2009语言学教案 31页

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsTeachingaims:letthestudentshavethegeneralideaaboutlanguageandlinguistics.Teachingdifficulties:designfeaturesoflanguage;someimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsTeachingprocedures1.language1.1Whystudylanguage?AtoolforcommunicationAnintegralpartofourlifeandhumanityIfwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.1.2Whatislanguage?ldifferentsensesoflanguagewhatapersonsays(concreteactofspeech)aperson’sconsistentwayofspeakingorwritingaparticularlevelofspeakingorwritinge.g.colloquiallanguageanabstractsystemldefinitionsLanguageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.²Whatiscommunication?--Aprocessinwhichinformationistransmittedfromasource(senderorspeaker)toagoal(receiverorlistener).1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构特征Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.a.arbitrariness----theformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.1)Arbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning,evenwithonomatopoeicwords:E.g.“house”uchi(Japanese)Mansion(French)房子(Chinese)2)Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel:languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.e.g.Hecameinandsatdown.Hesatdownandcamein.Hesatdownafterhecamein.3)conventionality----Itmeansthatinanylanguagetherearecertainsequencesofsoundsthathaveaconventionallyacceptedmeaning.Thosewordsarecustomarilyusedbyallspeakerswiththesameintendedmeaningandunderstoodbyalllistenersinthesameway.31\nb.Duality----Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization:Primaryunits‘words’(meaningful)consistofsecondaryunits‘sounds’(meaningless).c.Creativity--Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.1)Becauseofdualitythehumanspeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.2)Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesapotentialtocreateaninfinitenumberofsentences.e.g.Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho...d.Displacement----humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.1.4originoflanguagea.The‘Divine’origin:b.The“bow-wow”theory:Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.c.The“pooh-pooh”theory:Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.Asforevidence,wecanonlycitetheuniversaluseofsoundsasinterjections.d.The“yo-he-ho”theory:Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.1.5functionsoflanguageLinguiststalkabouttheFUNCTIONSoflanguageinanabstractsense.Theysummarizepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassifications.a.Jakobson(1960):referential(toconveymessageandinformation),poetic(toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake),emotive(toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions),conative(topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandrequests),phatic(toestablishcommunionwithothers)metalingual(toclearupintentionsandmeanings).Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcoderespectively.b.Hallidayearly:instrumental,regulatory,representational,interactional,personal,heuristicandimaginative.Halliday(1994):ideational(logical),interpersonal(social)andtextual(relevant)Ideationalfunctionconstructsamodelofexperienceaswellaslogicalrelations,interpersonalfunctionenactssocialrelationshipsandtextualfunctioncreatesrelevancetocontext.a.classificationinthetextbook:1)Informative:Itmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtogiveorrecordinformation,totellwhatthespeakersbelieve,ortoreasonthingsout.Itisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.2)Interpersonalfunction:Itisthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,andbywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.31\n1)Performative:Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons.2)Emotivefunction:Theemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.3)Phaticcommunion:Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.6)Recreationalfunction:Itreferstotheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.7)Metalingualfunction:Ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.1.linguistics2.1Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisascientificstudyoflanguage.Itisamajorbranchofsocialscience.2.2Mainbranches(scope)oflinguistics DivisionSub-divisionSubjectLinguistics:thescientificstudyoflanguageMicro-linguistics:thestudyoflanguageinitselfPhonetics   IndividualsoundsPhonologySoundsystemMorphologyWordformationSyntaxSentencestructureSemanticsTextualmeaningPragmaticsContextualmeaningMacro-linguistics:thestudyoflanguageinrelationtootherdisciplinesPsycholinguisticsMindSociolinguisticsSocietyAnthropologicallinguisticsHumanhistoryComputationallinguisticsComputerAppliedlinguisticsEducationComparativelinguisticsLanguagesNeurolinguisticsBrainCognitivelinguisticsCognition2.3Importantdistinctionsinlinguisticsa.Descriptivevs.prescriptive“描写式”和“规定式”Theyrepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.b.Synchronicvs.diachronic“共时”和“历时”Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.c.langue&parole“语言”和“言语”31\nThedistinctionwasmadebytheSwisslinguistSaussureintheearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.Whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.a.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ThedistinctionisdiscussedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.HomeworkQuestionsandExercises1,4,6,12Self-studyguideRead“ANewConciseCourseOnLinguisticsForStudentsOfEnglish”Chapter1IntroductionChapter2SpeechSoundsTeachingaims:letthestudentshavethegeneralideaaboutphoneticsandphonology.Focalpoints:descriptionofconsonantsandvowels;basicknowledgeaboutphonologyTeachingdifficulties:phoneme;allophone;minimalpair;complementarydistributionTeachingprocedureAsweknow,therearetwobranchesinlinguistics,whichdealwithspeechsounds.Theyarephonetics(thestudyofsounds)andphonology(thestudysoundpatterns).Inthischapter,wewilldiscussthesetwobranches.1.Phonetics1.1Speechproductionandperception3sub-branchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics----thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics----thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechAuditoryphonetics----thestudyoftheperceptionofspeechsounds1.2Speechorgans(vocalorgans)referstothepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thethreecavitiesofthevocaltract:thepharynx(pharyngealcavity),themouth(oralcavity),andthenose(nasalcavity).Theair-streamcomingfromthelungsismodifiedinvariouswaysinthesecavities,resultingintheproductionofvarioussounds.ThepharyngealcavityLarynx:atthetopofthetrachea,thefrontofwhichistheAdam’sapple.Thisisthefirstplacewheresoundmodificationmightoccur.vocalfolds(vocalcords):Vocalcordsaretwomembranes,thepositionsofwhichgivesdifferentsounds.●Whenthevocalcordsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.e.g.[p,s,t]●Whentheyareclosetogether,theairstreamscausesthemtovibrateandproducesvoicedsounds.e.g.[b,z,d]31\n●Whentheyaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem,thenproducetheglottalstop[?]TheoralcavityTheoralcavityprovidesthegreatestsourceofmodification.Tongue:themostflexibleUvula,theteethandthelipsHardpalate,softpalate(velum)Alveolarridge:therough,bonyridgeimmediatelybehindtheupperteethVariousobstructionscreatedwithintheoralcavityleadtotheproductionofvarioussounder[p][b];[s][z];[k][g]ThenasalcavityThenasalcavityisconnectedtotheoralcavityatthebackofthemouth.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth,thevelum(softpalate)canbedrawbacktoclosethepassagesothattheaircanonlygothroughthemouthandproducevowelsandmostconsonants.Thepassagecanalsobeleftopentoallowairtoexitthroughthenoseandproducenasalconsonants[m][n][g]1.3.1IPA(InternationalphoneticAlphabet)IPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888onthebasisofthephoneticalphabetproposedatthetime.Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.TheDanishgrammarianJespersenfirstproposedtheideain1886.ThefirstversionofIPAwaspublishedinAugust1888.Thelatestversionwasdevisedin1993andcorrectedin1996.Thebasicprinciple:usingaseparateletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagesforeachdistinctivesoundandthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.1.4Englishspeechsounds1.4.1ClassificationConsonants:soundsproducedbyconstrictingandobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplace.Vowels:soundsproducedwithnoobstruction.purevowels(monophthong)—vowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulation.vowelglides----vowelswherethereisanaudiblechangeofqualitySemi-vowels(semi-consonants)P:thesoundsproducedwithlittleobstruction(alsocalledglidesortransitionsounds).e.g.yetwethotThedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.1.4.2Descriptiona.Consonants1)ThemannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplishedStop(orPlosive);Nasal;Fricative擦音;Approximant无摩擦延续音;Lateral边音;Trill颤音;TapandFlap闪音;Affricate破擦音;31\n1)Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Bilabial双唇音;Labiodental唇齿音;Dental齿音;Alveolar齿龈音;Postalveolar后齿龈音;Retroflex卷舌音;Palatal腭音;Velar软腭音;Uvular小舌音;Pharyngeal咽音;Glottal声门音2)Threeparameterstoidentifyaconsonant:a)placeofarticulation:placeinthemouthwhereobstructionoccursb)mannersofarticulation:waysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplishedc)stateofvocalcords:voicedVS.voicelesse.g.[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstopb.Vowelsthequalityofvowelsdependonpositionoftongueandtheshapeoflips.Fourcriteria(parameters)ofvoweldescription:a)theheightoftongueraising:high,middle,lowb)thepositionofhighestpartofthetongue:front,central,backc)theshapeofthelips(thedegreeoflip-rounding):rounded,unroundedd)thelengthortensenessofthevowel:tensevs.laxorlongvs.shorte.g.[i:]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[U]highbacklaxroundedvowel2.fromphoneticstophonology2.1phonologyandphoneticsPhoneticsandphonologyarethetwodisciplinesdealingwithspeechsounds.Whilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsounds.Itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phonologyisconcernedwiththeabstractandmentalaspectofthesoundsinlanguageratherthanwiththeactualphysicalarticulationofspeechsounds.2.22.1coartitulationandphonetictranscriptionsa.Speechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation(先期协同发音).e.g.lambIfthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation(后滞协同发音).e.g.map.b.TwowaystotranscribespeechsoundsBroadtranscription（宽式标音）:theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription.Narrowtranscription（严式标音）:Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Diacritics:Asetofsymbolsaddedtotheletter-symbolstoshowthatithasasound31\nvaluedifferentfromthatofthesameletterwithoutthemark.Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets[].2.3phonemesa.phoneme:Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.It’sabasicunitinphonologicalanalysis.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butanabstractsegment.Inactualspeech,aphonemeisrealizedphoneticallyasacertainphone.(thesoundtypeinthemind)Thephonemeisthesmallestmeaning-distinguishingunit.Phonemesareplacedinslashes“//”(phonemictranscription)phone:thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.It’saphoneticunitorsegment.(inthemouth)e.g.Neitherthesound[p]inpitorthesound[b]inbitisaphoneme.Theyarephones;theyarethephoneticrealizationofthephoneme/p/and/b/.b.Minimalpairsandcomplementarydistribution1)ComplementarydistributionNotallspeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment,whenthetwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironmenttheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.2)Minimalpairs(最小对立体)Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegment,whichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whentwowordssuchaspatandbatareidenticalinformexceptforacontrastinonephoneme,occurringinthesameposition,thetwowordsaredescribedasaminimalpair.Minimalpairsareestablishedonthebasisofsoundandnotspelling.Threerequirementsforaminimalpair:samenumberofsegmentonephoneticdifferenceinthesameplacedifferentmeaninge.g.aminimalpair:lit-lip;phone-tone;pill-billaminimalset:beat,bit,bet,boot,but,biteTheminimalpairtesthelpsestablishwhichsoundscontrastinalanguage.2.4allophonesa.allophone:whenwehaveasetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephoneme,werefertothemastheallophonesofthatphoneme.Onephonememayhaveseveralallophones,butthechoiceofanallophoneisrule-governedNotallphonesincomplementarydistributionareconsideredtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theymustbephoneticallysimilarandincomplementarydistribution.b.FreevariationAphonemaysometimeshasfreevariants.Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,thatis,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thenthetwosoundsareinfreevariation.31\n2.5Phonologicalprocesses(音系过程),phonologicalrules(音系原则)anddistinctivefeatures(区别特征)a.Assimilation(同化)Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation(逆同化);theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation(顺同化).b.Phonologicalprocessissuchaprocessinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Threeaspectstoit:AsetofsoundstoundergotheprocessAsetofsoundsproducedbytheprocessAsetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessappliesc.Phonologicalrules:e.g./v/→[f];/z/→[s]etc.voicedfricative→voiceless/____voicelessNasalizationrule:[-nasal]→[+nasal]/____[+nasal]Dentalizationrule:[-dental]→[dental]/____[dental]Velarizationrule:[-velar]→[+velar]/____[+velar]d.Epenthesis,ruleorderingandtheElsewhereCondition1)Fortheindefinitearticlea/an,wetreatthechangeofatoanasaninsertionofanasalsound.Theriotically,thisprocessisknownasEpenthesis.2)TheElsewhereCondition:Themorespecificruleappliesfirst.2.6DistinctivefeaturesThefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesarelanguage-specific.e.g.“ba”(爸)“pa”(怕)InChinese,thesetwosoundsaredistinguishedbyaspiration,whileinEnglishtheyaredistinguishedby“voicing”2.7suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:syllable,stress,toneandintonation.a.thesyllablestructureAsyllablemusthaveanucleusorpeak.MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP):Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.b.stressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticallineisoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.c.intonationIntonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.d.tone31\nHomeworkQuestionsandExercises1,2，3,4Self-studyguideRead“ModernLinguistics”byHeZhao-xiong学术前沿一：外语语音教学的回顾和现状及JazzChants教学法1.20世纪50至60年代：根据行为主义心理学，语言是一套行为习惯，而语言学习就是一个形成习惯的过程。在具体教学上，学外语就是靠模仿和背诵(mimicryandmemorization)。流行于上世纪五六十年代的听说法就是以听说领先、反复操练、强化练习和背诵对话而著称的。在语音教学上，则把重点放在训练听辨和发音的能力。2.20世纪60至70年代：对比语言分析认为学生的母语会对其二语言或外语的习得和学习有很大的干扰作用(interference)。在语音学习方面的干扰更甚于在语法和词汇方面的干扰。受对比语言分析理论影响的语音教学把教学重点放在对母语和外语发音有差异的部分进行分析、比较和练习。3.20世纪80年代至今：交际语言教学的出现对外语语音教学产生了极大的影响。语言学家发现在语言交际中，完美的单词发音远不如语句重音、节奏和语调等超切分音位来得重要，语音教学的重点也就从音素和单词的发音转到连读、同化、缩音、省音、语句重音、节奏和语调等方面。交际法把以前孤立的语音教学与交际语言学习活动结合起来，顾及社会因素和语境等方面，使语音教学有了实际意义。但早期的交际法把对形式和规则的学习视为语言学习的附加品或可有可无，因此在实践中也遇到了一些新问题，如不少学生口语流利但准确性却不够，独立学习的能力不强等。这一现象也引起了不少语言学家的关注。4.20世纪90年代至今：近十年来，在第二语言习得研究方面，对语言教学是以语言形式为中心的教学(focusonforms)，还是以语言功能和意义为中心的教学(focusonmeaning)，或是语意兼顾(focusonform)的讨论对语音教学也产生了一定的影响(Long1988;Long&Robinson1998;Doughty&Williams1998)。所谓语意兼顾(FonF)仍以交际语言活动为主，但并不排斥在必要的时候对语言形式(即语法、语音和词汇)的教学。FonF分为反应型(reactiveFonF)和预防型(preemptiveFonF)。以语音教学为例，如果学生对英语升调有困难，教师就可以设计出带有升调的语言练习和任务，还可以为学生介绍英语升调运用的各类场合，使练习更具真实性和实用性。5.英语作为国际语言(EIL)与英语语音教学：社会语言学对语音教学的影响主要集中在发音和语调在话语方面的作用，尤其是英语在国际语言环境中广泛使用而成为公认的国际语言(Englishasaninternationallan-guage)对英语语音教学的影响甚大。越来越多的不同民族和语种的人用英语进行交流，着重于理解(intelligibility)，而不追求发音非要达到英语为本族语者的发音标准。20世纪60年代所流行的nativeness原则，也就是外语发音非要学得和本族人一样标准、地道的教学思想正为接近本族人(nearnative)和理解(intelligibility)原则所取代。6.20世纪70年代至今：人文主义心理学始于20世纪70年代，对语言教学影响甚大。人文主义教学理论强调个人情感因素和学习环境对语言学习的影响，主张在外语教学中应当注意学生的心理、感觉、情绪、动机、兴趣等方面。在语音教学方面，学生的情感因素和自我概念(self-concept)的作用更为明显。在语音教学中，教师要充分理解到情感因素和自我概念对学习的影响，要尽量不求全责备，避免当场纠正学生的每一个发音错误，要多给学生正面鼓励(positivefeedback)，给学生自我纠正(self-correction)和学生相互纠正(peercorrection)的机会。在教学过程中还要加强培养学生的自我概念、学习信心和互谅(empathy)等情感能力。7.JazzChants作为英语语音教学有效手段之分析：1JazzChants主要的特点是体现自然的美式英语口语的节奏。它是互动性的(interactine)，能把语音教学和有意义的语言交际活动相结合，还能注意到学生的情感因素，既能减轻学生学习外语的顾虑和压力，又能激发他们的学习动力和兴趣，还能调动他仁的多种感官学习。此外，除了语音语调的训练之外，JazsChants还可以用于语言教学的其他方面，语法、词汇、习惯用语、语言功能以及文化学习，把语音教学和其他语言能力的培养结合起来。Academicpointtwo:31\nManywritershaveexpressedtheviewthatintonationisusedtoconveyourfeelingsandattitudes;forexample,thesamesentencecanbesaidindifferentways,whichmightbelabeled“angry”,“happy”,“grateful”,“bored”andsoon.Ithasalsobeenwidelyobservedthattheformofintonationisdifferentindifferentlanguages;forexample,theintonationoflanguagessuchasSwedish,ItalianorHindiisinstantlyrecognizableasbeingdifferentfromthatofEnglish.Notsurprisingly,ithasoftenbeensaidthatforeignlearnersofEnglishneedtolearnEnglishintonation.Somehavegonefurtherthanthisandclaimedthat,unlesstheforeignlearnerlearnstheappropriatewaytouseintonationinagivensituation,thereisariskthatheorshemayunintentionallygiveoffence;forexample,thelearnermightuseanintonationsuitableforexpressingboredomordiscontentwhenwhatisneededisanexpressionofgratitudeoraffection.Thismisleadingviewofintonationmusthavecausedunnecessaryanxietytomanylearnersofthelanguage.Whatadvice,then,canbegiventotheforeignlearnerofEnglishwhowantstolearn“correctintonation”?Itiscertainlytruethatafewgeneralizationscanbemadeabouttheattitudinalfunctionsofsomecomponentsofintonation.Withintone,forexample,mostbooksagreeonsomebasicmeanings.1.FallFinality,definiteness:Thatistheendofthe\newsI’mabsolutely\certainStop\talking2.RiseMostofthefunctionsattributedtorisesarenearertogrammaticalthanattitudinal,asinthefirstthreeexamplesgivenbelow;theyareincludedheremainlytogiveafullerpictureofintonationalfunction.Generalquestions:Canyou/helpmeIsit/overListing:/Red/brown/yellowor\blue(fallisnormalonthelastitem)“Moretofollow”:Iphonedthemrighta/way(andtheyagreedtocome)Youmustwriteit/again(andthistime,getitright)Encouraging:Itwon’t/hurt3.Fall-riseUncertainty,doubt:You∨mayberightIt’s∨possibleRequesting:CanI∨buyitWillyou∨lendittome4.Rise-fallSurprise,beingimpressed:Youwere^first^Allofthem31\nChapter3LexiconTeachingaims:letthestudentshaveabriefknowledgeaboutmorphemesandthebasicword-formationmethodsFocalpoints:definitionandclassificationofmorphemes;majorword-formationmethodsTeachingprocedureLexicon：Initsmostgeneralsense,lexiconissynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,itdealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords.1.Word1.1WhatiswordAunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.1.2Threesensesof“word”a.aphysicaldefinableunit:aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopauseorblankb.thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofformsc.agrammaticalunite.g.Itiskindofyou,MissHou.Everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence.1.3Classificationofworda.Variablevs.invariablewordsb.Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwordsc.Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords2.TheformationofwordMorphologyDefinition：Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Thetwofields(p88)Inflectionalmorphology:thestudyofinflectionsDerivationalmorphology:thestudyofword-formationMorpheme:theminimalunitofmeaningDefinitionMorphemeisthesmallestmeaning-bearingunit.Typesofmorphemesmorphemefree:freerootboundboundrootrootaffixinflectionalderivationalprefixsuffix31\nFreemorphemes:morphemeswhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselvesBoundmorphemes:morphemeswhichcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsInflectionalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemeswhichmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.E.g.workers,children;walking,walked;biggest;John’sDerivationalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemes,addedtoexistingformstocreatenewwords.Therearethreekindsaccordingtoposition:prefix,suffixandinfix.prefix:changemeaningdis-;un-;mis-suffix:changepartofspeech-ly;-ness;-tioninfix:somelanguagesalsohaveinfixes,affixmorphemesthatareinsertedintorootorstemmorphemestodividethemintotwoparts.tatawa“apersonwhowilllaugh”tumatawa“apersonwhoislaughing”ngitad“dark”ngumitad“tobedark”Inthislanguage,theinfix–um-isinsertedafterthefirstconsonantofanounoradjective.(fikas-“strong”fumikas--“tobestrong”)2.3morphemeandphoneme(p93-95)2.3.1allomorphAmorphemeisalinguisticabstraction;itisaconcept.Itneedstoberepresentedincertainphonologicalandorthographicforms.Thoseformsarecalledmorphs.Inmorphemictranscription,morphemesintheabstractnotionareputbetweenbraceslikeAllomorph:Amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Thevariantformsofthesamemorphemearecalleditsallomorphs.2.4Lexicalchange2.3.1LexicalchangeproperMajorwaystocreatenewwords:Compounding:aprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsintoonelexicalunit.blackboardgodfatherbaby-sitcross-culturalDerivation:theprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotherootsorwords.e.g.finalizewidenhospitalizeclockwise(顺时针)Blending:aprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.smog(smoke+fog);brunchsmaze(smog+haze);telecast(television+broadcast);motel(motor+hotel)Abbreviation:ashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform.e.g.TV(television)Dr(doctor)hr(hour)ft(footorfeet)clipping:akindofabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrasese.g.telephone---phonememorandum---memoelectronicmail---e-mailhighfidelity---hi-fi31\nAcronym:awordcreatedbycombiningtheinitiallettersofanumberofwords.e.g.UNESCOAPECSarsCDlaserradar(radiodetectingandranging)Initialism:VOABBCWTOBack-formation:aprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword.televise(fromtelevision)donate(fromdonation)enthuse(fromenthusiasm)Borrowing:thetakingoverofwordsfromotherlanguagesCoinage:theinventionofanewword2.3.1PhonologicalchangeChangesinsoundsleadtochangesinform(1)vowelsoundchange:GreatVowelShiftinhistory(2)soundloss(3)soundaddition(4)metathesis2.3.2Morpho-syntacticalchange2.3.3SemanticchangeThechangeofmeaningofawordBroadeningNarrowingMeaningshift:aprocessinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning.Classshift(conversion):ElevationanddegradationHomeworkQuestionsandExercises1,2,3,5,13Self-studyguideFurtherreadingAdams,V.1973.AnIntroductiontoModernEnglishWord-Formation.DaiWei-dong,2002ANewConciseCourseOnLinguisticsForStudentsOfEnglishChapter3MorphologyChapter4SyntaxTeachingaims:enablethestudentstounderstandanddescribetheinternalstructuresofsentencesFocalpoints:differenttreatmentofsentencestructurebydifferentlinguisticschoolsTeachingdifficulties:ICanalysis,deepstructure,surfacestructure,treediagramTeachingprocedureSyntaxisthestudyofhowwordscombinetoformsentencesandtheruleswhichgoverntheformationofsentences.31\nSincesentenceisusuallyregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofalanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecenterofgrammaticalstudy.Inthischapter,weintroducesomeoftherepresentativeapproachestosyntax.1.ThetraditionalapproachThetraditionalapproachisbasedontheearliergrammarsofLatinorGreek(thetraditionalgrammarisagrammarofprescription).1.1SentencesandcategoriesThetraditionalviewofasentence:“aseriesofwordsinconnectedspeechorwriting,formingthegrammaticallycompleteexpressionofasinglethought”.?anapple?Johnwaslate,becauseheoverslept.Lexicalcategories:partofspeech.e.g.:n,v,adj,det.etc.Syntacticcategories:usuallyreferstoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction.e.g.subject,predicate,objectetc.Grammaticalcategory:aclassorgroupofitemswhichfulfilthesameorsimilarfunctionsinalanguage.e.g.Number,gender,case:fornouns,pronouns.Tense,aspect,voice:forverbs1.2ConcordandgovernmentConcord:agreement.Therequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.abook,thisbook,somebooks,threebooksHespeaksEnglish.TheyspeakEnglishGovernment:isatypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions.Itisarelationshipinwhichawordofacertainclassdeterminestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory.Shegavehimabook;Shegaveabooktohim.1.3Onemethodusedintraditionalgrammartodescribesentencestructureisparsing.2.ThestructuralapproachTheorigin:theSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure,“father/founderofmodernlinguistics”Thebeginningofthe20thcentury,CourseinGeneralLinguistics.Thestructuralapproach:regardslinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructureorsystem.Structuralismorstructurallinguisticsisatermusedinlinguisticsreferringtoanyapproachtotheanalysisoflanguagethatpaysexplicitattentiontothewayinwhichlinguisticfeaturescanbedescribedintermsofstructuresandsystems.2.1SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationschildgirlTheboyissmiling.farmeroldman31\nSyntagmaticrelation(structure,horizontal,chain)组合关系arelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence(thesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.)Therearesyntacticandsemanticconditionsthewordsinasyntagmaticrelationmustmeet.Paradigmaticrelation(system,associative,vertical,choice)聚合关系relationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure.聚合关系和组合关系一起共同确立一个语言单位在语言系统中的特征。2.2Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)直接成分分析法2.2.1ThelinearandthehierarchicalstructureofsentenceThelinearstructureofsentenceisconcernedwiththewordorderofsentences:thesequenceinwhichgrammaticalelementssuchassubject,verb,andobjectoccurinsentences.ThehierarchicalstructureofsentenceAsentencecanbeanalyzedintoconstituents.Conversely,constituentsatdifferentlevelscancombinetoformincreasinglylargerunits.sentencessentencesareanalyzedintoareusedtobuiltclausesclausesareanalyzedintoareusedtobuiltphrasesphrasesareanalyzedintoareusedtobuildwordswordsareanalyzedintoareusedtobuildmorphemesmorphemes2.2.2ImmediateconstituentanalysisThetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintosmallerunitsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingiscalledImmediateConstituent(IC)Analysis.Itrevealsthehierarchicalrelations,aswellassequentialrelations,amongwordsorgroupsofwordsinasentence.Construction:anylinguisticformwhichiscomposedofconstituentsandisabletobesegmented.Aconstructionmaybeasentence,awordgrouporaword.Inotherwords,aconstructionisarelationshipbetweenconstituentsConstituent:componentelementsinaconstruction.Immediateconstituents:constituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofconstruction.Ultimateconstituent:thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughsegmentation.2.3EndocentricandexocentricconstructionsDistribution:thepositionsorcontextsinwhichaparticularunitoflanguage(e.g.,aword)canoccur.Head:thecentralpartofaphrase.Thecentralelementwhichisdistributionally(functionally)equivalenttothephraseasawhole.e.g.thefatladyinthepark31\nEndocentricconstruction:headedconstructionSubordinateconstructions:endocentricconstructionsinwhichthereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstructionsdependent.Nounphrases,verbphrases,adjectivephrases.Coordinateconstructions:endocentricconstructionsinwhichtherearemorethanonehead,andtheyareofequalsyntacticstatus,withnoonedependentontheother.Inotherwords,botharecapableofservingasthehead.Exocentricconstruction:agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole.(Thereisnodefinable‘center’orheadinsidethegroup.)e.g.Thebasicsentencestructure:ThemanfellSubordinateclause:IfheisgoingPrepositionalphrase:onthetableVerb+Object:kicktheballVerb+adjective:seemedangry2.ThegenerativeapproachOriginatedwithAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky3.1DeepandsurfacestructuresEachsentenceisconsideredtohavetwolevelsofstructures.Deepstructure:Theunderlyinglevelofstructuralorganizationdisplayingallthefactorsthatgovernhowitshouldbeinterpreted.Surfacestructure:Thesyntacticstructureofasentenceweactuallyarticulateorhear.Itisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofasentence.Thisdistinctionisusedtoexplainthealternativeinterpretationsofsentenceswhichhavethesamesurfacestructurebutarerelatedtodifferentdeepstructures.Flyingplanescanbedangerous(Planeswhichfly…/Toflyplanes…)Theshootingofthehunterswasterrible.TheloveofGod.Heisanxioustoteach.Heiseagertoplease.Heisdifficulttoteach.Heiseasytoplease.Thisdistinctionisalsousedtorelatesentencesthathavedifferentsurfacestructuresbutthesamedeepstructure,asinthecaseofactiveandpassivesentences.3.2PS-rulesandT-rulesHowdoesgrammarwork?Grammaroperatesbygeneratingasetofabstractdeepstructures,andthenconvertingtheseunderlyingrepresentationsintosurfacestructuresbyapplyingasetoftransformationalrules.①PS-rulesThespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.Thephrasestructurecomponenthasphrasestructurerules(PSrules,rewriterules,categorialrules)forthegenerationofdeepstructure:SNP+VPVPV+NPNPDet+NDetthe,a,this,that,…31\nNman,tree,…Vhit,took,…a.StheNVDETNb.SthedogVDETNc.SthedogchasedDETNd.SthedogchasedtheNe.Sthedogchasedthecat②Transformationalrules(T-rules)Thetransformationalcomponenthastransformationalrules,whichchangethedeepstructuresgeneratedbythephrasestructurecomponentintosurfacestructures.NP1+Aux+V+NP2John+will+finish+thepaper.NP2+Aux+be+en+V+by+NP1Thepaper+will+be+en+finish+by+John3.3TheStandardTheoryAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax(1965)3.3.1Why?①ill-formedvs.well-formedsentences:Johndrinkswine.WinedrinksJohn.②Passiveforms:JohnmarriedMary.MarywasmarriedbyJohn.Johnresembleshisfather.HisfatherwasresembledbyJohn.31\nLanguageisseenasconsistingofthreemajorparts:syntax,semantic,phonologyThesyntacticcomponentismadeupofthebasecomponentandthetransformationalcomponent.Thebasecomponent:categoriesandlexiconCategory:aconceptsuchasasentence,anounphrase,averb.(ThatpartofthebasecomponentofthegrammarwhichspecifiessuchsyntacticcategoriesasS,NP,VP.)Thecategorycomponentcontainsrewritingrulesmoreorlessthesameasthephrasestructurerulesintheclassicalmodel.TheLexiconThelexicongivesinformationabouttheclassthatawordbelongsto,egN,V,andinformationaboutthegrammaticalstructureswithwhichthewordmayoccur.Forexample,theEnglishverbsleepcannothaveanobjectafterit.Sub-categorization(子语类化/次范畴化):featureswhichspecifyfurtherrestrictionsonthechoiceoflexicalitemsindeepstructure.Subcategorizationcanensurethegenerationofsentenceslikeaweekelapsed,butnotTheboyelapsed.nSelectionalrestrictions:constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscancombinewithwhatothers.Theygoverntheselectionoflexicalitemsforinsertionintodeepstructures.Thesemanticcomponentmakessemanticinterpretationsonthedeepstructure,andthephonologicalcomponentmakesphonologicalinterpretationsonthesurfacestructure.HomeworkQuestionsandExercises1,2,5,9Self-studyguideFurtherreadingChomsky,N.(1957)SyntacticStructuresHeZhao-xiong(1999)ModernLinguisticsChapter4SyntaxChapter5MeaningTeachingaims:enablethestudentstohaveabetterunderstandingofsemanticsandwordingmeaning.Focalpoints:Leech’ssevenclassificationsofmeaning,semantictriangle,senserelationsbetweenwordsandsentencesTeachingdifficulties:senserelationsbetweensentences,differenttypesofantonymyTeachingprocedureInthischapter,wewillstudyanotherbranchoflinguistics-----semantics.Thesubjectconcerningthestudyofmeaningiscalledsemantics.1.AnIntroductiona.Definition:Inlinguistics,itisthestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.Itsgoalistorevealhowlanguageismatchedwiththeirpropermeaningsbythespeakersofthatlanguage.b.thehistoryofsemanticsSemanticsisanoldandyoungbranch.DatingfromPlato,thestudyofmeaninghasalonghistory.Philosophers,psychologists,andsociologistsallclaimadeepinterestinthestudyofmeaning,althoughtheydifferintheirfocusof31\ninterest.Philosophers:therelationbetweenlinguisticexpressionandwhattheyrefertointherealworldandevaluationofthetruthvalueofit.Psychologists:understandingtheworkingofhumanmindthroughlanguage.Soyoumanyfindseveralbooksbearingthetitle“semantics”buttalkingaboutdifferentthings.Herewejustfocusonlinguisticsemantics.Inlinguistics,comparedwithotherbrancheswehavediscussed,semanticsisveryyoungandnew.ThetermsemanticsisarecentadditiontotheEnglishlanguage.Ithasonlyahistoryofover100years.1893FrenchlinguistBrealcoined“semantique”1897Brealfirstuseitasthescienceofmeaning.1900itsEnglishversioncameout1980ssemanticsbegantobeintroducedintoChina“Cinderellaoflinguistics”(Kempson)OneofthemostfamousbooksonsemanticsisTheMeaningofMeaningpublishedin1923.2.Meaningsof“meaning”2.1whatismeaning?Whatisthemeaningof“desk”?√Ididn'tmeantohurtyou.(intend)Lifewithoutfaithhasnomeaning.(value)ItwasJohnImeannotHarry(referto)√l7Typesofmeaning(G.Leech)Denotation:thecoresenseofawordoraphrasethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworld.Connotation:someadditional,esp.emotivemeaning.1)Conceptualmeaning:Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.2)Connotativemeaning:Whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.3)Socialmeaning:Whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.4)Affectivemeaning:Whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer.5)Reflectedandmeaning:Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.6)Collocativemeaning:Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.7)Thematicmeaning:Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.3.ThereferentialtheoryItrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor.3.1SemantictriangleProposedbyOgden&Richardsintheir“TheMeaningofMeaning”.Theysawtherelationshipbetweenthewordandthethingitreferstoisnotdirect.It’smediatedbyconcept.thoughtorreference31\nsymbolreferentInthisdiagram,thesymbolorformreferstolinguisticelements(words,phrases),thereferentreferstothethingsintherealworld,andthoughtorreferencerefersto“concept”.e.g.Thedogovertherelooksunfriendly.Theword“dog”isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind,i.e.whata“dog”islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothereferent(theparticulardog)inthisparticularcase.Thus,thesymbolofawordsignifiesthingbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofalanguage,andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.3.2Sense&referenceSenseandreferencearethetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense-----theinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;It’sabstractandde-contextualized.It’stheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Itisconcernedwiththeintra-linguisticrelations.Reference-----Whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementsandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Forexample,theword“dog”isgiventhedefinition“acommondomesticanimalkeptbyhumanbeingsforwork,huntingetcorasapet”.Thisdoesn’trefertoanyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedinthedefinition,sothisisthesenseoftheword“dog”.Butifwesay“Thedogisbarking”,wemustbetalkingaboutacertaindogexistentinthesituation,theword“dog”referstoadogknowntoboththespeakerandthehearer.Thisisthereferenceoftheword“dog”inthisparticularsituation.Tosomeextent,wecansayeverywordhasasense,i.e.someconceptualcontent.Butnoteverywordhasareferencee.g.grammaticalwordslikebutifetc,don’trefertoanything.Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.e.g.Iwasonebittenbyadog.Mindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.Herethetwo“dog”bearthesamesense,buthavetwodifferentreferencesinthetwoutterances.Sometimeslinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsensee.g.“morningstar”and“eveningstar”canrefertothesamestar“Venus”3.3MajorSenserelationsWordsareindifferentsenserelationswitheachotherTherearegenerally3kindsofsenserelations:samenessrelation,oppositenessrelationandinclusivenessrelation31\n3.1.synonymySamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.3.2AntonymyOppositenessofmeaningWordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.Oppositenesscanbefoundondifferentdimensions.①Gradableantonymy(mainlyadj.)good/bad,long/short,narrow/wideTheyaregradable.Thatis,themembersofapairdifferintermsofdegree.Thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthem.②Complementaryantonymyalive/dead,male/female,present/absent,pass/fail,boy/girlItischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheotherandtheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother.Inotherwords,itisnotamatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes,butamatterofeitheroneortheother.③Converseantonymy(relationalopposites)buy/sell,lend/borrow,before/after,teacher/student,above/belowThemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.3.3Hyponymy(amatterofclassmembership)Thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificwords.cow/animal,rose/flower,honesty/virtueThewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.4.ComponentialanalysisComponentialanalysisreferstoanapproachadoptedbystructuralsemanticistsindescribingthemeaningofwordsorphrases.Thisapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthetotalmeaningofawordcanbeanalyzedintermsofanumberofdistinctelementsormeaningcomponents(calledsemanticfeatures)Thestudyofmeaninginanylanguageshowsthatlexicalitemsoverlapinmeaningandsharecommonpropertiese.g.Lionsandtigersbothcontainanelementof“wildanimalness”.Calfpuppyandbabycanbeconsideredasallsharinganelementofnonadultness,whilecow,womanandtigressallcontaininganelementof“femaleness,Butbecauseofotherpropertieseachwordcontains,noneofthemwillbesaidasbeingsynonymoustoanyoneoftheothers.Oneattempttoaccountforthisphenomenonistoassumethatlexicalitems,likephonemes31\naremadeupoutofanumberofcomponentparts.Componentialanalysisisoftenseenasaprocessaimingatbreakingdownthemeaningofawordintoitsminimaldistinctivefeaturesorproperties,whicharealsocalledcomponentsbysomelinguists.Onewayofdescribingthecomponentsofawordistousefeaturesymbols,whichareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters,with“+”“-“beforethem,plussignindicatesthepresenceofacertainproperty,andminussignindicatestheabsenceofit.e.g.man:+HUMAN+ADULT+MALEwoman:+HUMAN+ADULT-MALEboy:+HUMAN-ADULT+MALEgirl:+HUMAN-ADULT-MALEwordslikefather,mother,daughterandson,whichinvolvesarelationbetweentwoentities,maybeshownasfollows:father=PARENT(X,Y)&MALE(X)mother=PARENT(X,Y)&MALE(X)verbscanalsobeanalyzedinthisway,forexampletake=CAUSE(X,(HAVE(X,Y))give=CAUSE(X,(HAVE(X,Y)))lAdvantages:byspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,wemaybetteraccountforsenserelations,Synonymy----havingthesamesemanticcomponentsAntonymy-----havingacontrastingcomponentHyponymy-----havingallsemanticcomponentsofanother.lDisadvantages:Itwouldbesenselesstoanalyzethemeaningofeverywordbybreakingitintoitsmeaningcomponents.5.SentencemeaningThedefiningofsentencemeaninghasturnedouttobeamorecomplicatedissuethanthedefiningofthemeaningsofindividuallexicalitems.Themeaningofasentenceisthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitcomponents.Themeaningofasentenceisaproductofbothlexicalandgrammaticalmeaning.Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.Academicpoint:Itdealswiththethreelinguists,thatisSaussure,ChomskyandHalliday’sdifferentpointsonmeaning,analyzesitsrootsanditseffectsonrespectivelinguisticstheoryandlanguageresearch.Saussurebelievesthatlanguageisasignsystem,whichiscombinedbysoundandmeaning.Hefirstraisesthetwoconceptsof“signifier”and“signified”,andhethinkslanguageisarbitrary,whichmeansthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenthem.Heclassifieslanguageintointernalresearchandexternalresearch.Soundsandmeaningsbelongtotheinternalfactors,whilesociety,culture,dialectandsoonbelongtoexternalfactors.Theexternalfactorscannotaffecttheinternalfactors,thushisresearchfocusesontheinternalfactorsoflanguagebutnotexternalfactors.Infact,whenhedoestheinternalresearch,heweighsthedescriptiononthelanguagestructure,butneglectsthemeaningpart.31\nWhenChomskyfirstproposestransformativegrammar,meaningisexcluded.Atthattime,hefocusesonthestudyofsyntax.Thenheacceptstheothersadvice,adjustinghisgrammarintothreeparts,grammar,speechsounds,andmeaning.However,meaningdoesn’thavetheequalpositionastheothertwoparts,Chomskythinksthatonlythesyntacticpartiscreative,generative,whilethesemanticpartisnot.HallidayisdifferentfromChomsky,whobelievesthatmeaningdeterminessyntax,thusheproposesthegrammaticaldescriptionshouldstartfrommeaning.Heconsidersthatgrammarinnatureisasemanticsystem.Inhissystemicgrammartellsusthatlanguageisnotasetofsentenceswithrightgrammar,butasystemicnetworkwithselectivemeaningfulsubsystems.Whenpeopleexpresstheirideas,theyneedchoosethesentenceswithappropriatemeaning.Addingpart:Senserelationsbetweensentences1AentailsB(AisanentailmentofB)A:HehasbeentoFrance.B:HehasbeentoEurope.A:Johnpickedatulip.B:Johnpickedaflower.Entailmentisarelationofinclusionifxentailsy,themeaningofxisincludediny.Intermoftruthvalue:Ifxistrue,yisnecessarilytrue;Ifxisfalse,ymaybetrueorfalse;Ifyistrue,xmaybetrueorfalse,IfYisfalse,xisfalse.Informula:A→B-B→-A2Presupposition(ApresupposesB)A:ThequeenofEnglandisold.B:Englandhasaqueen.A:Isyourfatherathome?B:Youhaveafather.Itreferstothekindofmeaningwhichthespeakerdoesn’tassertbutassumesthehearercanidentifyformthesentence.Intermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,Bmustbetrue.IfAisfalse,Bisstilltrue;IfBistrue,Aiseithertrueorfalse.IfBisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutA.Informula:A→B-A→B3AisinconsistentwithBA:JohnismarriedB:JohnisabachelorIntermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,BisfalseandifAisfalse,Bistrue.4AissynonymouswithBA:Theboykilledthedog.B:Thedogwaskilledbytheboy.31\n5AisacontradictionMyunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.6AissemanticallyanomalousThetablehasbadintentions.HomeworkExercises:Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:A:Tom’swifeispregnant.B:Tomhasawife.A:Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced.B:Mysisterisamarriedwoman.A:Helikesswimming.B:Helikessports.A:Johnisanorphan.B:Johnhasnofather.Self-studyguideReadChapter5Semanticsin“ModernLinguistics”byHeZhao-xiongChapter8LanguageinUseTeachingaims:enablethestudentstohaveabetterunderstandingofpragmaticsanditstwoimportanttheories.Focalpoints:Speechacttheory,thetheoryofconversationalimplicatureTeachingdifficulties:Speechacttheory,thecooperativeprincipleanditsfourmaximsTeachingprocedure1.AnintroductiontopragmaticsTodayisSunday.Itcanbe1.ananswerfor“whatdayisittoday?”2.statement3.complaint4.reminder5.criticism(reproach)6.question“TodayisSunday?”1.1Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning1.2PragmaticsThestudyoflanguageinuseorthestudyofmeaningoflanguageincontextPragmaticsisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics.Itdevelopedinthe1960sand1970s.Morrisfirstproposedtheword“pragmatics”inhis“FoundationsoftheTheoryofSigns”.Hesaidthatthestudyofsemioticsincludesthreeparts:syntax(sign---sign);semantics(sign---word);pragmatics(sign---itsuser).31\n1977JournalofPragmaticspublishedinHollandsignifiedthestartofpragmatics.2.SpeechacttheoryAtheoryaboutlanguageusedtodothings.ThetheoryoriginatedwithBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthe50’softhe20thcenturyanddevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Accordingtothistheory,weareperformingvariouskindsofactswhenwearespeaking,thuslinguisticcommunicationiscomposedofasuccessionofacts.2.1.PerformativesandconstativesPerformatives:InspeechacttheoryproposedbyJohnAustin,it’sanutterancewhichperformsanact,suchasInamethisshipTitanic.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Iwarnyoutoleaveaway(suggestion)Constatives:utteranceswhichareintendedfornarration,descriptionetc.oranutterancewhichassertssomethingthat’seithertrueorfalse,suchas“It’sraining”“Thecatisintheroom”.Later,Austinrealizedthatsuchdistinctionisnotscientific,becauseallsentencescanbeusedtodothings.“sayingisperforming”.Insomesenses,constativesarealsoperformatives.e.g.Thecatisonthemat.(implicitperformatives)Itellyouthatthecatisonthemat.(explicitperformatives)I’llbethereattwoo’clock.(implicitperformatives)Ipromisetosethereattwoo’clock.(explicitperformatives)2.2.AtheoryoftheillocutionaryactAspeakerisinmostcasesperforming3actssimultaneouslywhilemakinganutterance.a.Locutionaryact:theactofsayingsth.whichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood;anactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.b.Illocutionaryact:theactofusingasentencetoperformafunctionsuchascommand,request,etc.c.Perlocutionaryact:theresultsoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsth.Illocutionaryforce:theintentionorpurposeunderlyingtheactofsayingsth.(speaker’smeaning)e.g.Youhaveleftthedoorwideopenlocutionary:utteranceofallthewordillocutionary:expressedhisintentionofspeakingi.e.askingsb.toclosethedoor.“ormakingacomplaintperlocutionary:thehearerclosethedoororhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest2.3.Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsSpeechactstheoryarousedgreatinterestamongscholarsinthe1960’sand1970’s.OneofthosewhomadenotablecontributiontoitistheAmericanphilosopherlinguistJohnSearle.Hemadeclassificationofillocutionaryacts.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintofivegeneral31\ncategories.a.Representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrueThefilmismoving.Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.b.Directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosth,You’dbettergototheclinicOpenthewindow!c.Commisives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofactionIpromisetocomehereat7:00d.Expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.It’sverykindofyoutohelpme.I’msorryforthemessIhavemadee.Declarations:bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsth.Iappointyoumonitoroftheclass.InowdeclarethemeetingopenAlltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirforceorstrength.E.g.ClosethedoorWillyouclosethedoorDoyoumindclosingthedoor?IwouldbeverygratefulifyoucouldClosethedoor!Thedoorisopen!Thedoorplease!Whateveractweperformwithlanguagecanbecategorizedintooneofthese5kinds.3.ThetheoryofconversationalimplicatureAstheobjectiveofpragmaticstudyistoexplainhowlanguageisusedtoeffectsuccessfulcommunication,conversation,asthemostcommonandnaturalformofcommunication,hasdrawntheattentionofmanyscholars.ThetheorywasproposedbyanotherOxfordphilosopherH.P.Grice.inhislecturesunderthetitleof“Logicandconversation”.3.1Theco-operativeprinciple(CP)Gricenoticedthatindailyconversationpeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybutturntendtoimplythem.Hecoinedtheterm“implicature”torefertosuchimpliedmeaning.Andheexploredthequestionhowpeoplemanagetoconveyimplicature,whichisnotexplicitlyexpressed.AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,theparticipantmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetask.Thesegeneral31\nprinciplesarecalledthecooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedascp.TospecifytheCPfurther,Griceintroducedfourcategoriesofmaxims.(conversationalmaxims)It’sinterestingandimportanttonotethatthosemaximsarenotalwaysstrictlyobserved.Rather,forvariousreasonstheyareoftenviolatedor“flouted”,touseGrice’sterm.Someoftheseviolationsgiveriseto“conversationalimplicatures”,3.2Violationofthemaximsa.quality(telllie;rhetoricdevice)e.g.Paulismadeofiron.(metaphor)[Paulhassomepropertiessimilartothoseofiron.]Youarethecreaminmycoffee.b.quantity--whenisSusan’sfarewellparty?--sometimenextmonth--we’llallmissBillandAgatha,won’twe?--well,we’llallmissBILL.[wedidn’tmissAgatha]tautologye.g.Wariswar.[Wariscruel.]--Bobisreallyverymischievous.--Childrenarechildrenc.relation--Howdoyoulikemypainting?--Idon’thaveaneyeforbeauty,I’mafraid[Idon’tlikeitatall]--whatdoyouthinkofthelecture?--Ithoughtthelecturehadwastoobig.[Thelecturewasdullorboring.]d.manner--whereisyourmother?--she’seitherinthehouseoratthemarket.[Idon’tnowexactlywhere]3.3Characteristicsofimplicature“Conversationalimplicature”,accordingtoPaulGrice,referstotheextrameaningnotcontainedintheutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthe4maximsoftheCP.4.Post-GriceanDevelopment1.Thepolitenessprinciple(PP)2.Relevancetheory31\nAnassumptionisrelevantinacontextiffithassomecontextualeffectinthatcontextlThethreetypesofcontextualeffecta.Contextualimplication(1)A:Couldyouhaveaquicklookatmyprinter––it’snotworkingright.B:Ihavegotanappointmentateleveno’clock.(2)a.Thereareonlyfiveminutesuntileleveno’clock.b.Theprinterproblemisnotanobviousone,butwillrequireopeningitup.c.Openingtheprinterwilltakemorethanfiveminutes.(3)Aisnotabletohavealookattheprinternow.b.Strengthening/confirmationofcontextualassumption(4)A:IhaveahunchthatGillislookingforanewjob.B:Yeah,sheisstudyingjobadswhenevershe’sgotaspareminute.(5)Someonereadingjobadsisprobablylookingforanewjob.c.Eliminationofapreviouslyheldassumption(6)A:Wehavetocallanothermeeting.Idon’tthinkthatChristineisgoingtocome,sowe’llbeonepersonshortofaquorum.B:Noneedforcancellation,IseeChristinejustcomingupthedrive.Homework:QuestionsandExercises2,3,5,6Self-studyguideFurtherreadingLeech,G.N.(1983)PrinciplesofPragmatics.London:LongmanDaiWei-dong(2002)ANewConciseCourseonLinguisticsforStudentsofEnglish何自然（1995）语用学与英语学习Chapter7Socio-linguistics/languageinsociety7.1Dialects方言Dialectisaregionalorsociallydistinctivevarietyofalanguage,identifiedbyaparticularsetofwordsandgrammaticalstructures.Standardlanguageisakindofdialect.7.1.1Regionaldialects地区方言7.1.2Socialdialects社会方言7.1.3DialectsofEnglishnPhonologicaldifferencesnLexicaldifferencesnSyntacticdifferencesSevendialectareasinChinan官话、吴语、闽方言、赣方言、客家方言、湘方言、粤方言n方言区划(一般分四个层次):区、片（次方言）、小片、点如:吴语区——太湖片——苏沪嘉小片——苏州话7.1.4The“standard”dialects7.1.5Black(vernacular白话文)EnglishnPhonologynSyntaxnHistory(Origin)(1)TheAfricanslaveslearnedEnglishfromtheircolonialmastersasasecondlanguage.31\n(2)InfluencesoftheAfricanlanguagesspokenbytheslaves.(3)BEisclosertotheSoutherndialectofEnglish.*&Registers语域:arelanguagevarietiesappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,incontrasttolanguagevarieties语言变体thatareassociatedwiththesocialorregionalgroupingoftheircustomaryusers.Forthatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.Diglossia双言:referstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism双语,usuallydescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.Diglossiaisfoundinmanycountries.Inchina,therewasaperiodoftimewhenahigh,classicalformcalled文言文andalow,spokenformcalled白话文co-existed.Bilingualism双语:referstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.Therearebilingualcommunitiesinwhichtheirmemberscommonlyusetwolanguagesintheirdailylives.7.2PidginsandCreoles边缘语言和克里奥语7.2.1Linguafranca通用语/混杂语31nAtradelanguagenAcontactlanguagenAninternationallanguagenAnauxiliarylanguage31nDefinition:Alanguagewhichisusedhabituallybypeoplewhosemothertonguesaredifferentinordertofacilitatecommunicationbetweenthem。（掺有法语，西班牙语，希腊语，阿拉伯语和土耳其语的）意大利混杂语（通用于地中海的某些港口）nLinguafrancacanbegeneralizedtorefertoanyotherlanguageusedasatradeorcommunicationmedium.Thus,anylanguagecanbealinguafranca.E.g.foraperioduntilaboutthe18thcentury,EuropeanscholarsusedLatinasalinguafrancafortreatisesonscienceandotherscholarlysubjects.Chinese普通话isalinguafrancaforthecommunicationofthespeakersof56differentnationalities.AlsoEnglishfortheinternationalspeakers.7.2.2Pidgins边缘语言nDefinition:Apidginlanguageisalinguafrancawhichhasnonativespeakers,simplyamarginallanguage.（在贸易或交往中形成的不同语种的）混杂语，混杂行话。nFeaturesReductioninvocabularyandgrammarEliminationofcomplexitiesandirregularitiesnTheoriginofthenameHebrewpidjommeaning“tradeorexchange”7.2.3Creoles克里奥语nDefinition:Acreoleisapidginwhichhasacquirednativespeakers.克里奥耳人（常指出生于美洲的欧洲人及其后裔，也指其与黑人的混血儿，或指路易斯安那人）讲的法语方言。nFeaturesExpandinginstructureandvocabularytoexpresstherangeofmeaningsServingtherangeoffunctionsrequiredofafirstlanguagenTheoriginofthename：FrenchCreole“half-breed”Althoughbothpidginsandcreolesoriginateashighlyrestrictedvernacularsofaparticularkind,creolescanincertaincircumstancesachievethestatusofstandards.7.3StylesandOthers31Slang俚语:isacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedby31\nspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.E.g.thehardhats(slang)–constructionworkers(formal);begoingdownthetubes(slang)—willbewasted(formal)Jargonandargot行话:Taboo禁忌语:referstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.E.g.Christiansareforbiddento“taketheLord’snameinvain”,andthisprohibitionhasbeenextendedtotheuseofcursewordssuchas“hell”and“damn”31Euphemisms委婉语:amild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionssubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlyoroffensive.E.g.passaway/kickthebucket---die;correctionalfacility---prison;developmentarea—slumarea317.4LanguageandGenderSex-preferentialdifferentiationintermsofspeechvarietiesofmalesandfemalesexistsinallnaturallanguagesacrosstheworld.Femalelanguage(usuallyindirect,polite)nLexicalhedgesorfillers,e.g.youknow,sortof,well,yousee.nTagquestions,e.g.She'sverynice,isn'tshe?n'Empty'adjectives,e.g.divine,charming,cute.Chapter8Historicallinguistics/languagechange历史语言学／语言变化Changeiseternal.OldEnglishperiod(OE)古英语时期:Anglo-Saxon(about449--1100)MiddleEnglish中古英语时期:French,English,Latin(about1100--1500)ModernEnglish现代英语时期：(about1500tillnow)8.1PhonologicalChange语音变化8.1.1SoundlossnNicht/nixt/→night,knight/knait/,helpe,name/na:ma:/,love/lufu/8.1.2Soundadditionnemty→empty,glimse→glimpse,timer→timber,spinle→spindle8.1.3Soundmovement(metathesis)nbridd→bird,hros→horse,clapse→clasp8.1.4TheGreatVowelShift8.2MorphologicalChange　形态变化OESingularOEPluralnominativestan“stone”stanas“stones”genitivestanes“stone’s”stana“stones’”8.3LexicalChange　词汇变化8.3.1Newwords8.3.2Borrowings31nGreeknLatinnDutchnGermannItaliannSpanishnChinese318.3.3Lossofwords8.4SemanticChange　语义变化318.4.1Broadening8.4.2Narrowing8.4.3Meaningshifts318.5LanguagesoftheWorld世界语言分类31\nSino-Tibetan汉藏语系Indo-European　印欧语系Afro-Asiatic亚非语系　　etc.Dravidian德拉威语Uralic乌拉尔语系8.6Languageclassification了解nAccordingtosoundsystem1.Stresslanguage:English,Sanskrit,Greek,Coeurd’Alene(USA),Finnish,Czech,Hawaiian,SouthernPaiute(USA),Polish,French2.Tonelanguage:Chinese,Twi(Niger-Congo),Yoruba(Nigeria)3.Stress-pitchlanguage(Tonescanoccurcoincidentlywiththeprimarystress.):Swedish,Norwegian,Serbo-Croatian,AncientGreek,Takelma(anIndianlanguage)nAccordingtomorphology1.Isolatinglanguage(孤立语):Vietnamese,Chinese,South-EastAsianlanguages2.Agglutinating(agglutinative)language(粘着语):Turkish,Hungarian,Japanese,Korean,Finnish,SwahilinTurkish:odalarimdan(从我的[一些]房间里),其词素成分为-lar-im-dan,表示“复数、第一人称、离格”，一个独特的范畴。3.Inflected(inflecting,inflectional)language(屈折语):Latin,Russian,Sanskrit,AncientGreek,Arabic4.Polysynthetic(incorporating)language(多式综合语):Eskimo,AmericanIndianlanguagesnAccordingtowordorder1.SVO:English,French,German,Tai,Miao,Yao,Vietnamese2.SOV:Japanese,Turkish,someTibeto-BurmeselanguagessuchasKarenandBai3.VSO:Welsh4.OVS:Hixkaryana(NorthBrazil)5.VOS:Malagasy(Madagascar,Indonesia)nAccordingtowritingsystem1.Logographicwriting(词符文字):Chinese,Egyptian(cf.pictography图画文字，形符，ideography意符文字)2.Syllabicwriting:Japanese,Cherokee(cf.cuneiform楔形文字)3.Alphabeticwriting字母文字:English,French,German,IcelandicandmostEuropeanlanguages.SomeAsianandAfricanlanguagesborrowedfromLatinalphabets,suchasTurkish,Indonesian,Vietnamese,etc.31