语言学重点归纳 6页

第一章1.Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication2.Designfeaturesoflanguage①Arbitrariness(任意性)referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(soundsandmeanings)②Duality（二层性）:Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.④Displacement(移位性):HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atmomentofcommunication.(p7)3.Functionsoflanguage①Informative(信息功能):togiveinformationaboutfacts.(ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能):toestablishandmaintainsocialstatusinasociety.(age,sex,language,background,accent,status)③Performative(施为功能):languageisusedtodothings,toperformcertainactions.(name,promise,apologize,sorry,declare)④.Emotive/Expressive(情感功能):toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.⑤Phaticcommunion(寒暄交流):tousesmallandmeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipormaintainsocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.(health,weather)⑥Recreationalfunction(娱乐):theuseoflanguageforsheerjoy.(lyrics,poetry)⑦Metalingualfunction(元语言功能):totalkaboutlanguageitself.4.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.5.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptive&prescriptiveSynchronic&diachronicLangue&paroleCompetence&performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describeandanalyzelinguisticfactsorthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive(规定性)—laydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar:“neveruseadoublenegative”)7.Synchronicstudy(共时)—descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy(历时)—descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)第四章1．WhatisSyntax（句法）?Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．FourApproaches:Thetraditionalapproach传统语言观(Partsofspeech、SyntacticFunction\n不考、Category范畴、Concordandgovernment一致关系和支配关系)、Thestructuralapproach结构语言观、Thegenerativeapproach、Thefunctionalapproach功能语言观3．Thetraditionalgrammarregardssentencesasasequenceofwords,soitpaysgreatattentiontothestudyofwords,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionofwordsintermsofsubject,predicate,etc.4.PartsofspeechTraditionalgrammardefines8partsofspeech:nouns,verbs,pronouns,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,conjunctionsandinterjections.5．ThetermCategory范畴insomeapproachesreferstowordclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg.Noun,Verb,Subject,Predicate.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun名词的范畴,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability（case）;thecategoriesoftheverb动词的范畴:tense,aspect,voice,etc.6．Numberismostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun名词和不可数名词.Twotermsofnumberinnouns:singularandplural单数和复数Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs7.Genderisalsomostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun.InEnglish,thegenderdistinctionsareonthewholenatural,determinedbythebiologicalgenderofthecreature.8.Caseisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系InEnglish,pronounshavethreecasesofnominative主格,accusative受格,andgenitive与格.Nounshavetwoofgeneralandgenitive所有格InEnglish,thecaseofnounisrealisedinthreechannels:(a)inflection(b)followingapreposition(c)wordorder9.Tense时态:theabsolutelocationofaneventoractionontime.Itismarkedbyaninflectionoftheverb.Asaresult,thereareonlytwotensesrecognizednow:pastandpresent.Sincethefuturetimedoesnotinvolveanyinflectionoftheverb,wedonotrefertoa“futuretense”,eventhoughinmanydifferentwayswecantalkaboutthefuture.10.Aspect体:Ithasnothingwithtime,andittellsuswhetheranactionisongoingorcompleted.Perfective（完成体）andImperfective（进行体）PerfectiveandProgressive(inEnglish)11.Voice语态:describetherelationshipbetweenverbandsubjectPassive被动语态andactive主动语态12.Concordandgovernment①Concord(一致关系)referstoagreementbetweenwords,especiallybetweenaverbandthesubjectofasentence.②Government(支配关系)isatypeofgrammaticalrelationshipbetweentwoormoreelementsinasentence.Intraditionalgrammar,thetermgovernmenthastypicallybeenusedtorefertotherelationshipbetweenverbsandnounsorbetweenprepositionsandnouns.13.TheStructuralApproach，由FerdinanddeSaussure提出14.SyntacticRelations：Positionalrelations位置关系、Relationsofsubstitutability替代关系、Relationsofco-occurrence同现关系\n15.Immediateconstituent(直接成分)isanymeaningfulconstituentatthefirststepinananalysis.16.Anendocentricconstruction(向心结构)isaconstructionthatcontains:1)ahead,whichisthesingleobligatoryelementintheconstruction;2)oneormoreoptionalelementssubordinatetothehead.17.theme(主位)referstotheknowninformationwhichisnotnewtothereaderorlistenerRheme(述位)referstotheinformationthatisnew.ThenewinformationiswhatistobetransmittedtothereaderorlistenerThelinguistsofthePragueschoolbelievedthatsentencemaybeanalyzedfromthefunctionalsideaswellasthegrammaticalside.subject,predicate(grammaticalside)theme,rheme(functionalside)第五章1.WhatisSemantics?Semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．GeoffreyLeech利奇Seventypesofmeaning7种意义类型:①Conceptualmeaning概念意义②Connotativemeaning内涵意义③Socialmeaning社会意义④Affectivemeaning感情意义AssociativeMeaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflectedmeaning反射意义⑥Collocativemeaning搭配意义⑦Thematicmeaning主位意义3.Conceptualmeaning(概念意义)isalsocalled“denotative”（外延义）anditisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptualmeaningismeaninggiveninthedictionary.4.Associativemeaning(联想意义)isthetotalofallthemeaningsapersonthinksofwhentheyhearthewordAssociativemeaningisthemeaningwhichawordsuggestsorimplies.5.Thematicmeaning(主位意义)is“whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6.TheReferentialTheory（指称理论）：①TheReferentialTheory②TheSemanticTriangle③SenseandReference7.Thereferentialtheory指称理论isthetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8.Thesemantictriangle语意三角istheindirectrelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoanditismediatedbyconcept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense(涵义)isasetofpropertiespossessedbyaname.10.Reference(指称)isthesymbolicrelationshipthatalinguisticexpressionhaswiththeconcrete\nobject.11.Thesenseofanexpressionisthethoughtitexpresses,whileitsreferenceistheobjectitrepresentsEverywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.12.SenseRelations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.Buttotalsynonymyisrare.Theymaydifferinstyle,connotationsanddialect.14.Gradableantonymy(等级反义关系)、Complementaryantonymy(互补反义关系)、Converseantonymy(反向反义关系)15.Componentialanalysisisanapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalysesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponents.16.SentenceMeaning17.Senserelationsbetweensentences①Synonymity(同义)a.Hewasabachelorallhislife.b.Henevermarriedallhisboy.Sentencesaandbareinasynonymousrelationship:thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthetruthofanothersentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a.ElizabethIIisQueenofEngland.b.ElizabethIIisaman.Sentencesaandbareinarelationshipofcontradiction:thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthefalsenessofanothersentence.③Entailment(蕴涵)a.Hemarriedablondeheiress.b.Hemarriedablonde.Entailmentreferstoakindofmeaninginclusion.Ifxentailsy,themeaningofxisincludediny.④Presupposition(前提预设)Itiswhataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemessagealreadyknows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semanticanomaly(语义反常)18.Anintegratedtheory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：themeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.﹡Thissemantictheoryistheintegrationofsyntaxandsemantics﹡Theirbasicideaisthatasemantictheoryconsistsoftwoparts:adictionaryandasetofprojectionrules﹡Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassificationandsemanticinformationofwords﹡Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether.19.Logicalsemantics（逻辑语义学）﹡Aproposition(命题)iswhatistobeexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.\n﹡Itisthebasicmeaningwhichasentenceexpress.﹡Averyimportantpropertyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.第七章1.LanguageandCulture：①Sapir-WhorfHypothesis②EvidenceGivenbyWhorf③ImplicationofSWH④RelationbetweenLanguageandCulture2．SHWcanbebrokendownintotwobasicprinciples:Linguisticdeterminism(语言决定论):thelanguageweusedeterminesthewayweviewabouttheworldaroundus.Languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.(语言决定思维)P1623.RelationbetweenLanguageandCultureLanguageinfluencesthoughtandculture，Languagevariesincategoriesandconcepts,thusreflectingthedifferentworldviewsofdifferentlanguageusers,thatis,cultureandthoughtareconditionedbylanguageCultureinfluenceslanguage，Everylanguageisapartofaculture.Assuch,itcannotbutserveandreflectculturalneeds.Whenacultureexperienceradicalchanges,thevocabularyalsoundergoescorrespondingalterations4.LanguageandSocietyRelationbetweenLanguageandSocietyVarietiesoflanguage（Dialects、Registers）BilingualismandDiglossiaPidginandCreole5.Varietiesrelatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters.6.DialectalVarieties：Regionaldialect、Socialdialect（Sociolect、Languageandgender、Languageandage、Idiolect、Ethnicdialect）7.Socialdialectreferstoavarietyoflanguageassociatedwithaparticularsocialgroup,suchasaparticularsocialclass,orethnicgroup,orthosebasedonage,genderandoccupation.8.Anethnicdialectisasocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.9.Idiolectreferstothespeechvarietyofanindividual.Everyspeakerhashisownwayofexpressinghisorheridea.10.Registerreferstothefunctionalvarietyoflanguagethatisdefinedaccordingtoitsuseinacontextofsituation.11.Halliday’sRegisterTheoryLanguagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.Hallidaydistinguishes3variablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse(语场)、tenorofdiscourse(语旨)、modeofdiscourse(语式)12.Bilingualism(双语制):theuseoftwolanguages,espwithequalornearlyequalfluency.13.Diglossia(双语体现象):whentwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebyside;andeachisusedfordifferentpurposes,thisiscalleddiglossia.14．Apidgin:itisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesandblendslanguagesusedforcommunicativepurposesbygroupsofpeoplewhodonotknoweachother’slanguage.15.Acreole:whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohave\nbecomeacreole.第八章1.WhatisPragmaticsPragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageincontext/use/communication.2SemanticsandPragmaticsSimilarity：PragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudyofmeaningDifference：Semanticmeaning:themoreconstant,inherentsideofmeaning；Pragmaticmeaning:themoreindeterminate,themorecloselyrelatedtocontext；Pragmatic=meaning-semantics3.ThreeContents:SpeechActTheory、TheTheoryofConversationalImplicature、Post-GriceanDevelopments4.SpeechActTheory(言语行为理论)：①PerformativesandConstatives②Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact5.Theutterancewhichperformsanactiscalledaperformative(行事话语)。6.Aconstative(述事话语)isanutterancewhichassertssomethingthatiseithertrueorfalse.7CharacteristicsofImplicature：Calculability、Cancellability、Non-detachability、Non-conventionality8.Calculability(可推导性):meansthatimplicatureofanutterancecanbecalculatedbasedonliteralmeaning,CPanditsmaxims,context,etc.9.Cancellability/Defeasibility(可取消性/可废除原则)Ifthefactorsthatconversationalimplicaturereliedonchange,theimplicaturewillalsochange.10.RelevanceTheory关联理论CommunicativePrincipleofRelevance：Everyostensivestimulusconveysapresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.CognitivePrincipleofRelevance：Humancognitiontendstobegearedtothemaximizationofrelevance.