语言学重点笔记 10页

Outline•Micro-linguistics•Macro-linguistics•InterdisciplinarystudiesMicro-linguistics:branches---intermsoflinguisticsitself•Phonetics:sounds•Phonology:soundpatterns•Morphology:wordformation•Syntax:sentences•Semantics:linguisticmeaning•Pragmatics:meaninginuseMacro-linguistics---concerningthewholeworld•Sociolinguistics(&genderdifference)•Psycholinguistics:slipofthetongue•Neurolinguistics:Broca’sarea•Computationallinguistics•Philosophicallinguistics•AnthropologicallinguisticsInterdisciplinarystudies---relatingtootherobjects•Stylistics:linguisticsandliterature•Appliedlinguistics:linguisticsandforeignlanguageteachingTheHistoryofLinguisticsHistoryoflinguistics(1)4th-5thcenturyB.C.:Indianlinguistics(2)2nd-3rdcenturyB.C.:Greeklinguistics(3)14th-17thcentury:Descartes(4)18th-19thcentury:Humboldt(5)1sthalfof20thcentury:Structuralist(6)2ndhalfof20thcentury:Generative&Chomsky,systemic-functional&HallidayThelatestdevelopment•Casegrammar•Thegenerativesemantics•Optimalitytheory(OT)•Cognitivegrammar•Discourseanalysisundertheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar\nImportantConcepts&DistinctionsOutline•PartI:Whatislanguage?•PartII:Designfeaturesoflanguage•PartIII:Functionsoflanguage•PartIV:ImportantdistinctionsPartI:Whatislanguage?•Whatislanguage?–Languageisusedforcommunication.–Tounderstandwhatlanguageis,wemustfirstmakeclearwhatcommunicationisandhowlanguageisusedincommunication.Thedefinitionoflanguage•Languageisusuallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsdesignedforthepurposeofhumancommunication.PartIIDesignfeaturesoflanguage•Designfeatures:Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages.•1.Arbitrariness:Theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.–E.g.book/buk/-书(shu)---theentity•2.Duality–Twolevelsofstructure–Sounds-syllables-morphemes-words-sentences-texts/discourses–/k,ai,n,d,n,i:,s/-/kaind,ni:s/-(kind,ness)-kindness-herkindnesswarmshim---•3.Creativity•Resourceful•Newsentences,newmeanings•Endlesssentences•Importantfeaturetoseparatehumanlanguagefromanimallanguage.•4.Displacement:–Notpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.PartIIIFunctionsoflanguage•1.Informative/ideational:–Thefactsandexperienceoftheworld,includingtheinnerworld.\n•2.Interpersonal–Performative–Emotive/expressive–Phatic•3.Recreational/poetic:Crosstalk•4.Metalingual:Languageisusedtotalkaboutitself,tocreateterms(case,person…)todiscussitself.PartIV:Distinctions•1.Descriptivevs.prescriptive–Howthingsarevs.howthingsoughttobe–Linguisticsshouldtrytodiscoverandrecord,nottoprescribe.•Amansays“Heain’tagoodguy.”•Weshouldsay“Heisn’tagoodguy.”•Donotsay“X”.(Iisagoodgirl.)•Peopledonotsay“X”.(Iisagoodgirl.)•2.Synchronicvs.diachronic–Afixedinstantasitspointofobservation.–Throughthecourseofitshistory.•3.Langue&parole–Langue:•Linguisticcompetenceofthespeaker•Thelexicon,grammar,andphonology•Notcompleteinanyspeaker•Onlyexistingperfectlywithinacollectivity•Social,essential–Parole:•Theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances),actualuseoflanguage•Individual,accidental•4.Competence&performance–Competence:alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules,anidealspeaker’sknowledgeoflanguage\n–Performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations•5.Eticvs.Emic–Bothcomefromthesuffixesofphoneticsandphonemics.–Thedifferencesoftheirmeaningsaretheabstractionsofthedifferencesbetweenphoneticsandphonemics.–Phonetics:studiesthephysicalproperties(acoustic,articulatory)ofspeechsounds–Phonemics:relatingtophoneme,functional/distinctiveaspectIntroductiontoPhoneticsOutline•PartI:Thedistinctionofphonetics&phonology•PartII:Thebranchesofphonetics•PartIII:Speechorgans•PartIV:IPAandphonetictranscription•PartV:Consonantsandvowels••PartIThedistinctionsofphonetics&phonology•Bothofthemarethestudiesofspeechsounds.••Phonetics:•Howspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived,physicalaspect••Phonology:•Thestudyofsoundsystemsoflanguage•Principlesgoverningthewaysoundsareorganized•PartIIThebranchesofphonetics•Articulatoryphonetics:•Productionofspeechsounds••Acousticphonetics:•Transmission,physics••Auditory/perceptualphonetics:•Perceptionofspeechsounds\n•PartIIISpeechorgans•Vocaltract•Oralcavity:•Mouth:lips•Tongue:tip,blade,front,back,root•Palate:hard,soft,uvula•Teeth:upper,lower•Nasalcavity•Pharynx••PartIV:IPAandphonetictranscription••IPAisanabbreviationfor•InternationalPhoneticAssociation•InternationalPhoneticAlphabet••Phonetictranscriptions••Phonetictranscriptions•Broad•Narrow•••PartVConsonantsandVowels••Consonants:constrictingtodivert,impede,orshutofftheair••Vowels:withoutsuchobstruction••Semi-vowel/semi-consonant:yet,wet,hot•Consonants•Thecategoriesofconsonants:••Mannersofarticulation:thewaytheairpassesthrough••Placesofarticulation:wheretheobstructionofairtakesplace•Mannersofarticulation••Stop(plosive)（爆破音）:•Oralstops/stops:[p,b,t,d,k,g]•Nasalstops/nasals:[m,n,ŋ]•••Fricative（摩擦音）:\n•[f,v,θ,ð,s,z,∫,З,h]••Approximant（流音）:[w,r,j]••Lateral（边音）:[l]••Affricate（塞擦音）:[t∫,dЗ,ts,dz,tr,dr]•Placesofarticulation••Bilabial:[p,b,m,w](pet,betmet,wet)••Labiodental:[f,v](five,via)••Dental:[θ,ð](thief,clothes)••Alveolar:[t,d,n,s,z,r,l]••Postalveolar:[∫,З,t∫,dЗ]••Palatal:[j](yet,yes)••Velar:[k,g,ŋ],Chinese(he,和)•ThedescriptionsofEnglishconsonants(RP)••Voicing••Representedby[+voiced]and[-voiced]••([+voiced]):/b/,/d/,……•••([-voiced]):/p/,/t/,……•[p]voicelessbilabialstop••[b]voicedbilabialstop••[s]voicedalveolarfricative••[z]voicedalveolarfricative••[t]voicelessalveolarstop••[d]voicedalveolarstop•\n•[m]bilabialnasal••[l]lateral••[j]palatalapproximant••[h]glottalfricative•Vowels•Criteriaofvoweldescription:••Heightoftongueraising—high,mid,low••Positionofthehighestpartofthetongue—front,central,back••Lengthortensenessofthevowel—tenseorlax,longorshort••Lip-rounding—roundedorunrounded•Coarticulation••Aphenomenonthatcertainsoundsareinfluencedbytheirneighbors.•••Coarticulationincludesanticipatory(right-to-left)andperseverative(left-to-right)coarticulation.•Introductiontophonology•Outline•I.Phoneme••II.Phonologicalprocess••III.Distinctivefeatures••IV.Syllable•I.Phoneme••Minimalpairs••Phone,allophones,freevariants,complementarydistribution••Aminimalpairisanytwowordsthat•①Containthesamenumberofsound•segments•②Differinmeaning•③Exhibitonlyonephoneticdifference\n•E.g.:pin&bin••Phoneme:•/i:/,/i/,/e/,/a:/,/u/,/u:/,/t/,……•Distinguishmeaning•Smallestdistinctiveunitofsound••Phones:[p=],[ph],[t],[d],[f],[v]•••Allophones:[p=,ph]ofthesamephoneme/p/••①Phoneticallysimilar•②Incomplementarydistribution•Complementarydistribution•••/p/→[p=]/[s]___(speak)•[ph]elsewhere(peak)••/l/→[l]/___V(lead)•[l]V___(deal)(darkl)••Note:Notallphonesincomplementarydistributionareallophones.••[h]&[ŋ]••[w]&[ŋ]?•Freevariants:••Ofthesamephoneme,thesamewordispronouncedindifferentways••either[ai,i:]•direction[i,ai]•IIPhonologicalprocess••A→B/C(AchangestoBunderconditionC)••A→B/D___••A→B/___D••A→B/D___E•\n•‘/’:environmentinwhichchangetakesplace••‘___’:focusbar:positionoftargetsegment•Assimilation••Regressive:Nasalization(can)•[-nasal]→[+nasal]/___[+nasal]••Progressive:Devoicing(beds,seats,cases)•z→s/[–voiced,C]___•••Epenthesis:ø→[ә]/sibilant___z•Sibilants:/s,z,∫,з,t∫,dз/)••ø→[n]/[ә]___V•(ahotel,anapple…)•Ruleordering•Thepluralformsofnouns••/s/appearsaftervoicelesssounds••/z/appearsaftervoicedsounds••/әz/appearsaftersibilants•(sibilants:/s,z,∫,з,t∫,dз/)•••seat-sbed-scase-sword••/si:t+z//bed+z//keis+z/Input•sN/AsDevoicing•N/AN/AN/AEpenthesis•si:tsbedz*keissOutput••/si:t+z//bed+z//keis+z/Input•N/AN/AәEpenthesis•sN/AN/ADevoicing•si:tsbedzkeisәzOutput•III.Distinctivefeatures••Distinguishonephonemefromanother••Binaryfeatures:+/-\n••Examples:[+voiced]/b,d,g,z…/•[+nasal]/m,n,ŋ/•[-cons]/i:,e,a:…/•IV.Syllable•Syllable=Onset+Rhyme••Rhyme=Nucleus+Coda••Example:klasp•(kl)---onset•(asp)---rhym•(a)---nucleus•(sp)---coda••English:(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)••Chinese:(C)V(C)••••