认知语言学讲稿 25页

ABriefIntroductiontoCognitiveLinguisticsSelf-introductionwFellowshipsandaffiliationswCurrentfieldsofinterestswEducationalbackgroundwMajorpublications汪少华w语言学博士,教授，博士生导师中国功能语言学研究会理事w中国认知语言学研究会副秘书长，常务理事w南京师范大学外国语学院英语系主任w主要研究兴趣:语言学、隐喻学、语用学和语言教学研究等EducationalBackgroundw1996-1999,M.A.EastChinaNormalUniversitywSocio-linguistics,LanguageTeachingw 1999-2002,Ph.D.FudanUniversitywFunctionallinguistics,Pragmatics,Cognitivelinguistics,CognitivePoetics,CognitiveSciencew 2002-2005,Post-doctoralresearcher,DepartmentofChineseLanguageandLiterature,NanjingNormalUniversitywCorpusLinguistics,ContrastiveStudiesofChineseandEnglish,MachineTranslationwPublicationsMainContentsw1.Introductionw2.ConceptualMetaphorTheoryw3.ImageSchemaTheoryw4.ConceptualBlendingTheoryw5.CognitiveGrammarSomeAssumptionsw1.    Cognitivesemanticsisnosodifficultasitsounds.wMetaphorswelivebywBlendingisthewaywethink.w2.    Thisisasurveyofsurvey—briefintroductiontoCMT,CBT,CG,IST,PTTw3.    SinceCSisanewdiscipline,mostofthequestionsareopen.Everyonecancontributealittletoitinsomewayorother.w4. Abirdinthehandisworththantwointhebush.5.    Interactiveprocess:wemaydiscusssomeproblemstogetherviamyemail(addresss:wshdaniel@sohu.com)w 25\nMajorReferencesEvaluation(TermPaper)MetaphormaniawMetaphoristhehallmarkofgenius.Scholars:GeorgeLakoff,GillesFauconnier,MarkTurner,MarkJohnson,RonaldW.Langacker,JohnTaylor,etc.LecturesConferencesScopeofCognitiveLinguistics1.  Whatissemantics?nDefinition:Semanticsisthescientificstudyofmeaninginlanguage.2. Differentapproachestosemantics1) PhilosophynAustin:PerformativesandspeechactsnStrawson:presuppositionnGrice:implicature2) Logic:truth-conditionsemantics3) AnthropologynMalinowski:theoryofcontextofsituationnKinshipsemantics:componentialanalysis4) Psychology:HowweprocesslanguageinitsproductionandreceptionnBehavourism:stimulus-responsenMentalism:interpretivesemantics;generativesemanticsnExamples:3.CognitivesciencenCognitivescience:Cognitivescienceisthescientificdisciplinethatstudiesconceptualsystems.Itisarelativelynewdiscipline,havingbeenfoundedinthe1970s.4.Theterm“Cognitive”nCognitive:Incognitivescience,thetermcognitiveisusedforanykindofmentaloperationorstructurethatcanbestudiedinpreciseterms.Allaspectsofthoughtandlanguage,consciousorunconscious,arecognitive.5.First-generationcognitivesciencenFirst-generationcognitivescienceevolvedinthe1950sand1960s,centeringonideasaboutsymboliccomputation.Itacceptedwithoutquestiontheprevailingviewthatreasonwasdisembodiedandliteral__asinformallogicorthemanipulationofasystemofsigns.6.Second-generationcognitivesciencenItisfoundedinthe1970s.nItfocusesonunconsciousconceptualsystems.7.CognitivelinguisticsnCognitivelinguisticsnDefinition:Cognitivelinguisticsisalinguistictheorythatseekstousethediscoveriesofsecond-generationcognitivesciencetoexplainasmuchoflanguageaspossible.8.AssumptionofCognitiveLinguisticsnConceptsareneuralstructuresthatallowustomentallycharacterizeourcategoriesandreasonaboutit.Anembodiedconceptisaneuralstructurethatisactuallypartof,ormakesuse25\nof,thesensorimotorsystemofourbrain.Muchofconceptualinferenceis,therefore,sensorimotorinference.nLanguageisoneofourmostimportantwindowsintotheworkingsofthemind.Itisnottheonlywindow,butitisthesourceofavastmajorityoftheevidenceaboutcognition.nThegrammarofalanguageconsistsofthehighlystructuredneuralconnectionslinkingtheconceptualandexpressive(phonological)aspectsofthebrain.9.  Whatiscognitivesemantics?nDefinition:cognitivesemanticsstudieshumanconceptualsystems,meaning,andinference.Inshort,itstudieshumanreason.10.Themostbasicresults:nConceptsarisesfrom,andareunderstoodthrough,thebody,thebrain,andtheexperienceintheworld.nConceptscruciallymakeuseofimaginativeaspectsofmind:frames,metaphor,metonymy,prototypes,radialcategories,mentalspaces,andconceptualblending.Abstractconceptsariseviametaphoricalprojectionsfrommoredirectlyembodiedconcepts(e.g.,perceptualandmotorconcepts).nSuchembodiedmechanismsofconceptualizationandthoughtarehiddenfromourconsciousness,buttheystructureourexperienceandareconstitutiveofwhatwedoconsciouslyexperience.11.TraditionalfalseassumptionsAlleverydayconventionallanguageisliteral,andnoneismetaphorical.Allsubjectmattercanbecomprehendedliterally,withoutmetaphor.Onlyliterallanguagecanbecontingentlytrueorfalse.Alldefinitionsgiveninthelexiconofalanguageareliteral,notmetaphorical.Theconceptsusedinthegrammarofalanguageareallliteral;nonearemetaphorical.Theevidencefortheexistenceofasystemofconventionalconceptualmetaphorsisoffivetypes:n-Generalizationsgoverningpolysemy,thatis,theuseofwordswithanumberofrelatedmeanings.n-Generalizationsgoverninginferencepatterns,thatis,caseswhereapatternofinferencesfromoneconceptualdomainisusedinanotherdomain.n-Generalizationsgoverningnovelmetaphoricallanguage(see,Lakoff&Turner,1989).n-Generalizationsgoverningpatternsofsemanticchange(see,Sweetser,1990).n-Psycholinguisticexperiments(see,Gibbs,1990,thisvolume).nCognitivelinguistics(CL):anintroductionnPrototypesandcategoriesnLevelsofcategorizationnFramesnFigureandgroundnConceptualmetaphorsandmetonymiesnOtherissuesinCL25\n12.CognitiveLinguistics:anIntroductionnWhatisCLandwheredoesitfitin?nThetermcognitive:n‚Cognitivemeansrelatingtothementalprocessinvolvedinknowing,learning,andunderstandingthings.‘(COBUILD)nInthatmanymodernlinguistsrecognizethatlanguageknowledgeresidesinthemindsofspeakerstheymightbesaidtopractice‚cognitive‘linguisticsnChomskyanlinguisticsas‚cognitivelinguistics‘andthe‚cognitiveturn‘inlinguisticsnSyntacticStructures(Chomsky1957),AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax(Chomsky1965):grammarexistsinspeakers‘minds;innateUG;languageasautonomouscomponentofthemind:knowledgeoflanguageformsanautonomousmodule/facultyindependentofothermentalprocessesnCognitiveLinguistics:definitionsanddescriptionsn„[A]descriptivelabelforaratherbroadmovementwithinmodernlinguistics.Itincludesavarietyofapproaches,methodologies,andemphases,whichare,however,unifiedbyanumberofcommonassumptions.Foremostamongtheseisthebeliefthatlanguageformsanintegralpartofhumancognition,andthatanyinsightfulanalysisoflinguisticphenomenawillneedtobeembeddedinwhatisknownabouthumancognitiveabilities.“(Taylor2002:3f.)n„Cognitivelinguistics[…]isanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.“(Ungerer&Schmid1996:x)nInCLresearchisshapedfromtheoutsetbywhatisbelievedtobecognitivelyplausible.Languageasanintegralpartofcognition:studyoflanguageinlightofwhatisknownaboutthemind(experimentation,introspection,common-senseobservation)n„CognitiveLinguistsstudymuchthesamekindofthingsasanyotherlinguist–syntax,morphology,phonology,wordmeaning,discoursestructure[…].ButthegeneralthrustoftheCognitiveLinguisticsenterpriseistorendertheseaccountsconsonantwithaspectsofcognitionwhicharewelldocumentedorself-evident,oratleasthighlyplausible,andwhichmaywellbemanifestedinnon-linguisticactivities.“(Taylor2002:9)nThreemain‘topics’/approaches:experientialism,prominence,attention1.Experientialism(vsobjectivism)Experientialismrejectsthebasicbeliefofobjectivismthatcategoriesexistinobjectivereality,togetherwiththeirpropertiesandrelations,independentlyofourconsciousness.Symbolsoflanguagearemeaningfulbecausetheyareassociatedwiththeseobjectivecategories.Threedoctrinesofobjectivismthatarerefuted:•Thedoctrineoftruth-conditionalmeaning:Meaningisbasedonreference+truth•The‘correspondence’theoryoftruth:Truthconsistsinthecorrespondencebetweensymbolsandstates-of-affairsintheworld•Thedoctrineofobjectivereference:thereisan‘objectivelycorrect’waytoassociatesymbolswiththingsintheworld.àInstead,experientialismsuggeststhat“ourbodilyexperienceandthewayweuseimaginativemechanismsarecentraltohowweconstructcategoriestomakesenseofexperience.”(Lakoff1987:xii)2.Prominence:selectionandarrangementofinformation3.Attention:whichaspectofaneventattractsattentionWhystudyCL?n1)oneofthemostrecentapproacheswithinlinguistics,25\nn2)unifiedcognitiveexplanationoflanguage,n3)applicabletoTEFLThirtyyearsofCLthreelandmarksinthehistoryofCLn1975-1977theearlybeginnings:Talmy1975onfigure/groundLangacker1976onCognitiveGrammarLakoff1977on‘gestalt’modelsThirtyyearsofCLthreelandmarksinthehistoryofCLn1987-1989enteringtheinternationalscene:1987Langacker:FoundationsofCognitiveGrammar1987Lakoff:Women,Fire&DangerousThings1988Rudzka-Ostyn(ed.),TopicsinCL19891stIntlCognitiveLinguisticsConference1989launchingCognitiveLinguistics,thejournalThirtyyearsofCLthreelandmarksinthehistoryofCLnfrom1996-1998oninternationalconsolidation:publicationoftextbooksandreferenceworksfoundationofnationalICLAaffiliatesThirtyyearsofCLthreelandmarksinthehistoryofCLnfrom1996-1998oninternationalconsolidation:publicationoftextbooksandreferenceworksfoundationofnationalICLAaffiliatesThirtyyearsofCLthreelandmarksinthehistoryofCLnfrom1996-1998oninternationalconsolidation:publicationoftextbooksandreferenceworksfoundationofnationalICLAaffiliatesThirtyyearsofCLsimplifyinginthreedecades:25\nn1977-1987:thepioneeringstagen1987-1997:theexpansionstagen1997-2007:theconsolidationstageThirtyyearsofCLsimplifyinginthreedecades:n1977-1987:thepioneeringstagen1987-1997:theexpansionstagen1997-2007:theconsolidationstage®whatarethetheoreticaldevelopmentsaccompanyingthissociologicalexpansion?StepIITheWiderContextOverviewanoverviewofthedevelopmentoflinguistictheoryinthe20thcentury:ndecontextualizationninitialreactionsnrecontextualizationclaim:CLepitomizestherecontextualizingtendencySaussureanGrammarnlangue:asocialsystemacollectivesetofcodedconventionsnparole:anindividual,psychologicalactivityasetofcombinationsfromthecodeSaussureanGrammarnamissinglink:whereisthelocusofanindividual'sknowledgeofthesocialsystem?whatisthebridgebetweenthesocialcodeandtheindividualactivity?graphically:SaussureanGrammarSaussureanGrammarChomskyanGrammarncompetence:fillinginthegapanindividual'sknowledgeofthelanguagenbutcreatinganewhiatus:thesocialnatureofthesystemremainsoutofsightagainabinaryinsteadofaternarydivisionChomskyanGrammar25\nChomskyanGrammarconsequencesoftheChomskyanposition:nwheredoestheindividualknowledgeofthelanguagecomefrom?ifthesourceoflinguisticknowledgeisnotsocial,whatisit?⇨innateness,ageneticconceptionoflanguagenhence:astepping-stonedevelopment,leadingbyaninternallogictoanisolationofgrammar:ChomskyanGrammarinotherwords:arestrictivestrategythatseparatestheautonomousgrammaticalmodulefromdifferentformsofcontext:nthesocialcontextnthediscursivecontextofactuallanguageusenthecognitivecontextofmeaningandexperience↳decontextualisationInitialreactionsn1960-1980:nthediscardedaspectsoflanguagearedevelopedseparately,asdisciplinesmoreorlessindependentfromtheoreticalgrammarContemporarytrendsgeneral(oratleastgrowing)tendencydissatisfactionwiththemodularviewoflinguistics,infavorofanintegratedapproach:theperipheralaspectsthatwerebeingdevelopedlargelyseparatelyandautonomously,arebeinglinkedupmorenarrowlywiththegrammaritself(whichcanthennolongerbeautonomous)Contemporarytrends↳howdoesthisworkinCL?i.e.howdoesCLintegrate-meaning-thelexicon-theperformancelevel-thesocialsideoflanguage?StepIIICognitiveLinguisticsasaRecontextualizingApproachRecoveringmeaningthebasicvocabularyofCLinvolvesasetofsemanticconcepts:prototype,schematicnetwork,conceptualmetaphor,metonymy,conceptualintegration,idealizedcognitivemodels,framesandallsortsofconstrualmechanismsRecoveringthelexiconthefamilyofconstructiongrammarsconstitutealexicalistapproachinvariousrespectsnconstructionsmayconsistofabstractentitiestogtherwithlexicallyspecificelementsnconstructions,evenifabstract,havetobestudiedtogetherwiththeirlexicalrealization25\nnsemantically,constructionsexhibitthesamestructuralfeaturesaslexicalcategoriesRecoveringperformancefromthebeginningofCL,thereisaninterestinpragmaticmeaning(cp.grammaticalizationresearch),butthetendencybecomesoutspokenwithnthedefinitionCLasausage-basedtheoryofgrammarnthegrowinginterestinappliedCL(acquisition,poetics,languagelearning,criticaldiscourseanalysis)Recoveringthesocialcontexttwomajortendencies:nsituatedembodimentandtheculturalbackgroundofmeaning:culturalmodelsnvariationistCL:cognitivesociolinguisticsCLfromthepointofviewoflectalvariation(dialectal,regiolectal,sociolectal,stylisticvariation)Kristiansen&Dirven(eds.)2007SummaryConceptualMetaphorWangShao-huaLandmarkbooksG.Lakoff&M.Johnson,MetaphorsWeLiveBy(1980)G.Lakoff&M.Johnson,PhilosophyintheFlesh(1999)nClassicalviewofmetaphor:metaphorwasseenasamatteroflanguagenotthought.Metaphoricalexpressionswereassumedtobemutuallyexclusivewiththerealmofordinaryeverydaylanguage:everydaylanguagehadnometaphor,andmetaphorusedmechanismsoutsidetherealmofeverydayconventionallanguage.ThecontemporaryviewofmetaphornMetaphoricalexpressionsarenotinlanguage,butinthought:Theyaregeneralmappingsacrossconceptualdomains.nThewordmetaphorhascometomeanacross-domainmappingintheconceptualsystem.Thetermmetaphoricalexpressionreferstoalinguisticexpression(aword,phrase,orsentence)thatisthesurfacerealizationofsuchacross-domainmapping(thisiswhatthewordmetaphorreferredtointheoldtheory).ThetermconceptualmetaphornInusingthetermconceptualmetaphor,LakoffandJohnsonsoughttoemphasizethedistinctionbetweenmetaphorasakindofutteranceandmetaphorintherealmofthought.Ontheiraccount,itisnottheuseofalinguisticmetaphorsuchas"timeismoney"thatisultimatelyresponsibleforstructuringone'sunderstandingoftimeintermsofcurrency,butratheritisthemetaphoricalwayofthinkingabouttimethatleadstotheuseoftheverbalmetaphor.nMetaphor,onthisaccount,isprimarilyamatterofthought.Boththeverbalinstantiationsofthemetaphorandthepartialrestructuringofthewaythemetaphor'stopicdomainisunderstoodareproductsoftheunderlyingconceptualmetaphor.DiscussionQuestions(Reddy)nReddy“TheConduitMetaphor”(BrookeMaury)nInReddy’s‘conduitmetaphor,’wordsareenvisionedaspackagesofinformationtransmittedfromonepersontoanother.Theroleofthesenderandreceiverismainlytopackageandunpackagethe‘content’ofthewordstheyaresendingandreceiving.Isthisreallyausefulmetaphorforhumancommunication?25\nTheconduitmetaphorIdeasandthoughtsareobjectsWordsandsentencesarecontainersCommunicationconsistsofsendingthe(filled)containerstoahearerUnderstandingistakingthecontentsoutofthecontainersMetaphorof/inCommunicationnIt'shardtogetthatideaacrosstohim.nIgaveyouthatidea.nIt'sdifficulttoputmyideasintowords.nThemeaningisrightthereinthewords.nHiswordscarrylittlemeaning.nThat'snotwhatIgotoutofwhathesaid.TheConduitMetaphornLanguagefunctionslikeaconduit,transferringthoughtsbodilyfromonepersontoanothernInwritingandspeaking,peopleinserttheirthoughtsorfeelingsinthewordsnWordsaccomplishthetransferbycontainingthethoughtsorfeelingsandconveyingthemtoothersnInlisteningorreading,peopleextractthethoughtsandfeelingsonceagainfromthewordsnIt’shardtogetthatideaacrosstohim.nIgaveyouthatidea.nYourreasonscamethroughtous.nIt’sdifficulttoputmyideasintowords.nWhenyouhaveagoodidea,trytocaptureitimmediatelyinwords.nTrytopackmorethoughtintofewerwords.nYoucan’tsimplystuffideasintoasentence.Example(1)dead-endstreet,crossroads,stuck,spinningone'swheels,notgoinganywhereCross-domainmappingnTHELOVE-AS-JOURNEYMAPPING如下:Theloverscorrespondtotravelers.情侣与旅人相对nTheloverelationshipcorrespondstothevehicle.情侣关系与交通工具相对nThelovers'commongoalscorrespondtotheircommondestinationsonthejourney.情侣的共同目标与旅人的共同目的地相对nDifficultiesintherelationshipcorrespondtoimpedimentstotravel.情侣关系中的波折与旅行中的障碍相对ConceptualMetaphorTheoryExample(2):TimeismoneynYou’rewastingmytime.nThisgadgetwillsaveyouhours.nIdon’thavethetimetogiveyou.nHowdoyouspendyourtimetheseday?nThatflattirecostmeanhour.nI’veinvestedalotoftimeinher.nIdon’thaveenoughtimetospareforthat.25\nnYou’rerunningoutoftime.nnYouneedtobudgetyourtime.nPutasidesometimeforpingpong.nIsthatworthyourwhile?nDoyouhavemuchtimeleft?nHe’slivingonborrowedtime.nYoudon’tuseyourtimeprofitably.nIlostalotoftimewhenIgotsick.nThankyouforyourtime.InmodernWesternculture,ntimeismoney,ntimeisalimitedresource,nandtimeisavaluablecommodity.ØThisisn’tanecessarywayforhumanbeingstoconceptualizetime;itistiedtowesternculture.ØTherearecultureswheretimeisnoneofthesethings.AnentailmentrelationshipnThereissubcategorizationwithinthissinglesystem.nThesesubcategorizationrelationshipscharacterizeentailmentrelationshipsbetweenthemetaphors.TIMEISMONEYTIMEISALIMITEDRESOURCETIMEISAVALUABLECOMMODITY.Metaphoricalentailmentscancharacterizeacoherentsystemofmetaphoricalconceptsandacorrespondingcoherentsystemofmetaphoricalexpressionsforthoseconcepts.e.g.TIMEISnMoney->spend,invest,budget,profitably,costnResources->use,useup,haveenoughof,runoutofnCommodities->have,give,lose,thankyouforExampleWestartedoutfromthesepremises…andarrivedattheseconclusionsWehavearrivedatacrucialpointintheargumentWhereareyougoingwiththis?IseewhereyouarecomingfromYou’rewanderingoffthetopicLet’smoveontothenextpointCanyougooverthatagainforme?Cross-domainMappingSourcedomainàTargetDomainTravellingReasoning25\ntravellerthinkerdeparturepointpremisesarrivalpointconclusionmotionreasoningprocesspathargumentplacesonapathpointsinanargumentstrayingfromthepathstrayingfromtheargumentfollowingthetravellerunderstandingaperson’sargumentgoingover(partof)thepathagainrepeating(partof)theargumentConceptualmetaphorsALINEOFTHOUGHTISAPATHAPREMISEISASTARTINGPOINTACONCLUSIONISADESTINATIONUNDERSTANDNINGISFOLLOWINGetc.LakoffMetaphorTheorynMetaphorisconceptualspacemap-mapisasymmetric:concretesourcetoabstracttarget-mapispartial:notallsourcesused-understandtargetviasource-bothentities&inferencesmappedAnExtendedExamplen“Theoriesareconstructedobjects”-Majorpremisesarefoundations-Majorclaims&argumentsarestructure-Factsarematerialconstituents-Argumentsaremortaroffacts&claims-Logicalstrengthisdesignorarchitecture-Theoristisarchitect-Believabilityisstrength-Persistenceissuccessfulstanding-FailureiscollapseTIMEisSPACEWinterisapproachingWearegettingclosetowinterLookforwardtothefutureLookbackonthepastWhatliesaheadofus?LetsputthisbehindusComingevents/past(=passed!)eventsMovethemeetingforwardtwodaysExamplesIfinditdifficulttoputmyideasintowordsTheseareemptywords25\nIdidn’tgetmuchoutofthatlectureIcan’tgetmyideasacrosstothemYourideascameacrossveryclearlyThisessayhasnocontentCross-domainAnalysisSourcedomains:motion,location,containment,distance,up/down,weight,temperature,etc.Targetdomains:time,life,emotions,reasoning,valuejudgments,communication,etc.MetaphorsoftenbasedonassociationbetweendomainsUp=more,life,happiness,status,powerHot/cold:enthusiasm,excitementMotion:changeofstateSomeconventionalizedmetaphorshavelimitedproductivityI’mlookingforwardtoseeingyouagain*lookingtowards/inthedirectionof…*lookingdirectlyforward…*lookingaheadto…*Whereareyoulookingforward(to)?5.TwoTypesofmetaphornNovelmetaphornJulietisthesun.Thesurgeonisabutcher.–XandYarebothnominalexpressions,buttheyarenotsymmetrical.Wearetalkingabout“Juliet”or“thesurgeon”ratherthan“thesun”or“abutcher.”–Quiteuncommoninordinaryspeech.Theyhavenotbeenconventionalized.–TheyarenotthetypeofmetaphorsthatLakoffintendstostudy.nConventionalizedmetaphorsnI’llseeyouat2o’clock.(theliteralmeaningofatislocativeinnature,butithasbeenmetaphoricalextendedtoapplyalsototime.TIMEISSPACE)nWehaveenteredthe21stcentury.nIfinishedthisintwohours.nTheyworkedthroughthenight.nHeisindanger.(astate“danger”hasbeenconceivedasacontainer.STATESARECONTAINERS)nThey’reinlove.nHowdowegetoutofthismess?nHefellintoadeepdepression.A(conventional)metaphoristhereforeaconceptualmappingbetweentodomains:TARGETDOMAINISSOURCEDOMAIN.Thetargetdomainisratherabstract(likeTIMEandSTATES),whereasthesourcedomain(likeSPACEandCONTAINERS)ismoreconcrete.Themappingbetweensourceandtargetdomainsinvolvestwosortsofcorrespondences.nHerangerbroiledover.(ANGERISHEATOFAFLUID).25\nnOntologicalcorrespondencenSource:HEATOFFLUIDTarget:ANGERContainerbodyHeatoffluidangerHeatscaleangerscalePressureincontainerexperiencedpressureLimitofcontainer’slimitofperson’sabilityresistancetosuppressangerExplosionlossofcontrolMetonymy-Usingoneentitytorefertoanotherthatisrelatedtoit.FunctionsofMetaphorandMetonymy§TheprimaryfunctionofMetaphorisunderstanding§AccordingtoBernhardDebatin(1995:381)thefundamentalfunctionofmetaphoristhatofrationalanticipationthatcomesfromthreebasicfunctions§thecreative-cognitive§thenormativeandworld-disclosing§thecommunicative-evocativefunctions§Metonymyhasprimarilyareferentialfunction§Itallowsonetouseoneentitytostandforanother§Itservesthefunctionofprovidingunderstanding.Metonymy->THEPARTFORTHEWHOLE§Therearemanypartsthatcanstandforthewhole§Whichpartwepickoutdetermineswhichaspectofthewholewearefocusingon§e.g.§Weneedsomegoodheadsontheprojects§(goodheads=intelligentpeople)§head->intelligentpartofthebody§TheTimeshasn’tarrivedatthepressconferenceyet.§(TheTimes=thereporterfromtheTimes)§TheTimes->theimportanceoftheinstitutionthereporterrepresentsMetonymy->THEPARTFORTHEWHOLE->THEFACEFORTHEPERSON§She’sjustaprettyface.§Thereareanawfullotoffacesoutthereintheaudience.§Weneedsomenewfacesaroundhere.§Metonymiesarenotrandomorarbitraryoccurrences25\n§Metonymicconceptsarealsosystematic§Theyareinstancesofcertaingeneralmetonymicconceptsintermsofwhichweorganizeourthoughtsandactions.§Metonymicconceptsallowustoconceptualizeonethingbymeansofitsrelationtosomethingelse§e.g.§THEPARTFORTHEWHOLEWedon’hirelonghairs.§PRODUCERFORPRODUCTHeboughtaFord.§OBJECTUSEDFORUSERThebusesareonstrike§CONTROLLERFORCONTROLLEDNixonbombedHanoi§INSTITUTIONFORPEOPLERESPONSIBLEYouwillnevergettheuniversitytoagreetothat.§Thus,likemetaphors,metonymicconceptsstructurenotjustourlanguagebutourthoughts,attitudes,andactions§Likemetaphoricconcepts,metonymicconceptsaregroundedinourexperience.§Thegroundingofmetonymicconceptsisingeneralmoreobviousthanisthecasewithmetaphoricalconcepts.§Itusuallyinvolvesdirectphysicalorcausalassociation.HowIsOurConceptualSystemGrounded?e.g.qConceptsthatareunderstooddirectlySpatialconcepts§Thestructureofourspatialconceptsemergesfromourconstantspatialexperience–ourinteractionwiththephysicalenvironment§ConceptsthatemergeinthiswayareconceptsthatwelivebyinthemostfundamentalwaynEveryexperiencetakesplacewithinavastbackgroundofculturalpresuppositions.nWeexperienceour“world”insuchawaythatourcultureisalreadypresentintheveryexperienceitself.Conceptsintermsofourbodyfunctions25\nnUP-DOWN,IN-OUT,FRONT-BACK,LIGHT-DARK,WARM-COLD,MALE-FEMALE,etc.nSuchasharplydelineatedconceptualstructureforspaceemergesfromourperceptual-motorfunctioningGroundingforourconceptualsystemWetypicallyconceptualizethenonphysicalintermsofthephysical–thatis,weconceptualizethelessclearlydelineatedintermsofthemoreclearlydelineated.ThemechanismofmetaphornFromhumantonon-humannFrominsideout:heartnFrombodyorganstoouterphenomena:foot,mouthnFromneartofar:nFromfamiliartounfamiliarPhilosophicalimplication:humanistic:man-centred,materialism-basedChineseMetaphorsofThinkingYu,N.(2003:141-165)ThinkingisObjectManipulationn思想交流n思想火花n抛在脑后n挖空心思n思想包袱n思想疙瘩n旧思想的束缚AcquiringIdeasisEatingn精神食粮n陈腐观念n陈糠烂谷子n馊主意n如饥似渴n囫囵吐枣n搜肠刮肚ThinkingisMovingn思路n想到n想通n想出n想开Examplesn门外一阵喧哗打断了她的思路。n她忽然想到一件重要的事情。n只要想通了，他就会积极地去干。n她想出一条妙计。n想开点，别生气了。n她遭人遗弃，一时想不开就自杀了。Successfulthinkingtakesacorrectdirectionn晕头转向25\nn这道算题真难，把我搞得晕头转向。n拐弯n他思想一时还拐不过弯来。nTheIntegratedTheoryofPrimaryMetaphorTheintegratedtheoryofprimarymetaphorhas4parts:•Johnson’stheoryofconflationinthecourseoflearning.Foryouchildren,subjective(nonsensorimotor)experienceandjudgments,ontheonehand,andsensorimotorexperiences,ontheother,aresoregularlyconflatedthatforatime,childrendonotdistinguishbetweentheotherwhentheyoccurredtogether.•Grady’stheoryofprimarymetaphor.Eachprimarymetaphorhasaminimalstructureandarisenaturally,automatically,andunconsciouslythrougheverydayexperiencebymeansofconflation,duringwhichcross-associationsareform.Complexmetaphorsareformedbyconceptualblending.•FauconnierandTurner’stheoryofconceptualblending.Distinctconceptualdomainscanbecoactivated,andundercertainconditionsconnectionsacrossthedomainscanbeformed,leadingtonewinferences.Suchconceptualblendingcanbeeitherconventionalorwholeoriginal.•Narayanan’sneuraltheorymetaphor.The“associations”madeduringtheperiodofconflationarerealizedneurallyinsimultaneousactivationsthatresultinpermanentneuralconnectionsbeingmadeacrosstheneuralnetworksthatdefineconceptualdomains.ComplexmetaphorsnComplexmetaphorsare“molecular”constructionsof“atomic”parts,thePrimaryMetaphors.Theconstructionprocessiscalledconceptualblending.Metaphors.Mostofthese“molecular”structuresarestableandthereforedetermineanimportantpartofourconceptualsystem.Thus,whateverwethink,say,ordo,isinfluencedbycomplexmetaphors–theyevenstructureourdreams.nAsanexample,letushaveacloserlookattheComplexMetaphorAPurposefulLifeisaJourneynPrimaryMetaphors:nPurposesAreDestinationsnActionsAreMotionsnCulturalBelief:nPeoplearesupposedtohavepurposesinlife,andtheyshouldactsoastoachievethosepurposes.nThemetaphoricalversionoftheCulturalBeliefisnPeoplearesupposedtohavedestinationsinlife,andtheyshouldmoveinsuchawayastoreachthesedestinations.nCombinedwiththefactthatnAtriptoaseriesofdestinationsisajourney,nThesetwoPrimaryMetaphorsandtheCulturalBeliefresultinaComplexMetaphor(consistingoffoursub-metaphors):nAPurposefulLifeIsAJourneynAPersonLivingALifeIsATravelernLifeGoalsAreDestinations25\nnALifePlanIsAnItineraryTheInvariancePrincipleTheInvariancePrinciplestates:metaphoricalmappingspreservethecognitivetopology(thatis,theimage-schemastructure)ofthesourcedomain,inawayconsistentwiththeinherentstructureofthetargetdomain(1993:215).GeorgeLakoff’sotherresearchareasnLakoff’sresearchcoversmanyareasofConceptualAnalysiswithinCognitiveLinguisticsnThenatureofhumanconceptualsystems,especiallymetaphorsystemsforconceptssuchastime,events,causation,emotions,morality,theself,politics,etc.nThedevelopmentofCognitiveSocialScience,whichappliesideasofCognitiveSemanticstotheSocialSciencesnTheimplicationsofCognitiveScienceforPhilosophy,incollaborationwithMarkJohnson,ChairofPhilosophyattheUniversityofOregonnNeuralfoundationsofconceptualsystemsandlanguage,incollaborationwithJeromeFeldman,oftheInternationalComputerScienceInstitute,seekingtodevelopbiologically-motivatedstructuredconnectionistsystemstomodelboththelearningofconceptualsystemsandtheirneuralrepresentationsnThecognitivestructure,especiallythemetaphoricalstructure,ofmathematics,incollaborationwithRafaelNúñezQuestionsItisoftenstated,thatconceptualweuseconceptualmetaphorsinordertogainunderstandingofabstract,intangibleconceptsintermsoftheconcreteandthefamiliar.Metaphorthereforeenriches(andenables)abstractthought.But:Canwereallyclaimthatourfeelings,emotions,thoughts,intentionsetc.(therearetypicaltargetdomainsofconceptualmetaphors)areinaccessibletouswithoutmetaphor?Surelynot!Anotherpossibility,isthatweusemetaphorinordertotalkandcommunicateaboutourfeelingsetc.Concrete(e.g.spatial)languageisabletobevalidatedbydifferentspeakers,andislikelytobeconsistentbetweenspeakers.Aremetaphors(re-)categorizations?(Glucksberg&Keyser)Samisapig.Isthisametaphor,orisittobeinterpreted‘literally’?Ifpig=farmanimal(andSamisaman),thesentencecannotbeliterallytrue.Butifpig=adirty,greedycreature(whetheranimalorman),thenitcanbeliterallytrue.Pig=farmanimalisaprototypicalinstanceofthisnew,schematiccategory.ImageschematheoryDoyouknowhowharditwouldbetotalkwithoutmetaphors?25\nNewYorkTimes:“asaleofthepersonalcomputerbusinesswouldbeastepawayfromIBM’straditionalemphasis…”nProfitsinhardwarebusinesswereslenderandgrowthprospectswerelimited.nPersonalcomputermakinghasfollowedthesamepathtoAsia…n…attackonthewebsite.nWehavereachedourgoal…Conceptualmetaphors:Metaphorspeopleunconsciouslyuseineverydaylife.i.e.)“followthesamepath”“reachedthegoal”Creativemetaphors:i.e.)Howdopeoplemakemetaphoricalsentencesunconsciously?ContemporarytheoryofmetaphorAccordingtothistheory,weunconsciouslyprocessanimageschemaprojection,thatis,aprojectionofconcreteexperiencesontoabstractconcept.Inotherwords,weuseconceptsweknowwellbasedonourexperiencestounderstandmoreabstractconceptsuchasemotions.BackgroundinformationContemporarytheoryofmetaphor(CTM)byLakoffandJohnson(1980)Thereare5primaryclaimstheyproposed:(1)Conceptualmetaphors(2)Cognitivedomainsexistence(3)Mentalimagesgroundedinperceptualexperience(4)Itsoperation:Imageschemaprojection(5)Evidence:Linguisticexpressions(1)Whatareconceptualmetaphors?nTheyfocusononlyconceptualmetaphors.nConventionalizedmetaphorexpressions(NOTpoeticorcreativemetaphorexpressions)Metaphorspeopleuseunconsciouslyandautomatically.i.e.)Igotanidea.Shestolemyidea.Weexchangeourideas.(2)CognitivedomainsexistenceTheessenceofmetaphorisunderstandingandexperiencingonekindofthing(abstractdomain)intermsofanother(concretedomain).i.e.)ANGERISHOTLIQUIDINACONTAINERmetaphor25\nèAconceptofANGERisunderstoodintermsofHOTLIQUIDINACONTAINERconcept.“Shewasbrimmingwithrage”àangerisheatofaliquidinacontainern“Hegotsteamedupaboutwhatshesaid”àintensityofangerisdegreeoftemperature(producingsteam)n“Hemanagedtokeephisangerbottledupinsidehim”àSuppressingangerisclosingacontainer(3)MentalimagesgroundedinperceptualexperienceConcretedomainscontainimagecomponentscalledMentalImages.Theycomefromperceptualexperienceorbodilybasedexperience.(4)ImageschemaprojectionnItisanoperationformetaphorproduction.Itprojectspartofageneralstructureofarecurrentpatternofbodilyexperienceontoanother.nIt'sdynamic,ratherthanstatic(item-to-itemprojection).nUnconsciousandautomatic.nInordertotalkandthinkaboutabstractdomainweusethestructureofotherconcretedomains.i.e.)“ANGERISHOTLIQUIDINACONTAINER”WeprojectinternalstructurefromoureverydayconceptionofHOTLIQUIDINACONTAINERtoorganizeoureverydayconceptionofANGER.Sinceprojectionisnotsimpleimage-to-imagemappings,instead,itisadynamicstructureprojection,wecanalsoprojectinferencesfromaconcretedomaintoanabstractdomain.(5)LinguisticevidenceforConceptualmetaphorsTheevidenceforconceptualmetaphorsisinferredfromlinguisticexpressionsthatoccursystematicallyandconsistentlyintheeverydayspeech.nAngerishotliquidinacontainer:“Shewasbrimmingwithrage”“Hegotsteamedupaboutwhatshesaid”“Hemanagedtokeephisangerbottledupinsidehim”“Lethimstew”ExamplesforContainmentmetaphorsTheresultsshowthewholedomainofContainmentWords((Static&Dynamicwords)):i.e.)‘Sally+trouble’nSallyisintrouble.ànSallygotoutofthetrouble.nSally’slifeisfulloftrouble.i.e.)‘Tom+situation’nTomisindifficultsituation.à25\nnTomputusinastrangesituation.àExamplesforContainmentmetaphorsTheresultsshowthewholedomainofpossessionwords((Static&Dynamicwords)):i.e.)‘Sally+trouble’nSallyishavingtroublewithherfamily.ànSallygavemetoomuchtrouble.ài.e.)‘Tom+pain’nTomhasapainintheback.ànThatgaveTomalotofpain.nTomdidnottakegreatpain.ncontainer(in/out)nmomentumnenablementnsource-path-goal(SPG)ncyclenpart/wholenfull-emptynmergingnmatchingncontactncompulsionnrestraintremovalniterationnsurfacenbalancenattractionntransfernlinkn nnear/farnobjectnmass/countncenter/peripherynscalensplittingnsuperpositionnprocessncollectionnfigure/groundnverticality(up/down)Herearesomekindsofforceschemata:Whatisanattractionschema?Whatisabalanceschema?Whatisablockageschema?Whatisacompulsionschema?25\nWhatisacounterforceschema?Whatisadiversionschema?Whatisanenablementschema?(Central)IMAGE-schemaOVERInstancesofOVER-schemaTheballoonisflyingoverthehouseThebirdisflyingoverthetreenThefigurefollowsaPATHnThefigureiscalledaTRAJECTOR(thepathofabulletisitstrajectory-German‘Flugbahn’)nThegroundfunctionsasandiscalledLANDMARKnTrajector=mostprominentelement(figure)inarelationalstructure;landmark=groundntrajector/landmarkasbasisforanalysisofvariousprepositionalmeanings,e.g.out,up(Central)IMAGE-schemasOUT/UPnHandoutnLocativerelations(prepositions)canbeanalysedintermsofimageschemaswhichconsistofatrajector,alandmarkandaPATH.ElaborationsnVariationsofcentralschemanAccountforspecificmeanings(polysemy),linkedbysimilaritytocentralschemanhandoutnMetaphoricalextensions(Shehasastrangepoweroverme)ActivitynThetableisunderthepennThepenisonthetablenThewomanisinfrontofthehousenThehouseisbehindthewomannExplainwhysomeoftheseexamplesareunusual(although‘grammaticallycorrect’!)nButspecialcontext?n-Whichhouseishis?n-Oh,theonejustbehindthiswomanovertherenWomanaslandmark(cognitivereferencepoint)OtherschemasnRemember:imageschemasaregroundedinphysicalexperience(perceiving,moving,exerting,experiencingforce…);usedtoorganizemoreabstractdomainsnCONTAINMENTschemanExperience:bodyascontainer,beinginrooms,puttingthinsintocontainersnE.g.She‘sdeepinthought(activityascontainer)nPolysemyofINasexpressingdifferentrelationshipsbetweenentity+container;meaningsagainasextensionsfromacentralcontainmentschemaThewaterinthevaseThecrackinthevase25\nThecrackinthesurfaceThebirdinthetreeThechairinthecornernPATHschemanShe‘swritingaPhDthesisandshe‘snearlythere(activityasmovingalongaPATH)nFORCEschemanForceFactsonEntityEFBlockage:FnRemovalofRestraintFnappliedtomodalverbanalysisnOtherschemas:links,balance,up-down,front-back,part-whole,centre-peripherynSummary:„imageschemasare…experientially-basedconceptualconstructsbywhichwecharacterize,forexample,spatialrelations,andwhichcanbemetaphoricallyextendedacrossarangeofdomains,typicallyshiftingfromtheexternalandconcretetotheinternalandabstract“(Saeed:p.318)Conclusionimageschemaprojectionoccursduringmetaphorproduction.ConceptualBlendingTheoryMentalSpaces•Usedtodescribehowlanguageusersassignandmanipulatereference•Inconversationweconstrueso-calledmentalspaces,e.g.whenwetalkaboutShakespeare‘splayJuliusCaesar:worldofplay(mentalspaceno1)JuliusCaesarrealworld/history(mentalspaceno2)25\n•WhenweusethenameJuliusCaesartorefertosomeonewecanreferto•Thecharacterintheplay•Thehistoricalfigure•TheactoràTherearelinksbetweenallofthem:theactorplaysthecharacterwhoisbasedonahistoricalfigure;usageexplicablebytheso-calledIdentificationPrinciple.•Thisisbestexplainedbyreferencetoadifferentexample:Grahamisveryyoung(picture-person)•Iftwoobjects,a+b,arelinkedbyapragmaticfunctionF(b=F(a)),adescriptionofa(da)maybeusedtoidentifyitscounterpartb.PictureofGraham(b)Graham(a)image(F)àDescriptionof(a),da,(hisname,Graham=TRIGGER)canbeusedtoidentifyhisimage(b=TARGET)•Someadditionalexamples:InLen‘spainting,thegirlwithblueeyeshasgreeneyesMS1=realworldofSMS2=paintinggirl+blueeyes(a)girl+greeneyes(b)abCONNECTORàTheimagerelationshipismadeexplictbyPP(inLen‘spainting);person-imageconnector•World-mindconnector=mentalparalleltoimageconnectors:Lenbelievesthatthegirlwithblueeyeshasgreeneyesgirlwithblueeyes(a)girlwithgreeneyes(b)abCONNECTORS‚real‘worldLen‘sbeliefs(reported)•Triggersforsettingupmentalspaces=„spacebuilders“•Adverbials:inJoan‘snovel•Adverbs:really,possibly•Hypotheticalspace:If…then(IfIwererich,I‘dmovefromGermanytoaCaribbeanIsland)•Mentalverbs:believe,hope,imagine•[ReferentialOpacity;Presupposition]•Summary:spaceformationistriggeredbylanguageandallowsforflexibilityinreferencemanipulation25\nDOUBLESCOPENETWORKSWhat?Theoperations,mechanisms,principles,constraints.Why?Theevolutionaryandcoevolutionaryaspect.How?Theneurobiologicalsubstrate.VITALRELATIONS:INNER-SPACEANDOUTER-SPACEConstitutivePrinciplesLanguageasaresultofintegrationsandasasystemofpromptsforintegrationsPolysemy("Father")DebateWithKantCOMPRESSIONINATWO-WORDNUTSHELLGoverningPrinciplesforCompressionGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESFORCOMPRESSION,1GOVERNINGPRINCIPLESFORCOMPRESSION,2GOVERNINGPRINCIPLESFORCOMPRESSION,3GOVERNINGPRINCIPLESFORCOMPRESSION,4GOVERNINGPRINCIPLESFORCOMPRESSION,5GOVERNINGPRINCIPLESFORCOMPRESSION,6GOVERNINGPRINCIPLESFORCOMPRESSION,7Compressingouter-spacevitalrelationsintoinner-spacestructureintheblendOtherGoverningPrinciplesOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLESOTHERGOVERNINGPRINCIPLES25\nTypesofNetworksBlendingandLanguageBlendingNetworksBlendingNetworksBorrowingaCompression25