语言学《新编简明英语语言学教程》复习资料 8页

Chapter1Linguistics:thescientificstudyoflanguage.（定义）GeneralLinguistics:Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsPhonology:soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology:theformofwordsSyntax:therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics:themeaningoflanguagePragmatics:themeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageLanguevs.parole(F.deSaussure)语言和言语（定义）Langue:theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.Parole:therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Competenceandperformance(Chomsky)语言能力和语言应用（定义）Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationHowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?（相似点，不同点）SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinkswhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealuser’scompetence,nothisperformanceistoohaphazardtobestudied.Sothetaskofthelinguistsshoulddiscoverandspecifyrules.TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（定义）(语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)Thedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockettin1960)（定义）Arbitrariness(任意性):Nologicalconnectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.（定义）Productivity/Creativity(能产性/创造性):Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.（定义）Duality:Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.（定义）Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)Displacement（定义）CulturaltransmissionChapter2Phonetics（语音学）（定义）Phonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Threebranchesofphonetics:articulatoryphonetics（发音）auditoryphonetics（听觉）acousticphonetics（声学）Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds：BroadtranscriptionandNarrowtranscriptionAstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.\nPhonetics&phonology：（定义，区别）Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage:thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;(itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.)Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone（音素）Phoneme（音位）Allophone（音位变体）:（定义）Phone:aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment（音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,andsomedon’tPhoneme:aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophones:thedifferentphonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素）Suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征):stress（重音）tone声调）intonation（语调）ThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsChapter3Morphology（形态学）（定义）Morphology:ThepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructureMorpheme:theminimalunitofmeaning.（定义）Allomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme（定义，会用，选择）Freemorpheme:isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself.Boundmorpheme:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherform.(Onethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,“al”in“national”.)Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemeDerivationalmorphemes:themorphemeswhichchangethecategoryorgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernizelength---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes:themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)Number:tablesapplescarsb)Person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)Case:John/John’sRoot（词根）Stem（词干）Base（根基）（定义，会用，选择）Root:Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”.Stem:Astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesirable”inundesirables.\nBase:Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.Thedifferencebetweenroot,stem&baseOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional词根/词干+派生+曲折Abasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesiredinundesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;Undesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;Desirableinundesirableisonlyabase.Chapter4Syntax（句法学）（定义）Syntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）PhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresPhrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasnounphrase:NP(N),verbphrase:VP(V),adjectivephrase:AP(A),andprepositional:PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead（中心语）----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier（标志成分）----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement（补足成分）----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrasestructurerules:Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP(Det限定词)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual修饰词)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg程度词)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestationS→NPVP(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase)Doinsertion:InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.Chapter5Semantics（语义学）（定义）Semantics:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（对意义的研究）thenamingtheory命名论→Platotheconceptualistview概念论:Semantictriangle→OgdenandRichardsThought/referenceàconcept思想/指称Symbol/Form(words)符号/形式Referentà(realobject)所指Contextualism语境论→JohnFirthBehaviorism→Bloomfield行为主义论basedoncontextualistview\nS:stimulusr:responseJillJackS---------r………s---------R(Thesmalllettersr,sàspeech)(ThecapitalizedletterR,Sàpracticalevents)Sense（意义）andreference（所指/指称）（定义）Sense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Synonymy同义现象:ThesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningA.dialectalsynonyms方言同义词synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英语）B.stylisticsynonyms文体同义词synonymsdifferinginstyle（问题、正式度不同）C.synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或评价意义不同同义词（褒贬义）D.collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）E.semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）Antonymy反义词:oppositenessSenserelationsbetweensentences1)XissynonymouswithY.X:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.2)XisinconsistentwithY.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.3)XentailsY.X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.4)XpresupposesY.(YisprerequisiteofX.)X:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:HehasabikeIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.5)Xisacontradiction*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.6)Xissemanticallyanomalous*Thetablehasbadintentions.Componentialanalysis:awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Predicationanalysis:awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning.(BritishG.Leech).Predication:theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)（名词部分）andpredicate（谓语部分）.\nChapter6Pragmatics（语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics:thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.Thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.(book)Pragmaticsvs.semanticsSemantics:isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics:thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…Context:abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义Sentencemeaning:Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;Forexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmeanabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;thespeakerisdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp.Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentenceSpeechActTheory（言语行为理论）J.L.Austin(1962)Constatives(述事话语)statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(行事话语)sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.Austin’snewmodelofspeechactsAccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Thelocutionaryact（言内行为）anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);Theillocutionaryact（言外行为）anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact（言后行为）anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”\nItslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer’sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.----Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:----(thetelephonerings)----H:That’thephone.(1)----W:I’minthebathroom.(2)----H:Okay.(3)Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts(1969)Assertives/representatives(阐述类)Directives(指令类)Commissives(承诺类)Expressives(表达类)Declarations(宣布类)Indirectspeechact→SearlePrincipleofconversation(PaulGrice)Cooperativeprinciple(CP)会话原则或合作原则（CP原则）Significance重要性:itexplainshowitispossibleforthespeakertoconveymorethanisliterarysaid.它解释了说话人是如何表达字面意义之外的信息FourmaximsofCPThemaximofquality数量准则（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息）----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.----Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity质量准则（不说假话，不说缺乏足够证据的话）----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.----Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation关系准则（有相关性）----Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner方式准则（避免表达艰涩，避免歧义，简洁，避免冗繁，有条理）----Avoidobscurityofexpression.----Avoidambiguity.----Bebrief.----Beorderly.ConversationalimplicatureInrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.Cross-culturalpragmaticfailurePragmaticfailure:occurswhenthespeakerfailstouselanguageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommunicativepurpose,orwhenthehearerfailstorecognizetheintentionortheillocutionary\nforceofthespeaker’sutteranceinthecontextofcommunication补充：音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explainwithexamples3notionsofphone,phonemeandallophone,howtheyarerelated.⑴Aphoneisaspeechsound,itisaphoneticunit.anysoundwehearinthecourseofcommunicationisaphone,suchas[u:],[l];⑵Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit,it’snotaconcretesoundbutanabstractnotion,it’sacollectionoffeatures.itcanberealizedasdifferentphonesindifferentphoneticcontexts.Suchas,thephoneme[l]canberealizedasaclear[l]oradark[l],dependingonwhereitoccursinasoundcombination.⑶Theactuallyphoneticrealizationofaphonemearecalleditsallophones,allophonesaretheactualphoneswehearinlinguisticcommunication.Chapter9Culture:Inabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.Sapir-WhorfhypothesisSapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople’sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.Strongversion&weakversionStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;Weakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:Thereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.MorethaninWhorf’sdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.Chapter10LanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisition:referstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.CriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)EricLennebergarguesthattheLAD,likeotherbiologicalfunctions,workssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime:aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictor’sandGenie’scases)\nChapter11SecondLanguageAcquisitionSecondLanguageAcquisition:formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.Connectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisition:Thefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackclothforperceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).SLAisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition.Positivetransfer:facilitatetargetlanguagelearningNegativetransfer:interfereorhindertargetlanguagelearningItisbelievedthatdifferencesbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewouldposedifficultiesinsecond/foreignlanguagelearningandteaching,e.g.*Totouchthesociety.*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.Errors&mistakesErrors:unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；Mistakes:eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).Interlanguage(S.PitCorder&LarrySelinker)Interlangauge:learners’independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Whatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.Krashen’sInputHypothesisKrashenmakeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.Heputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivingcomprehensibleinput.Hedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:“i”representslearners’currentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisan“i+1”.Krashenmistookinputandintake,thusreceivecriticism.名词解释：LinguisticLanguagePhonologyPhonePhonemeAllophoneMorphemeDerivationalmorphemeInflectionalmorphemeSyntaxSemanticsSenseandReference