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[Expand]SupportWikipedia:anon-profitproject—DonateNowAbbreviationFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopediaJumpto:navigation,searchFortheHTMLtag,seeHTMLelement.ForguidelinesonmakingandeditingabbreviationarticlesonWikipedia,seeWikipedia:Disambiguationandabbreviations.Thisarticleneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelpimprovethisarticlebyaddingreliablereferences.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallengedandremoved.(May2008)Anabbreviation(fromLatinbrevis"short")isashortenedformofawordorphrase.Usually,butnotalways,itconsistsofaletterorgroupofletterstakenfromthewordorphrase.Forexample,theword"abbreviation"canitselfberepresentedbytheabbreviation"abbr."or"abbrev."Contents[hide]·1History·2Typesofabbreviationo2.1Syllabicabbreviation§2.1.1Useinvariouslanguages§2.1.2Syllabicabbreviationsinnamesoforganizations·3StyleconventionsinEnglisho3.1Lowercaseletterso3.2Periods(fullstops)andspaceso3.3Pluralformso3.4Conventionsfollowedbypublicationsandnewspapers§3.4.1UnitedStates§3.4.2UnitedKingdom§3.4.3Miscellaneousandgeneralrules·4Measurement·5Seealso·6References·7Externallinks\n[edit]HistoryAbbreviationhasbeenusedaslongasphoneticscriptexisted,insomesensesactuallybeingmorecommoninearlyliteracy,wherespellingoutawholewordwasoftenavoided,initialletterscommonlybeingusedtorepresentwordsinspecificapplication.ByclassicalGreeceandRome,thereductionofwordstosingleletterswasstillnormal,butnolongerthedefault.Anincreaseinliteracyhas,historically,sometimesspawnedatrendtowardabbreviation.ThestandardizationofEnglishinthe15ththrough17thcenturiesincludedsuchagrowthintheuseofabbreviation[1].Atfirst,abbreviationsweresometimesrepresentedwithvarioussuspensionsigns,notonlyperiods.Forexample,specificphonemesetslike"er"weredroppedfromwordsandreplacedwithɔ,like"mastɔ"insteadof"master"orexacɔbateinsteadof"exacerbate".Whilethisseemstrivial,itwassymptomaticofanattemptbypeoplemanuallyreproducingacademictextstoreducetheircopytime.AnexamplefromtheOxforduniversityRegister,1503:Mastɔsubwardenɔyɔmēdemetoyou.Andwherɔywrottoyouthelastwykethatytrouydeittgoodtodifferrɔthelectionɔovɔtoquīdenaɔtinitatisyhavebethougħtmesynɔthatittwollbethenɔabowtemydsomɔ.Inthe1830sintheUnitedStates,startingwithBoston,abbreviationbecameafad.Forexample,duringthegrowthofphilologicallinguistictheoryinacademicBritain,abbreviatingbecameverytrendy.Theuseofabbreviationforthenamesof"Fatherofmodernetymology"J.R.R.TolkienandhisfriendC.S.Lewis,andothermembersofOxfordliterarygroupknownastheInklings,aresometimescitedassymptomaticofthis.Likewise,acenturyearlierinBoston,afadofabbreviationstartedthatswepttheUnitedStates,withthegloballypopulartermOKgenerallycreditedasaremnantofitsinfluence.[2][3]AfterWorldWarII,theBritishgreatlyreducedtheiruseofthefullstopandotherpunctuationsafterabbreviationsinatleastsemi-formalwriting,whiletheAmericansmorereadilykeptitsuseuntilmorerecently,andstillmaintainitmorethanBritons.Theclassicexample,consideredbytheirAmericancounterpartsquitecurious,wasthemaintenanceoftheinternalcommainaBritishorganizationofsecretagentscalledthe"SpecialOperations,Executive"—"S.O.,E"—whichisnotfoundinhistorieswrittenafterabout1960.\nButbeforethat,manyBritonsweremorescrupulousatmaintainingtheFrenchform.InFrench,theperiodonlyfollowsanabbreviationifthelastletterintheabbreviationisnotthelastletterofitsantecedent:"M."istheabbreviationfor"monsieur"while"Mme"isthatfor"madame".Likemanyothercross-channellinguisticacquisitions,manyBritonsreadilytookthisupandfollowedthisrulethemselves,whiletheAmericanstookasimplerruleandapplieditrigorously.Overtheyears,however,thelackofconventioninsomestyleguideshasmadeitdifficulttodeterminewhichtwo-wordabbreviationsshouldbeabbreviatedwithperiodsandwhichshouldnot.TheU.S.mediatendtoabbreviatetwo-wordabbreviationslikeUnitedStates(U.S.),butnotpersonalcomputer(PC)ortelevision(TV).ManyBritishpublicationshavegraduallydoneawaywiththeuseofperiodsinabbreviationscompletely.Minimizationofpunctuationintypewrittenmatterbecameeconomicallydesirableinthe1960sand1970sforthemanyusersofcarbon-filmribbons,sinceaperiodorcommaconsumedthesamelengthofnon-reusableexpensiveribbonasdidacapitalletter.[edit]TypesofabbreviationApartfromthecommonformofword-contraction,thereareothertypesofabbreviation.Theseincludeacronymandinitialism(includingthree-letteracronyms),apocope,clipping,elision,syncope,syllabicabbreviation,andportmanteauwords.[edit]SyllabicabbreviationSeealso:Clipping(morphology)Asyllabicabbreviation(SA)isanabbreviationformedfrom(usually)initialsyllablesofseveralwords,suchasInterpolforInternationalpolice,butshouldbedistinguishedfromportmanteauwords.Theyareusuallywritteninlowercase,sometimesstartingwithacapitalletter,andarealwayspronouncedaswordsratherthanletterbyletter.[edit]UseinvariouslanguagesSyllabicabbreviationsarenotwidelyusedinEnglishorFrench,butarecommonincertainlanguages,likeGermanandRussian.\nTheyprevailedinGermanyundertheNazisandintheSovietUnionfornamingtheplethoraofnewbureaucraticorganizations.Forexample,GestapostandsforGeheimeStaats-Polizei,or"secretstatepolice".Thishasgivensyllabicabbreviationsanegativeconnotation,eventhoughtheywereusedinGermanybeforetheNazis,suchasSchupoforSchutzpolizist.EvennowGermanscallpartoftheirpoliceKripoforKriminalpolizei.SyllabicabbreviationswerealsotypicalofGermanlanguageusedintheGermanDemocraticRepublic,forexample,StasiforStaatssicherheit("statesecurity",thesecretpoliceandsecretservice)orVopoforVolkspolizist("people'spoliceman").SomesyllabicabbreviationsfromRussianthatarefamiliartoEnglishspeakersincludesamizdatandkolkhoz.TheEnglishnamesfortheSoviet"Comintern"(CommunistInternational)and"Milrevcom"(MilitaryRevolutionCommittee)arefurtherexamples.Orwell'snovel1984usesfictionalsyllabicabbreviationslike"Ingsoc"(EnglishSocialism)toevoketheuseoflanguageundertheNaziandSovietregimes.EastAsianlanguageswhosewritingusesChinese-originatedideogramsinsteadofanalphabetformabbreviationssimilarlybyusingkeycharactersfromatermorphrase.Forexample,inJapanesethetermfortheUnitedNations,kokusairengō(国際連合)isoftenabbreviatedtokokuren(国連).Suchabbreviationsarecalledryakugo(略語)inJapanese.SAsarefrequentlyusedfornamesofuniversities:forinstance,Beida(北大,Běidà)forPekingUniversity(Beijing),Yondae(연대)fortheYonseiUniversity,Seouldae(서울대)fortheSeoulNationalUniversityandTōdai(東大)fortheUniversityofTokyo.[edit]SyllabicabbreviationsinnamesoforganizationsSyllabicabbreviationsarepreferredbytheU.S.Navyasitincreasesreadabilityamidstthelargenumberofinitialismsthatwouldotherwisehavetofitintothesameacronyms.HenceDESRON6isused(inthefullcapitalform)tomean"DestroyerSquadron6,"andCOMNAVAIRLANTmeans"Commander,NavalAirForces,Atlantic".[edit]StyleconventionsinEnglishInmodernEnglishthereareseveralconventionsforabbreviationsandthechoicemaybeconfusing.Theonlyruleuniversallyacceptedisthatoneshouldbeconsistent,andtomakethiseasier,publishersexpresstheir\npreferencesinastyleguide.Questionswhichariseincludethoseinthefollowingsubsections.[edit]LowercaselettersIftheoriginalwordwascapitalized,thenthefirstletterofitsabbreviationshouldretainthecapital,forexampleLev.forLeviticus.Whenabbreviatingwordsspelledwithlowercaseletters,thereisnoneedforcapitalization,thereforenoneedforaconsistentrule.[edit]Periods(fullstops)andspacesAperiod(fullstop)issometimeswrittenafteranabbreviatedword,butthereismuchdisagreementandmanyexceptions.Thereisneveraperiod(fullstop)betweenlettersofthesameword.Forexample,TiberiusisabbreviatedasTb.andnotasT.b..InformalBritishEnglish,accordingtoHart'sRules,itismorecommontowriteabbreviationswithfullstopsifthewordhasbeencutatthepointofabbreviationbutnototherwise:forexample:·"Doctor"becomes"Dr"(for"D–r")·"Professor"becomes"Prof."(for"Prof...")·"TheReverend"becomes"Revd"(for"Rev–d")·"TheRightHonourable"becomes"RtHon."(for"R–tHon...")InAmericanEnglish,theperiodisusuallyaddediftheabbreviationmightotherwisebeinterpretedasaword,butsomeAmericanwritersdonotuseaperiodhere.Sometimes,periodsareusedforcertaininitialismsbutnotothers;anotableinstanceinAmericanEnglishistowriteUnitedStates,EuropeanUnion,andUnitedNationsasU.S.,EU,andUNrespectively.Athirdstandardremovesthefullstopsfromallabbreviations(both"Saint"and"Street"become"St").TheU.S.ManualonUniformTrafficControlDevicesadvisesthatperiodsshouldnotbeusedwithabbreviationsonroadsigns,exceptforcardinaldirectionsaspartofadestinationname.(Forexample,"NorthwestBlvd","W.Jefferson",and"PEDXING"allfollowthisrecommendation.)Acronymsthatwereoriginallycapitalized(withorwithoutperiods)buthavesinceenteredthevocabularyasgenericwordsarenolonger\nabbreviatedwithcapitallettersnorwithanyperiods.Examplesaresonar,radar,lidar,laser,andscuba.Spacesaregenerallynotusedbetweensingleletterabbreviationsofwordsinthesamephrase,soonealmostneverencounters"U. S.".Whenanabbreviationappearsattheendofasentence,useonlyoneperiod:ThecapitaloftheUnitedStatesisWashington,D.C.[edit]PluralformsToformthepluralofanabbreviation,anumber,oracapitalletterusedasanoun,simplyaddalowercasestotheend.·AgroupofMPs·Theroaring'20s·MindyourPsandQsToformthepluralofanabbreviationwithperiods,alowercaseletterusedasanoun,andabbreviationsorcapitallettersthatwouldbeambiguousorconfusingifthe's'alonewereadded,useanapostropheandans.·AgroupofPh.D.'s·Thex'softheequation·SendingSOS'sInLatin,andcontinuingtothederivativeformsinEuropeanlanguagesaswellasEnglish,single-letterabbreviationshadthepluralbeingadoublingoftheletter,e.g.forfootnotes.·d.didot—dd.didots(typography)·h.hand—hh.hands(horseheight)·l.line—ll.lines·p.page—pp.pages·P.pope—PP.popes·v.volume—vv.volumes[edit]Conventionsfollowedbypublicationsandnewspapers[edit]UnitedStates\nPublicationsbasedintheU.S.tendtofollowthestyleguidesoftheChicagoManualofStyleandtheAssociatedPress.[verificationneeded]TheU.S.GovernmentfollowsastyleguidepublishedbytheU.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice.However,thereissomeinconsistencyinabbreviationstyles,astheyarenotrigorouslydefinedbystyleguides.Sometwo-wordabbreviations,like"UnitedNations",areabbreviatedwithuppercaselettersandperiods,andothers,like"personalcomputer"(PC)and"compactdisc"(CD),arenot;rather,theyaretypicallyabbreviatedwithoutperiodsandinuppercaseletters.Athirdvariationistouselowercaseletterswithperiods;thisisusedbyTimeMagazineinabbreviating"publicrelations"(p.r.).Moreover,eventhree-wordabbreviations(mostU.S.publicationsuseuppercaseabbreviationswithoutperiods)aresometimesnotconsistentlyabbreviated,evenwithinthesamearticle.TheNewYorkTimesisuniqueinhavingaconsistentstylebyalwaysabbreviatingwithperiods:P.C.,I.B.M.,P.R.ThisisincontrastwiththetrendofBritishpublicationstoomitperiodsforconvenience.[edit]UnitedKingdomManyBritishpublicationsfollowsomeoftheseguidelinesinabbreviation:·Forthesakeofconvenience,manyBritishpublications,includingtheBBCandTheGuardian,havecompletelydoneawaywiththeuseoffullstopsorperiodsinallabbreviations.Theseinclude:·oSocialtitles,likeMsorMr(thoughthesewouldusuallynothavehadfullstops—seeabove)Capt,Prof,etc.;oTwo-letterabbreviationsforcountries("US",not"U.S.");oAbbreviationsbeyondthreeletters(fullcapsforallexceptinitialisms);oWordsseldomabbreviatedwithlowercaseletters("PR",insteadof"p.r.",or"pr")oNames("FWdeKlerk","GBWhiteley","ParkJS").AnotableexceptionisthenewspaperTheEconomistwhichwrites"MrF.W.deKlerk".oScientificunits(seeMeasurementbelow).·Acronymsareoftenreferredtowithonlythefirstletteroftheabbreviationcapitalised.Forinstance,theNorthAtlanticTreaty\nOrganisationcanbeabbreviatedas"Nato"or"NATO",andSevereAcuteRespiratorySyndromeas"Sars"or"SARS"(comparewith"laser"whichhasmadethefulltransitiontoanEnglishwordandisrarelycapitalisedatall).·Initialismsarealwayswrittenincapitals;forexamplethe"BritishBroadcastingCorporation"isabbreviatedto"BBC",never"Bbc".Aninitialismissimilartoacronymbutisnotpronouncedasaword.·Whenabbreviatingscientificunits,nospaceisaddedbetweenthenumberandunit(100mph,100m,10cm,10°C).(ThisiscontrarytotheSIstandard,seebelow.)[edit]Miscellaneousandgeneralrules·Pluralsareoftenformedbydoublingthelastletteroftheabbreviation.Mostofthesedealwithwritingandpublishing:MS=manuscript,MSS=manuscripts;l=line,ll=lines;p=page,pp=pages;s=section,ss=sections;op.=opus,opp.=opera.Thisform,derivedfromLatinisusedinEuropeinmanyplaces:dd=didots."Thefollowing(linesorpages)"isdenotedby"ff".Oneexamplethatdoesnotconcernprintingishh=hands.·AdoubledletteralsoappearsinabbreviationsofsomeWelshnames,asinWelshthedouble"l"isaseparatesound:"Ll.George"for(Britishprimeminister)LloydGeorge.·Sometitles,suchas"Reverend"and"Honourable",arespeltoutwhenprecededby"the",ratherthanas"Rev."or"Hon."respectively.ThisistrueformostBritishpublications,andsomeintheUnitedStates.·Itisusuallyadvisedtospellouttheabbreviationwhereitisneworunfamiliartothereader(UNESCOinamagazineaboutmusic,becauseitreferstotheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization,whoseworkdoesnotconcernthemusic).·Itisconsideredacceptabletostartoffasentencewithanabbreviation,howeveritisthenadvisedto"ignore"theabbreviationandstartthesentenceasifithadbegunwithnoabbreviation,butonlyifitisnotthenameofaperson,place,orthing.Forexample,"BTWThereisanewofficemanager."wouldbeacceptable,thoughevenwithoutcappingthe"T",thisinstanceisstillaccepted.[edit]MeasurementTheInternationalSystemofUnits(SI)definesasetofbaseunits,fromwhichother"derived"unitsmaybeobtained.Theabbreviations,ormore\naccurately"symbols"(usingRomanletters,orGreekinthecaseofohm)fortheseunitsarealsoclearlydefinedtogetherwithasetofprefixesforwhichtherearealsoabbreviationsorsymbols.Thereshouldneverbeaperiodafterorinsideaunit;both'10k.m.'and'10k.m'arewrong—theonlycorrectformis'10km'(onlyfollowedwithaperiodwhenattheendofasentence).Aperiod"within"acompoundunitdenotesmultiplicationofthebaseunitsoneachsideofit.Ideally,thisperiodshouldberaisedtothecentreoftheline,butoftenitisnot.Forinstance,'5 ms'means5millisecond(s),whereas'5 m.s'means5metre·second(s).The"m.s"hereisacompoundunitformedfromtheproductoftwofundamentalSIunits—metreandsecond.Thereshouldalwaysbea(non-breaking)spacebetweenthenumberandtheunit—'25 km'iscorrect,and'25km'isincorrect.InSection5.3.3.ofTheInternationalSystemofUnits(SI),theInternationalBureauofWeightsandMeasures(BIPM)states"Thenumericalvaluealwaysprecedestheunit,andaspaceisalwaysusedtoseparatetheunitfromthenumber.…Theonlyexceptionstothisrulearefortheunitsymbolsfordegree,minute,andsecondforplaneangle."[4]Thecaseofletters(uppercaseorlowercase)hasmeaningintheSIsystem,andshouldneverbechangedinamisguidedattempttofollowanabbreviationstyle.Forexample,"10 S"denotes10 siemens(aunitofconductance),while"10 s"denotes10 seconds.Anyunitnamedafterapersonisdenotedbyasymbolwithanuppercasefirstletter(S,Pa,A,V,N,Wb,W),butspeltoutinfullinlowercase,(siemens,pascal,ampere,volt,newton,weberandwatt).Bycontrastg,l,m,s,cd,harepresentgramme,litre,metre,second,candelaandhectarerespectively.TheoneslightexceptiontothisruleisthatthesymbolforlitreisallowedtobeLtohelpavoidconfusionwithanuppercaseioraoneinsometypefaces—comparel,I,and1.Likewise,theabbreviationsoftheprefixesdenotingpowersoftenarecase-sensitive:m(milli)representsathousandth,butM(mega)representsamillion,sobyinadvertentchangesofcaseonemayintroduce(inthisexample)anerrorofafactorof1 000 000 000.Whenaunitiswritteninfull,thewholeunitiswritteninlowercase,includingtheprefix:millivoltformV,nanometrefornm,gigacandelaforGcd.Theaboverules,iffollowed,ensurethattheSIsystemisalwaysunambiguous,soforinstancemKdenotesmillikelvin,MKdenotesmegakelvin,K.mdenoteskelvin.metre,andkmdenoteskilometre.Forms\nsuchask.mandKmareill-formedandtechnicallymeaninglessintheSIsystem,althoughtheintendedmeaningmightbeinferredfromthecontext.[edit]Seealso
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