英语语言学-讲座 91页

语言学讲座Ⅰ.IntroductionⅡ.LanguageFamilyⅢ.OriginofLanguageⅣ.DefinitionsoflanguageⅤ.DefinitionoflinguisticsⅥ.ScopeoflinguisticsⅦ.SyntaxⅧ.Pragmatics\nⅠ.Introduction语言丰富的人要么比一般人更聪明，要么比一般人更疯狂。  霍布斯（美）《利维坦》口者，心之门户，智谋皆从之出。  鬼谷子（战国）《鬼谷子》语言的混乱实质上就是思想的混乱。  马铁丁《马铁丁杂文选·谈文风》\n对人类而言，语言是治疗苦恼的医师……米兰德（古希腊）《著作残篇》言语是人类所使用的最有效果的药方。  吉普林（英）《演说》\n言语之力，大到可以从坟墓唤醒死人，可以把生者活埋，把侏儒变成巨无霸，把巨无霸彻底打垮。  海涅（德）《法国的现状》语言是工具、武器，人们利用它来互相交际，交流思想，达到互相了解。  斯大林（苏）《马克思主义与语言学问题》\nThepenismightierthanswords.三寸之舌,强于百万雄兵;一人之辩,重于九鼎之宝。———《战国策·东周》\n"语言仿佛是民族精神的外在表现；民族的语言即民族的精神，民族的精神即民族的语言"每一种语言都包含着一种独特的世界观。冯·洪堡特\n语言是存在之居所。海德格尔人之所以为人者，言也。人而不能言，何以为人。  穀梁赤（战国·鲁）《春秋穀梁传·僖公二十二年》\n言是人的本质所在,人之成其为人,就因为他有语言“赫尔德语言，人类最后的家园。钱冠连\nⅡ.ClassificationofLanguages\n1.Typologicalclassification⑴孤立语Isolating(Analyticlanguage)–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnamese.\n⑵曲折语Inflectional(Synthetic)language–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGerman.\n⑶黏着语Agglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkish.\n2.LanguageFamily19世纪，欧洲的比较学派研究了世界上近一百种语言，发现有些语言的某些语音、词汇、语法规则之间有对应关系，有些相似之处，他们便把这些语文归为一类，称为同族语言；由于有的族与族之间又有些对应关系，又归在一起，称为同系语言，这就是所谓语言间的谱系关系。现在，世界上主要的语系有七大类。LanguageFamily：语系LanguageGroup：语族LanguageSub-Group：亚语族（次语族）LanguageBranch：语支Nw- Language：语言（语种）Dialect：方言Sub-Dialect：土语（亚方言、次方言）\n⑴.汉藏语系Sino-Tibetanlanguagefamily下分汉语和藏缅、壮侗、苗瑶等语族，包括汉语、藏语、缅甸语、克伦语、壮语、苗语、瑶语等。\n⑵.印欧语系是最大的语系。Indo-European下分印度、伊朗、日耳曼、拉丁、斯拉夫、波罗的海等语族。印度语族包括梵语、印地语、巴利语等。伊朗语族包括波斯语、阿富汗语等。日耳曼语族包括英语、德语、荷兰语、斯堪的纳维亚半岛各主要语言。拉丁语族包括法语、意大利语、西班牙语、葡萄牙语和罗马尼亚语。斯拉夫语族有俄语、保加利亚语、波兰语。波罗的海语族包括拉脱维亚语和立陶宛语。\n⑶.阿尔泰语系AltaicFamily下分西阿尔泰语族、东阿尔泰语族。前者包括突阙诸语言以及前苏联境内的楚瓦什语，后者包括蒙古语以及前苏联境内的埃文基语。\n⑷.闪含语系又称亚非语系。Semitic-HamiticFamilyorAfro-Asiaticlanguages下分闪语族和含语族。前者包括希伯来语、阿拉伯语等，后者包括古埃及语、豪萨语等。\n⑸.乌拉尔语系UralicLanguageFamily下分芬兰语族和乌戈尔语族。前者包括芬兰语、爱沙尼亚语等，后者包括匈牙利语、曼西语等。\n⑹.高加索语系Caucasianlanguage这一语系的语言分布在高加索一带，主要的语言有格鲁吉亚语、车臣语等。\n⑺.达罗毗荼语系Dravidianlanguages印度南部的语言都属于这一语系，包括比哈尔语、泰卢固语、泰米尔语、马拉亚兰语等。\n此外还有一些语系，如非洲的尼日尔—刚果语系、沙里—尼罗语系、科依散语系，美洲的爱斯基摩—阿留申语系以及一些印第安语系，大洋洲的马来—波利尼西亚语系和密克罗尼西亚语系。需要指出的是，世界上有些语言，从谱系上看，不属于任何语系，如日语、朝鲜语等，就是独立的语言。\n还有一些语言至今系属不明，如分布于西班牙北部和法国西南部与西班牙接壤地区的巴斯克语、古代两河流域使用的苏美尔语等。那么，这些不同的语言和语系是怎样起源的呢？说同一语系语言的居民共同体又是怎样形成的呢？不同语系及其居民之间是否在远古彼此就有联系呢？全世界数十亿人所说的成千上万种语言是否有一个共同起源呢？这些问题在过去是无法准确回答的，也曾被视为科学的"禁区"。但是近20多年来，随着分子生物学、人类群体遗传学和考古学、语言学的进展，我们终于看到了解开这些"世纪之谜"的希望的曙光。这是各门科学相互渗透，新的研究方法和研究手段不断进步的结果。\nⅢ.OriginofLanguageHowdidlanguagecomeintobeing?\n1.TheDivine-OriginTheory\nAdam’snamingAndoutofthegroundtheLORDGodformedeverybeastofthefield,andeveryfowloftheair;andbroughtthemuntoAdamtoseewhathewouldcallthem:andwhatsoeverAdamcalledeverylivingcreature,thatwasthenamethereof.耶和华神用土所造成的野地各样走兽和空中各样飞鸟都带到那人面前，看他叫什么。那人怎样叫各样的活物，那就是它的名字。\nAdam’snamingAndAdamgavenamestoallcattle,andtothefowloftheair,andtoeverybeastofthefield;butforAdamtherewasnotfoundanhelpmeetforhim.那人便给一切牲畜和空中飞鸟，野地走兽都起了名。只是那人没有遇见配偶帮助他。\n2.TheInventionTheory\n⑴.TheBow-wowtheory（咆哮说/拟声说）\n⑵.ThePooh-poohtheory（啵啵说/感叹说）\n⑶.The“Yo-he-ho”theory（吆嘿嗬说/喘息说）\n⑷.TheDing-dongtheory（丁咚说/声象说）\n3TheEvolutionaryTheory\nThereiscertainrelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentoflanguageandtheevolutionarydevelopmentofthehumanspecies.1.Childrenarebornwithboththoughtandlanguage.2.Thedevelopmentofthephysicalapparatusforspeech.3.Itislaborthatcreatedthenecessityforlanguage.\n\nDefinitionsoflanguage1.Generallyaccepteddefinition:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.\nThenatureoflanguage⑴Arbitrariness:Generallythereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Exceptionsareonomatopoeicwordscompoundwords.Thisnaturemakeslanguagehaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.\n⑵Productivityorcreativity:Muchofwhatwesayandhearwearesayingorhearingforthefirsttime.Thismakeshumanlanguagetotallydifferentfromanyanimallanguage.\n⑶Duality:Ordouble-structured.Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Lowerlevel:soundswhicharemeaningless.Higherlevel:unitsofmeaningbygroupingorregroupingsounds.Unitsofmeaningcanbearrangedintoinfinitenumberofsentences.\n⑷Displacement:Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.\n⑸Culturaltransmission:Languageisculturallytransmitted.Alanguageistaughtandlearnedwithinaparticularculturalbackground.\nⅤ.DefinitionoflinguisticsDefinitionsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.(Dai&He,p.1)Linguistics,asthenamesuggests,isthescienceoflanguageandthusisusuallydefinedasthesystematicstudyoflanguageor,adisciplinethatdescribesallaspectsoflanguageandformulatetheoriesastohowlanguageworks.(Yang,2005,p.27)\nGenerallinguisticsvs.descriptivelinguistics(termedbyJohnLyon,inWen,p.1)Generallinguisticsprovidesdescriptivelinguisticswithageneralframeworkinwhichaparticularlanguagecanbeanalyzedanddescribed.Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguisticsarecomplementarytoeachother.Englishlinguisticsisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.\nⅥ.Scopeoflinguistics\n1.MicrolinguisticsPhonetics:thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticscommunicationPhonology:howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunicationMorphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichthelinguisticssymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordsSyntax:thestudyoftherulesgoverninghowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesSemantics:thestudyofmeaningPragmatics:thestudyoflanguageuse\nMacrolinguisticsSociolinguistics:thestudyofdifferentsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyPsycholinguistics:relatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychologyAppliedlinguistics:applicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguagesNeurolinguistics:thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage\n总而言之，没有语言就没有思想；而有了语言，不仅思维的进行有了倚靠，而且也促使思维出现规律并且反转过来可以按照规律去思维了。  冯定《平凡的真理》语言是说出来的思想，文字是写出来的思想，而思想只是尚未说出来或者尚未写出来的语文罢了。  冯定《平凡的真理》\nPicture\nⅦ.Syntax\nWhatissyntax?----abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.\nTransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)Norm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:(1957)SyntacticStructure;(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry……\nCriteriaongoodgrammarObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacyTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.\nChomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.TherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).\nCategoriesCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)\nWord-levelcategoriesMajorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.\nThecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredeterminedMeaningInflectionDistributionNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.\nPhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresPhrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads\nPhrasestructurerulesThegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.\nSpecifierXComplementHeadXPTheXPruleNote:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.\nX’TheoryXP(Specifier)X’X’X(complement)X(head)complementspecifierXP(Phraselevel)X’\nCoordinationruleCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.----Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.\nPhraseelementsSpecifierHeadcomplement\nSpecifiers----Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.\nComplements----Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationabutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.\nModifiers----Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.\nSentences(theSrule)SNPVPSNPVPNPDetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence\nSNPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection(dubbed‘Infl’)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(theSrule)\nInflrealizedbyatenselabelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidence\nInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidence\nTransformationsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionDeepstructure&surfacestructureWh-movementMoveαandconstraintsontransformations\nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.Inversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.CCPSDetNInflVthetrainwillarriveNP\nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)CPSCNPInflDetNInflVWillthetrainearrive\nDoinsertionDoinsertion----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.CPCSNPInflVPBirdsflyCPCPCCSSInflNPInflVPNPInflVPBirdsdoflyDobirdseflyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3\nDeepstructure&surfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.\nDeepstructure&surfacestructureConsideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.\nDeepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.Deepstructure&surfacestructure\nTheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements\nWh-movementConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.\nWh-movementWh-movement----Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguagecanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?\nWh-movementWh-movement----MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)CPVPVNPwonthegameSNPInflePstNPCWho\nⅧ.Pragmatics\nCooperationPrinciplesofconversationandfloutingoftheconversationmaximsThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.Nomoreandnoless.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalseanddonotsaywhatyoulackevidencefor.ThemaximofrelationBerelevantThemaximofmannerAvoidobscurity,ambiguity.Bebriefandorderly.\nFloutingoftheconversationmaximandrevealingconversationimplicatureA:WhenisSusan’sfarewellparty?B:Sometimenextmonth.—(floutingthemaximofquantity)A:WouldyouliketojoinusforthepicniconSunday?B:I’mafraidIhavegotaclassonSunday.—(floutingthemaximofquality)A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?B:Wehadabasketballmatchwiththeotherclassandwebeatthem.—(floutingthemaximofrelation)A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.—(floutingthemaximofmanner)\nⅨ.LinguisticVIPs\nFerdinanddeSaussure(1857-1913),Swiss,founderofstructuralism,modernlinguistics,semiology.CourseinGeneralLinguistics,1916\nAvramNoamChomsky(1928-),founderofTG(Pp.42),arevolutiontostructuralism.LAD-(Pp.145)-PPH-UniversalGrammar\nM.A.K.Halliday（韩礼德）(1925-),founderofsystemicfunctionallinguistics,1947-1949studiedatBeijingUniversity,1949-1950studiedatLingNanUniversity,1955gotdoctor’sdegreeatCambridgeUniversitywithTheLanguageoftheChinese“SecretHistoryoftheMongols”\nRecommendedreadings语言学教程胡壮麟语言学概论外教社语言学系列丛书\n\n\nReferencesChomsky,N.(1957).Syntacticstructures.TheHague:Mouton.Dai,W.D&He,Z.X.(2002).AnewconcisecourseonlinguisticsforstudentsofEnglish.Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress.Sapir,E.(1921).Language.NewYork:HarcourtBrace.Wen,Q.F.(?).AnintroductiontoEnglishlinguistics.Nanjing:?Yang,X.Z.(2005).Anintroductiontolinguistics.Beijing:HigherEducationPress.\nWhydowelearnlinguistics?Togetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication……;Toprepareforthefutureresearchwork.