalkedin.”31Whatissemantics?Whatismeaning?1)Semanticsreferstothestudyofthecommunicationofmeaningthroughlanguage.Orsimply,itisthestudyofmeaning.2)“Meaning”hasthefollowingmeanings:a)anintrinsic内在的property;b)theconnotationofaword;c)thewordsputafteradictionaryentry;d)thepositionanobjectoccupiesinasystem;e)whatthesymboluseractuallyrefersto;f)whatthesymbolusershouldreferto;g)whatthesymboluserbelievesheisreferringto;h)whatthesymbolinterpreterrefersto;i)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievesitrefersto;j)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievestheuserrefersto.Linguistsarguedabout“meaningofmeaning”fiercelyintheresultof“realism”,“conceptualism/mentalism”,“mechanism”,“contextualism”,“behaviorism”,第20页共20页\n“functionalism”,etc.Mentionoughttobemadeofthe“SemanticTriangleTheory”ofOgden&Richards.Weuseawordandthelistenerknowswhatitreferstobecause,accordingtothetheory,theyhaveacquiredthesameconcept/referenceofthewordusedandoftheobject/referent.32hatisthedifferencebetweentraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics?传统语法和现代语言学的根本区别1)“Traditionalgrammar”,asapre-20thcenturylanguagedescriptionandapre-linguisticproductofresearch,wasbaseduponearliergrammarsofLatinorGreek,andlaidemphasisoncorrectness,literaryexcellence,theuseofLatinmodels,andthepriorityofthewrittenlanguage.Prescriptionwasthekeytone.2)“Modernlinguistics”,inspiteoftheoreticaldiversities,isprimarilydescriptive.“Structualistlinguistics”describeslinguisticfeaturesintermsofstructuresandsystems.Itdescribesthecurrentspokenlanguage,whichpeopleuseindailycommunication.Itsfocus,however,isstillongrammaticalstructures.3)transformational-generativegrammar(TGgrammar)seeslanguageasasystemofinnaterules.Anativespeakerpossessesalinguisticcompetence,oralanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD).AlthoughChomskydoesnotintendtomakehismodelarepresentationofperformance,i.e.,thelanguageactuallyusedincommunication,appliedlinguisticfindsTGgrammarusefulincertainaspects.Butbecauseitisaformalandabstractgrammar,itremainslimitedinlanguageteaching.4)Takingasemantic-sociolinguisticapproach,M.A.K.Halliday’ssystemic-functionallinguistics”seelanguageasaninstrumentusedtoperformvariousfunctionsinsocialinteraction.Itconcernsnotonlywiththeformalsystemoflanguagebutalsothefunctionsoflanguageinsociety,anditsscopeiswiderthanthatofformertheories.33.Whatiserroranalysis?Shouldalllanguage-learningmistakesbecorrected?1)AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,“error”错误isagrammaticallyincorrectform,while“mistake”差错istheimproperuseofalanguageformthatlooksgrammaticallywell-formed.“Lapse”偏差referstotheslipsofthetongueorpen.Erroranalysis,asthetermindicates,isthestudyandanalysisoferrorsonthepartofthelanguagelearner.However,“error”,inlinguistics,generallyreferstothelearner’smisuseormisunderstandingofthetargetlanguage,grammaticalorpragmatic.胡壮麟认为：第一类是语法错误，不规范，需要纠正。第二类是正确而不恰当，英美人士在说英语时也会有这类差错，第三类是因为语急等缘由而出现的偶然口误或笔误，不需要纠正。2)Untiltheendof1960thestructuralistviewoferrorwasdominantinthefieldofappliedlinguistics.Errormustbecorrected,accordingtothisschool.The第20页共20页\npost-structuralistlinguistsregarderrorsasevidenceofthelearningprocess.Errormaybemeaningful.Theprocedureoferroranalysisconsistsofthefollowingsteps:recognition,description,andexplanation.34WhatcontributiondidSaussuremaketomodernlinguistics?1)FerdinanddeSaussureis"fatherofmodernlinguistics",themanwhoreorganizedthesystematicstudyoflanguageorlanguagesinsuchawayastomakepossibletheachievementoftwentieth-centurylinguistics.HisideaswerecollectedinCourseinGeneralLinguistics(1916).2)Hearguesthatthelinguisticunitasasign.Thelinguisticunites,notathingandaname,butaconcept“signified”andthesound-image“signifier”.Thelinguisticsignhastwocharacteristics.First,thebondbetweenthesignifierandthesignifiedisarbitrary.Secondly,thelinguisticsignischaracterizedbythelinearnatureofthesignifier.3)Saussuremakesadistinctionbetween“parole”and“langue”.Hearguesthattasksofalinguististostudylangue,sinceitisacoherentandanalyzableobject.Itisthisdistinctionthatleadstothedistinctionofphoneticsandphonology.4)heproposesTheinputHypothesis,oneofthemostfamoustheoriesamongdifferentmodelsoflanguageacquisition.DistinctionbetweendiachronicstudiesandsynchronicstudiesisanothergreatcontributionSaussuremakestogenerallinguistics.35Whataretransformationalrules?“Transformationalrules”arethoseruleswhichrelateortransformthedeepstructureofasentenceintothesurfacestructure.Atransformationalruleconsistsofasequenceofsymbolswhicharereadilytransformableorrewriteable.Oneofthoserules,forexample,convertstheactivevoiceintothepassivevoice.Wehave“yes/noquestiontransformation”,“doinsertiontransformation”,etc.Transformationshouldundergonosemanticalteration.Itcan,however,delete,copy,add,reorder,andsubstitute.第20页共20页