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ChapterSevenLanguage,Culture,andSociety\n1.LanguageandCulture2\nWhatisculture?Broadlyspeaking,itmeansthetotalwayoflifeofpeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguage.Inanarrowsense,itreferstolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms.3\n第一个给文化下明确定义是英国人类学家泰勒,他认为文化是“一个复杂的总体,它包括知识、信仰、艺术、伦理道德、法律、风俗以及作为一个社会成员的个人通过学习获得任何其他能力和习惯。随后,由于学者各自的学术立场和观察角度不同,产生了各种定义。各种定义应当是互补的。综合各家之见解,文化是指人类创造出来的并可以通过学习获得和为后人学习和传递下去的一切物质和非物质产品。4\n文化的特征(1)文化是人类创造出来的;(2)文化是人们后天学习获得的;(3)文化是一个群体或社会全体成员共同享有的;(4)文化是可以代代相传的;(5)文化是多样的,特殊性是文化的本质。同时,不同文化间也具有共性。文化是个性和共性的统一体。5\n文化的要素1.物质要素。一切人造物品是文化的要素,其中尤以生产工具最重要。物质要素即文化的物质部分。2.精神要素。精神要素包括哲学、科学、宗教、道德、艺术以及各种思想观念,其中尤以价值观念最重要。精神要素是文化的核心和灵魂。狭义文化即指精神文化。3.语言和象征符号。文化只有借助语言和象征符号才能创造和表现出来。语言是长期养成的一套发音习惯,它本身就是一种文化。4.规范体系。人们行为办事的各种规矩,也是文化不可缺少的要素。6\nClassificationofculture1.Materialcultural:concrete,substantialandobservable2.Spiritualculture:theproductsofmind(ideologies,beliefs,valuesandconceptsoftimeandspace,forexample),abstract,ambiguous,andhidden7\nCultureVs.NatureNaturereferstowhatisbornandgrows,whileculturereferstowhathasbeengrownandbroughtupwith,inotherwords,whatcanbenurtured.8\nChinesestudent:Mr.White,youaresopale,areyousick?Englishteacher:Well...yes.Ihavegotabadcoldforseveraldays.Chinesestudent:Well,youshouldgotoaclinicandseethedoctorassoonaspossible.Englishteacher:Er...whatdoyoumean?9\n请客吃饭称呼用语接受礼物电话用语面对恭维问候用语考虑问题的主体亲属称谓10\n,ShallIcomparetheetoasummer’sday?/Thouartmorelovelyandmoretemperate,(我能不能拿夏天同你相比?/你啊比夏天来得可爱和煦。)诗人把情人比作夏天,可爱而温煦。在中国人的心目中,“夏日炎炎”、“夏日之可畏”,“夏天”常常与酷暑炎热联系在一起。。“夏天”带给中国人和英国人的联想竟是如此的迥异。原因同样是双方所处的地理位置。中国位于亚洲大陆,属大陆性气候,四季分明,夏天最明显的特征便是骄阳似火,炎热难熬。而英国位于北温带,属海洋性气候,夏天明媚温和,令人惬意。11\nfishintheair缘木求鱼anoddfish怪人misstheboat(错过机会)等。worklikeahorse、asstrongasahorse、flogawillinghorse对努力工作的人进行不必要的督促flogadeadhorse徒劳无益12\n敬语谦词:像称谓一样,英语中的敬语谦词也远远少于汉语。在英语中,不管对方年龄多大,地位多高,you就是you,I就是I,用不着像汉语那样用许多诸如“您、先生、局长、敝人”等敬语谦词。产生这种现象的原因之一还是中国封建社会等级森严的宗法制度。它要求人们跟长辈或上级说话时,有时甚至跟同辈说话时,要用敬语,否则就认为用词不当而失礼,甚至显得高傲:谈及自己时要用谦词,如不使用,也被认为没有礼貌。另一原因,便是中国人几千年来受“出头的椽子先烂”、”枪打出头鸟”等传统思想的影响,不愿突出自己。英语中这类词少的原因有二:一为西方人追求人人平等,二为他们长期以来尊重个人价值,乐于表现自己。13\n有一个欧洲国家的女王前往美国访问,到达芝加哥时,人们以接待君主的隆重的礼仪表示欢迎,一切顺利。访问圆满结束,女王一行即将离开该市,芝加哥市长当然在场,在举行欢送仪式时,市长致颂辞,与会者倾听,市长热情洋溢,为表示友好,他说:Thenexttimeyoucome,bringthekidsalong.14\n1.1TherelationshipbetweenL&CGenerally,therelationofLtoCisthatofparttowhole,forLispartofC.Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinL.15\n1.Languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality.2.Asaproductofculture,languagehelpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.3.CulturaldeterminismVs.linguisticdeterminism16\nAnthropologicalstudyoflinguistics:studyoflanguageinasocioculturalcontext.BronislawMalinowski(1884-1942):Themeaningofawordgreatlydependsuponitsoccurrenceinagivencontext.Languagefunctionsasalinkinhumanactivity,amodeofaction.17\n种红薯是特罗布里安人一项奇怪的嗜好因为他们并不吃红薯因为岛上现成就有无数好吃又解饱的绿色食品奇珍异果。特罗布里安人把红薯堆在院子里炫耀,攀比谁的红薯堆大,然后储藏起来让它们烂掉。值得一提的是,各家并不收藏自己种的红薯。或者说种地的男人并不把自己种的红薯扛回自己的仓库,而是扛到姐夫的仓库。因为特罗布里安人是母系社会。18\n马林诺夫斯基根据他从超卜连群岛得到的资料,以及自身所学的心理学、社会学等知识,提出一套被后人称为“功能论”的理论。他认为,一个社会的所有文化其实只是一组工具,其存在目的在满足人类自身的种种生理和心理需求。而各文化要素之间是环环相扣,且不断变动以保持有效的运作。也因此,我们可以在各文化中找到一套自己的运作原则,而这些原则也和社会中的实质功能保持紧密的关联。19\n而印证功能论最好的例子便是库拉圈(Kularing)。这个存在于新几内亚东边的跨岛群交易圈同时以顺时钟和逆时钟方向进行两种物品的交换,可是这两种物品却不具备实质上的功用,但土着却愿意冒着相当的风险进行这这种无限循环的交换。在多数外人眼中,这种行为看似不可思议,但马林诺夫斯基却认为这种交换过程倚赖于彼此间的信任,而这信任的原动力其实是为了其他民生物资的交换:由于各岛之间物资有限,彼此间依赖度颇深,库拉圈的交易过程得以建立彼此的相互信赖感,使其他顺带的交易成为可能之事。20\n从库拉圈向外推展,所有的文化项目像家庭、巫术等,都是为了满足社会上的个别需求如果腹、嬉戏、信仰等。因为如此,所有文化项目彼此互相整合,也不相互违背,所以整体文化应为平和而稳定。21\nJ.R.Firth(1890-1960):theoryofthecontextofsituation情景语境Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants,persons,personalities.Therelevantobjects.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.“whospeakswhattowhomandwhenandtowhatend”22\n语境有广义和狭义之分。广义语境由交际的时间、地点、场合、对象、内容等客观因素和使用语言者的身份、思想、性格、教养等主观因素构成;狭义语境指进行口笔语交际时前后语言所构成的具体语言环境。例如下面句子都可以用来询问时间:①Excuseme,couldyoutellmetherighttime,please?②Whattimeisit,please?③What'sthetime?④How'stheenemy?23\n但它们用于不同的语境中。例①较正式,可用于对陌生人讲,但不可能用于关系很密切的同事、家庭成员(如夫妻)之间。例②也较正规,可用于对陌生人或一般熟悉的人。例③一般用于熟悉的人之间。例④是很不正式的说法,可用于一起生活的同伴之间,却不可能用于关系较正式的上下级之间。24\nSapir-WhorfHypothesisEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.25\nEnglish:horseshoeFrench:feracheval——ironforhorseGerman:hufeisen——hoofironTheEskimoshavecountlesswordsforsnow.TheArabs,forcamels.26\nLinguisticevidenceofculturaldifferencesTermsofaddressGreetingsThanksandcomplimentsPrivacyandtaboosColorwords27\n1.2Culture-loadedwords烫手的山芋vs.hotpotato雨后春笋vs.springlikemushroom大鱼大肉、鱼肉百姓、酒肉朋友meatandpotatoes,meatanddrinktosomeone28\nkillthegoosethatlaysthegoldeneggs”vs.“杀鸡取卵”Coldwordsvs.冷言冷语Constantdroppingwearsthestone.滴水穿石Diamondcutdiamond.棋逢对手Killamanwhenheisdown.落井下石29\n1.3CulturaloverlapanddiffusionThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomespartofcultureB.LoanwordsinChineseandEnglish.肥皂剧、卡通、布丁、苹果派、雀巢、巴士、排挡、耐克、因特网、KTV、EMAILTyphoon,gongfu,etc.30\nNetspeak网络语言顶(支持)555(呜呜呜)ding(顶)mm/MM(妹妹)LZ(楼主)DD/dd(弟弟)88(拜拜)偶(我)马甲(ID)ID斑竹(版主)恩(嗯)汗或寒(敬畏)晕(非常惊异)ps/PS(photoshop的简称)灌水(发帖子)ddd(顶顶顶)bs/BS(鄙视)楼猪(楼主)滴(的、地)31\n2009年度中国主流媒体十大流行语综合类:新中国成立60周年、落实科学发展观、甲流、奥巴马、气候变化、全运会、G20峰会、灾后恢复重建、打黑、新医改方案国际时政类:卢武铉、洪都拉斯、他信、伊朗大选、索马里海盗、护航编队、朝鲜核试验、阿富汗增兵、诺贝尔和平奖、《里斯本条约》生效32\n经济类:创业板、保增长、反对贸易保护主义、地王、消费券、IPO重启、克莱斯勒、迪拜世界、“中国制造”、3G牌照发放科技类:钱学森、日全食、美俄卫星相撞、天河一号、港珠澳大桥、电纸书、波音787、武广高铁、“光纤之父”、Windows733\n国内时政类:上海世博会倒计时、“7.5”事件、王彦生、海上阅兵、“小金库”治理、舍己救人大学生英雄集体、流失海外文物、社会法庭、防灾减灾日、西藏百万农奴解放纪念日文教体育类:双星陨落(季羡林、任继愈)、罗京、有偿家教、奥数、微博、择校、中学校长实名推荐制、作弊器、献礼片、《通用规范汉字表》34\n社会生活类:被XX(被就业、被增长等)、楼AA(楼脆脆、楼歪歪等)、X(房、水、电、油、天然气等)价上涨、蜗居、家电下乡、绩效工资、食品安全法、后悔权、整治互联网低俗之风、全民健身日35\n社会问题类:假币、飙车、躲猫猫、鹤岗矿难、酒后驾车、钓鱼执法、血铅超标、尘肺、罗彩霞事件、手机黄毒体育娱乐类:迪士尼、迈克尔·杰克逊、刘翔复出、小沈阳、酒井法子涉毒、《建国大业》、周立波、赌球、亚洲之路、明星代言36\n环保专题类:哥本哈根气候变化大会、新能源、低碳、节能减排、地球一小时、“无车日”、《京都议定书》、全球行动日、“双轨制”、碳关税37\n2007年中国主流报纸十大流行语综合类:十七大、嫦娥一号、民生、香港回归十周年、CPI(居民消费价格指数)上涨、廉租房、奥运火炬手、基民、中日关系、全球气候变化国际时政类:韩国人质、库尔德工人党武装、红色清真寺、和平使命、萨科齐、核设施去功能化、贝·布托、慰安妇问题、反导、达尔富尔38\n2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语综合类:和谐社会、社会主义新农村、青藏铁路、自主创新、社会主义荣辱观(八荣八耻)、中非合作论坛、长征精神、消费税、非物质文化遗产、倒扁文化类:文博会、文化创意产业、孔子、原生态、百家讲坛、于丹、潜规则、易中天、草根文化、恶搞39\n2005年中国主流报纸十大流行语综合类:保持共产党员先进性教育、“十一五”规划、神舟六号(神六)、节约型社会、和平发展、一篮子货币、油价上涨、同一个世界同一个梦想、连宋大陆行、取消农业税。40\n2004年中国主流报纸十大流行语综合类:执政能力、雅典奥运、刘翔、审计风暴、零关税、科学发展观、失地农民补助、反分裂国家法、中法文化年、海啸。41\n“linguisticdeterminism”and“linguisticrelativity”havealternativelybeenusedtoreferto___.Across-culturalcommunicationBSapir-WhorfHypothesisanthropologicallinguisticsethnographyofcommunication42\n2LanguageandSocietyLanguageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed,butratheritissometimesusedtofulfillanimportantsocialfunction–tomaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.43\nUsersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Whateachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyone’ssocialbackground.Whenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourbackground.44\nThesocialenvironmentcanalsobereflectedinlanguage,andcanoftenhaveaneffectonthestructureandthevocabulary.Forexample,asociety'skinshipsystemisgenerallyreflectedinitskinshipvocabulary.45\n46\n47\n2.1SociolinguisticsThesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenLandsociety,betweentheusesofLandthethesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersofLlive.Micro-studiesMacro-studies48\nMicro-studies:Tolookatsocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit,oraworm’s-eyeviewofLinuse.Macro-studies:TolookatsocietyasawholeandconsiderhowLfunctionsinitandhowitreflectsthesocialdifferentiations,abird’seyeviewofthelanguageusedinsociety.49\nVariationistperspective:变异视角Peoplewhoclaimtobeusersofthesamelanguagedonotspeakthelanguageinthesamemanner.Varieties(变体)relatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters(语域).Inlinguistics,aregisterisavarietyofalanguageusedforaparticularpurposeorinaparticularsocialsetting.50\nTHESONGOFWANDERINGAENGUSbyW.B.YeatsIwentouttothehazelwood,Becauseafirewasinmyhead,Andcutandpeeledahazelwand,Andhookedaberrytoathread;Andwhenwhitemothswereonthewing,Andmoth-likestarswereflickeringout,IdroppedtheberryinastreamAndcaughtalittlesilvertrout.WhenIhadlaiditonthefloorIwenttoblowthefireaflame,Butsomethingrustledonthefloor,Andsomeonecalledmebymyname:IthadbecomeaglimmeringgirlWithappleblossominherhairWhocalledmebymynameandranAndfadedthroughthebrighteningair.ThoughIamoldwithwanderingThroughhollowlandsandhillylands,Iwillfindoutwhereshehasgone,Andkissherlipsandtakeherhands;Andwalkamonglongdappledgrass,AndplucktilltimeandtimesaredoneThesilverapplesofthemoon,Thegoldenapplesofthesun.51\nNolongermournformewhenIamdeadThenyoushallhearthesurlysullenbellGivewarningtotheworldthatIamfledFromthisvileworld,withvilestwormstodwell:Nay,ifyoureadthisline,remembernotThehandthatwritit;forIloveyousoThatIinyoursweetthoughtswouldbeforgotIfthinkingonmethenshouldmakeyouwoe.O,if,Isay,youlookuponthisverseWhenIperhapscompoundedamwithclay,Donotsomuchasmypoornamerehearse.Butletyourloveevenwithmylifedecay,LestthewiseworldshouldlookintoyourmoanAndmockyouwithmeafterIamgone52\n1.Regionaldialectsarelinguisticvarietiesusedbypeoplelivingindifferentregions.Regionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,rivers,orswamps.EnglishScottishItneedswashingItneedswashed53\ne.g.regionalvarietiesofEnglish:Br.E:BritishE.,IrishE.,NewZealandE.,AustralianE.,SouthAfricanE.Am.E:Am.E.,CanadianE.(localdialectforpeoplelivinginLiverpool)but/but/Areyougoingtowork/we/nextMonday/mundi/?54\ne.g.regionalvarietiesofChinese:Shanghaidialect,Sichuandialect,Cantonese55\n2.Social-classdialect,orsociolect社会方言,referstothelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.Socialdialecthastodowithseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.BlackEnglishinAmerica56\nUpperclass:America,cake,helping,ice,lavatory,lookingglass,pudding,relatives,rich,Royalties,scent,scurf,sick,sofa,writingpaper,spectaclesLowerclass:theStates,pastry,portion,ice-cream,toilet,mirror,dessert,relations,wealthy,Royals,perfume,dandruff,ill,settee,notepaper,glasses57\nSpeakerASpeakerBIdidityesterday.Idoneityesterday.Hehasn’tgotit.Heain’tgotit.Itwasshethatsaidit.Itwasherwhatsaidit.WhenwelookatthelanguageusedbytwospeakersAandB,wecanestimateroughlytheirrelativesocialstatus.58\nInBritain,accent=markerofstatusRP:anon-localizedformofpronunciation,referstotheparticularwayofpronouncingstandardEnglish,anindicatorofapublicschooleducationandthusahighsocialstatusonthepartofthespeaker.EE:EstuaryEnglish,commonlyusedbyeducatedpeopleintheregionaroundLondon.LessrigidthanRPbutmorestandardthanCockney.Cockney:lowerclassdialectofEastLondon,considerednon-standardbyeducatedpeople.59\n3.idiolect个人方言Apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,genderandagevariations.4.ethnicdialect种族方言Avarietyoflanguagethatismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencesomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregatione.g.BlackEnglishe.g.Zhuang,Zang,Yao,Miao,LidialectsinChinese60\n5.Standarddialect:Sociallyprestigiousdialect.Bythegovernment,massmedia,schools.Anymembercanpossiblyuse.Basedonaselectedvariety.Notacquirednaturally,superimposed.普通话的定义:以北京语音为标准音,以北方话为基础方言,以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的现代汉民族共同语。61\ne.g.Londondialect---standarddialectofEnglishMandarin---standarddialectofChineseItwasoriginallythelocaldialectofanareawhichisconsideredthenation’spoliticalandcommercialcenter.62\nLanguageandGender63\n男女对婚姻家庭的观念与行为差异摘引自《男人来自火星,女人来自金星》JohnGrey2001男人女人爱情态度话语方式心理需求认知世界交往策略对异性的渴望观念64\n两性语言行为特征和沟通障碍男人(火星)女人(金星)说大事、时事说琐事、身边事、具体事回家不说公事回家倾诉、议论单位事遇到烦恼闷着、兜着遇到烦恼倾吐、舒缓说话直接说话间接烦女人唠叨烦男人沉默65\n男人与女人的认知结构差异男人女人独立思考依附,参考/跟随别人纵向,居高临下作决定横向,平行排他,考虑问题不含亲人因素内括,家庭整体关注信息因关系而异竞争(政治、体育、商贸)合群,小团体解决问题摆出问题(求同情理解)专家自居无知求教讲授聆听66\n容易引起误解的抱怨与反应:解码判断失误女人的说法男人的反应我们从来没有出去过不对,上个星期我们才出去过我累得什么事也做不了又不是没人帮你我在单位干得很不开心那就辞职算了你不再爱我了不爱你怎会跟你还在一起我要浪漫你说我不浪漫吗(----JohnGray,1992:62-)67\n女:你没听我在说什么!男:我不是在听着吗?(HearorListen?)美国白领笑话选Awomanhasthelastwordinanyargument.Anythingamansaysafterthatisthebeginningofanewargument.Therearetwotimeswhenamandoesn’tunderstandawoman—beforemarriageandaftermarriage.68\nAmansays,mywifeandIhaveanagreement.Imakeallthebigdecisions,butshegetstomakethelittleones.IdecidewhattheUnitedNationsshoulddo,howtosolvetheworldenergycrisis,andwhowillwinthenextWorldCup;shedecideswhereweshouldlive,whatweshouldeat,howtoeducatethekids,andwhenwe’llretire.smartman+smartwoman=?Smartman+dumbwoman=?Dumbman+smartwoman=?Dumbman+dumbwoman=?69\n美国人Smartman+smartwoman=romanceSmartman+dumbwoman=pregnancyDumbman+smartwoman=affairDumbman+dumbwoman=marriage中国人精男精女难相处,离婚精男蠢女和睦相处,传统婚姻蠢男精女妻管严蠢男蠢女婚姻持久70\n言外之意:“男人嘛”,“男人啊”,“你还是个男人吗?!”“女人嘛”,“女人啊”,“你还像个女人吗?!”“她是个女强人”“女孩子家怎么这样说话呢?不懂规矩!”“你这样做像个男孩子吗?不怕人笑话吗?”“当心没男人要你!/看你嫁不出去怎么办?”一则漫画:男人出差回家,妻子说:“回来啦?一路还好吧?”女人出差回家,丈夫说:“你还知道回家?!”71\n语言中的性别歧视和隐含意义(汉语)“女人”一词的搭配意义/刻板印象/传统形象“女”字旁的词作贬义词的词素:祸害类:奸、娼、妓、婊、嫖、姘、婬、妖、婪、妄卑贱类:奴、妃、婢;弱点类:嫉、妒、嫌。引诱类:娇、妩、媚、姿、娆、耍72\n选词造句:Ta是个经理/律师/教授/工程师。(“他”还是“她”?为什么?)Ta喜欢妒忌。(“他”还是“她”?为什么?)他很(怎么样:褒扬词/贬损词)?她很(怎么样:褒扬词/贬损词)?Heisa(job)Sheisa(job)比喻:男人是红花,女人是绿叶。男人是太阳,女人是月亮。戏说:世界上最快的传播手段是电视、电话、网络,还有告诉女人。73\n语言中的性别歧视和隐含意义English:“he,his”:用男性代词指代人类e.g.Hewholaughslaughsbest.human,mankind,history,person,“man”:用“男人”一词作职业或职位指代,独揽专利e.g.manpower,chairman,fireman,freshman,policeman,“Allmenarecreatedequal”(TheDeclarationofIndependence)“-ess”:用后缀依附于男性词e.g.god-goddess,prince-princess,host-hostess,actor-actress,waiter-waitress74\n用食品或动物词比喻女性e.g.chick(小鸡-少女),kitten(小猫-女生),tomato(西红柿-女孩),sugar(糖-宝贝)秀色可餐,可爱,养眼搭配词语男在前女在后e.g.manandwoman,boysandgirls,husbandandwife,AdamandEve,Hostandhostess,75\n*languageandsexualdiscrimination:male(unmarked)female(marked)princeprincessactoractressstewardstewardessheroheroinepoetpoetessheirheiresshosthostesscountcountess76\n*moreexamplesforsexualdiscriminationinlanguage:chairmanchairpersonspokesmanspokespersonpolicemanpolice(publicsafetyofficer)congressmansalesmanmilkmanpostmanpostalworkerfiremanfire-fighterfreshmanfreshpersonmanmadesynthetic77\nLanguageandGenderComparedwithmen,womentendtousesuchadverbs:horridly,abominably,immensely,excessively,amazingly,so,most,etc.Theoveruseofthesewordsimplythattheusersaresentimental,shallowandnotobjectiveenough.78\nAnexamplefromPrideandPrejudice:Oh!MydearMr.Bennet,wehavehadamostexcellentball.…Janewassoadmired.Everybodysaidhowwellshelooked.Mr.Bingleythoughtherquitebeautiful,…Iwassovexedtoseehimstandupwithher.…Iamquitedelightedwithhim.Heissoexcessivelyhandsome!79\nWife:Youalwaysleaveyourpapersaboutdear!Husband:Really?Didn’tIputtheminplaceyesterday?Inasense,theoveruseofthewordsofabsolutenessorextremitymaycausechangesinthemeaningofawordatleastintheeyeofaman.80\nFemale:sogood,suchfun,exquisite,lovely,divine,precious,adorable,darling,fantastic.Neutral:great,terrific,cool,neatWomenhavetheirownvocabularyforemphasizingcertaineffects:81\nAsidefromspecificlexicalitems,therearedifferencesbetweenthespeechofwomenandthatofmenintheuseofparticlesthatgrammariansoftendescribeas“meaningless”.Male:Shit,damn,darnit,thehellFemale:Ohdear,dearme,goodnessme,mygoodness82\nWomenusemoretagquestions.Womenusemorestatementquestionswitharisingintonationattheend.Women’slinguisticbehaviorislessdirectandmorepolite.Womenuselesspowerfulcursewords.Womenpreferusinghedge(e.g.sortof,Iguess)andintensifiers(e.g.so,very,really,absolutely);Womenusemore“fancy”colortermssuchasmauve(palepurple)andbeige(palebrown);83\nlanguageandagejargon:doctor’slanguagelawyer’slanguagecomputationallanguage84\n2.2SociolinguisticstudyofsocietyToknowmoreaboutagivensocietybyexaminingthelinguisticbehaviorofitsmembers.Monolingualism/Bilingualism&MultilingualismPidgin洋泾滨语/Creole克里奥耳语/Diglossia双重语体Code-switching85\nMonolingual:Speakersofasinglelanguagecontroldifferentvarietiesofthatlanguage.Bilingual:Peopledevelopsomeabilityinasecondlanguage.86\ntoidentifyeachofthelanguages.thewayeachlanguagewasacquired.“XisanativespeakerofCantoneseandlearnedEnglishinschool.”masteryofskills:reading,writing,speaking.functionordomain:foreachofthedomains,abilingualtendstopreferacertainlanguage.87\nMonolingualspeechcommunitiesarerare;monolingualcountriesareevenrarer.Bilingualism——thetwolanguagesareincontact.Thiscontactmayleadtointerference.Pidgin洋泾滨语,Creole克里奥耳语,diglossia双重语体(在不同场合使用两种语言或一种语言的两种变体)88\nPidgin:notanativelanguageofanyone.learnedinformallyincontact.usedesp.astradelanguage.involvesthemixtureoftwoormorelanguages.Eg.NigerianPidginEnglish;VietnamesePidginFrench;NewGuineaPidginGerman,etc.89\n上海话中的洋泾浜英语“蹩脚”(BILGE,船底污水,引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的)“大兴”(DASHY,浮华的,华而不实的,引申为假的、冒牌的、劣质的)“肮三”(ONSALE,二手货贱卖,引申为垃圾货、形容人的品质低劣)“瘪三”(BEGSIR,乞丐先生,用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人,后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。“赤佬”是英语“CHEAT”(欺骗)和中文“佬”的混生词语,一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语(隐语)。90\n“来是康姆(come)去是谷(go),廿四块洋钿吞的福(twenty-four),是叫也司(yes)勿叫拿(no),如此如此沙咸鱼沙(soandso),真崭实货佛立谷(fullygood),靴叫蒲脱(boot)鞋叫靴(shoe),洋行买办江摆渡(comprador),小火轮叫司汀巴(steamer),翘梯翘梯(tea)请吃茶,雪堂雪堂(sitdown)请侬坐(说明旧上海话“雪”读尖音),烘山芋叫扑铁秃(potato)91\nFrompidgintocreolesAsaresultofintermarriage,thepidginisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue.Pidginisnotjustacontactlanguagewithlimitedsocialfunctions,butcandealwithmore.Eg.HaitianCreole,HawaiianCreoleEnglish92\nDiglossia:Twodistinctvarietiesofthesamelanguageareused,sidebyside,fortwodifferentsetsoffunctions.Switzerland:HighGermanasthestandard(public,official)SwissGermanasthevernacular(informal,daily)93\nCode-Switching语码转换:Bilingualsoftenswitchbetweentheirtwolanguagesinthemiddleofaconversation.Metaphoricalswitching:thepurposeofcommunicationSituationalswitching:role-relationshipMixedcode:wordsfromnewlanguagesareusedinoldlanguages,e.g.NewZealandEnglish94\n“Hi,你好呀!This morning,我们对你的case进行了discuss,我们发现,这对我们没什么benefit。所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你:与这件事相关的所有Project都将被cancel掉。”“事实证明,Download已经不吃香了,Portal也正在逐渐没落。ISP与ICP都没有什么很Power的招数了。MyGod,我们的前途究竟在哪里?Pageview、Impression,我们真正缺乏的是如何让访问者Onceagain的内容与形式。”95\n“我是beast……那你呢……”“我比你少一个A,……所以我是best。”辛楣吃晚饭回来,……问鸿渐道:“你在英国到过牛津、剑桥没有?他们的tutorialsystem是怎么一回事?”这种同情比笑骂还难受,鸿渐咬牙来个中西合璧的咒骂:“ToHell滚你妈的蛋!”96\n歌曲:快乐崇拜什么年代吹着什么样的风我拿我的麦克风唱出oldschoolshowyallreadytoroll70的年代复古我最highdiscofever从来不肯saygoodbye97