语言学要点复习 5页

\namoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword・Antonymy反义：AntonymyreferstotherelationofopposilcncssofChapter1Linguistics:Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage・Synchronic:Ihcstudyofalanguagea（somepointinlime.Diachronic：Thestudyofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime・Competence:Theidealuser'sknowledgeof（herulesofhislanguage・Performance:performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Langue:Languereferstolheabsiractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse:Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Arbitrariness:Ilmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds・Productivity:（笔产ftpLanguagcisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossible（heconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Duality:Languageisasystem,whichconsistsofiwosecsofslruclure.ortwolevels.Displacement:languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharcpresentornotpresent.realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Culturaltransmission:Whilewearebornwithlheabilitytoacquirelanguage・lhedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandIcamcd・Designfeatures:ItreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunicationChapter2phonetics:Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguagesphonology:Phonologystudies（hesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguagefbnnpatternsandhowthesesoundsarcusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.phone:Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage・Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning・phoneme:音位"collcclionofabstractphoneticfeatures,itisabasicunitinphonology.Iallophone:音位变体Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme・phonemiccontrast:Iftwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning.lheyareinphonemiccontrast.Complementarydistribution:Thetwoallophonesoflhesamephonemearesaidtobein~~minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsarcidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsarcsaidtoformaminimalpair.suprascginentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovelhelevelof（hesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.intonation:语诡Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation・Chapter3Morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsarcformed.Morpheme:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage・Freemorphcmc:whicharcindependentunitsofmciiningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesBoundmorpheme:whichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,Root:Arootisortenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearscleandefinitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrooloranarfixtoformaword・Inflection（屈折〉:themanifestationofvariousgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase・Prefix:Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthesteins;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanyeaseschangeitspartofspeech・Stem:Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme・oraderivedformhimself.Compounding:Compoundingcanbeviewedaslhecombinationoftwoorsomelimcsmorethaniwowordstocreatenewwords.Chapter4syntax:Syntaxisasubfieldoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesentencesiructureoflanguage・linguisticcompetence:Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescompriselhesystemofinlcrnalizcdlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunit（hatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstofonnacompletestatement*questionorcommand・Normal!y.asentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectandapredicatewhichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase・finiteclause（定3弋子句）:aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andat（hesametimestandsstructurallyalone・simplesentence:asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence,coordinatesentence（并歹lj句）:Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchcomplexsentence（复合句）:acomplexseniencecontainstwoormoreclauses・oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.hierarchicalstructure（层次结构）:thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconsliiucntsandshowsthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.syntacticcategory（句法类型〉:awordoraphrasethatperfonnsaparticulargrammalicalfunction,suchasthesubjectorobjectinasentence.grammaticalrelations:Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandtheverbinasentencearecalledgrammalicalrelaiions.phrasestructurerules:arewriterulethatallowsforthepossiblecombinationsofwordstoformphrasesandsentences.X-bartheoryisageneralandhighlyabstractschema（hatcollapsesallphrasalstructurerulesintoasinglefonnattransformationalrules:转换规则Transformaiionalrulesaretherulesthattransformonesentencelypcintoanothertype.D-structure:D・structureisthelevelofsyntaclicrepresentationthatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace・Phrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelof【）-structure・S-structurc:alevelofsyntaclicrepresentationaftertheopcralionofnecessarysyntacticmovement.UniversalGrammar:asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturallanguageChapter5Semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedaslhestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Ilisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized・Reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon・linguisticworldofexperience・Synonymy同义关系：Synonymyrefersto（hesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Polysemy影义：Polysemyrefers（olhefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Homonymy（同音异义.同形异义）:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesamefonn,Homophones（同音异义）：Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,（heyarecalledhomophones・Homographs同形井义：When（wowordsarcidenticalinspelling,theyarchomographs・Completehomonyms:Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.Hyponymy（下义关系）:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetween\nmeaningChapter6Pragmatics:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Context:itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandlhehearer.Utterancemeaning:话语总义lhemeaningofanullcranccisconcrete・andcontcxl-dcpcndcnt.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning:itisrealizaiionoftheabsiracimeaningofascnicnccinarealsituationofcommunicaiion,orsimplyinacontext.Sentencemeaning:Themeaningofasentenceisabsiraci,intrinsicpropertyoflhescnlcnccilsclfintermsofaprcdication.Constative:Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe・andwereverifiable;Performative:perfonnativesweresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastale,andwerenotverifiable・Theirfunciionistoperformaparticularspeechact.Locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases.clauses・Ilistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology・Illocutionaryact:Anilloculioruuyactislheactofexpressingthespcukcfsinlcnlion;Perlocutionaryact:Aperloculionaryactislheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;CooperativePrinciple:ItisaprincipleadvancedbyPaulGrice・Hisideaisthatinmakingconversations・theparticipantsmustfirslofallbewillingtocoopcnitc.otherwiseitwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Thecontentis:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthesiagcatwhichitoccurshytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Conversationalimplicature:id夕卜Z总MostoftheviolationsofthecooperativeprinciplesgiverisetowhatPaulGricecalls“conversationalimplicatures."Whenweviolateanyofthesemaxims,ourlanguagebecomesindirectandimpliesanextrameaning.).Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage・butlanguagesingeneral.Linguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthentic(可靠的，真实的)languagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafter(helinguisthasdonelhefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses(丿贬次！)andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.2•涪盲学的主要分支是什么•侮个分支的硏究对象足什么PhoncticszwhichsludicshowspeechsoundsarcproducedandclassifiedPhonology:whichstudieshowsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaningMorphology:whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsSyntax:whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesSeniantics:whichisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage・Sociolinguistics:whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmind.Appliedlinguistics:whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning3•现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别Traditionalgrammiirisprescriptive;ilisbasedon"highMwrittenlanguage.ButModemlinguisticsisdescriptive;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.4.1smodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Modemlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage・Unlesslhevariousstalesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudicd.itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview・S.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics^speechorwriting?Why?Modemlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingreasons:First,speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriling.Third,speechislheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage・6.Saussure足如何区分语言和言语的？Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.andparolereferslotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseof(heconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules・Langueisabstract;itisnotlhelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.butparoleisconcreie;i(refersio(henalurallyoccurringlanguagecvcnls・Langueisrelativelystable・itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.7.Competence和performance各指什么？Chomskydefinescompetenceaslheidealuscr^knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage・Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencc”andrecognizescnicnccsthatareungrammaticalandambiguous・AccordingtoChomsky,pcrfbnnanccistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication・Althoughthespeaker'sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,emban^ssment,etc...Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence・whichissystematic,nottheperformance・whichistoohaphazard(偶然的).S.IIowisSaussure^sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky^distinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Andwhatistheirdifference?BothSaussurcandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewand(ohimcompetenceisaproperlyofthemindofeachindividual.9.l)oyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearcalimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample・lheonomatopoeiaJUwordswhicharccoinedonthebasisofimilaiionofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang・crash・etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample・Thetwoelements••photo”and“copy"in"photocopy**arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbirrary.1.语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪-个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speechandwritingarethemajormediaofcommunication.Speechisconsideredprimaryoverwriting.Thereasonsare:speechispriortowritinginlanguageevolution,speechplaysagreaterroleindailycommunications,andspeechisthewayinwhichpeopleacquiretheirnalivclanguage・2.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?英语的辅音是如何分类的？Twowaystoclassifyconsonantsbymannerofarticulationandbyplaceofarticulation3・Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween11landfl],|p|and|p'],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?Phonetics:descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinedifferences.Phonology:descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunciionlodistinguishmcaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencesbecausesuchdifferenceswillnotcausedifferencesinmeaning,hutcanmakefinerdistinctionsoflhesounds・4.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferenifromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone:aspeechsound・aphoneticunit.Phoneme:acollectionofabstractjujundfeatures,aphonologicalunit・Allophones:actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.5・Whatisaminima】pairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?Minimalpair:twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.Minimalset:agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefcature.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsortheminimalsetofalanguage^aphonologistcanidentifyitsphonemes・6・Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,lheassimilationruleandthedeletionrule•每条一个例子)Pragmatics:whichisthestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSequentialrule:rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage・Assimilationrule:ruleassimilatingonesoundsimilartothefollowingone\nbycopyingoneofitsphoneticfeatures.Deletionrule:rulegoverning（hedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling・1・Whatdoesmorphologystudy?Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Theaimofmorphologyistofindout（herulesaccordingtowhichwordsarcformed.1・Typesofsentences（句子的基本类型）：Traditionally,threemajortypesofsentencesarcdistinguished.Theyarcsimplesentence,coordinateorcompoundsentenceandcomplexsentence.Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence・Forexample.①Johnreadsextensively.②Marydecidedtolakealinguisticclassthenextsemester.Eachofthetwosentencescontainsasingleclauseandcanstandstructurallyindependent.Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas"and”,"or".Thetwoclausesinacoordinaiesentencearesiructurallyequalpar（soflhesentence;neitherissubordinatelotheother.Forcxamplc.〔③Johnisreadingalinguisticbook,andMaryisprcpaiingforherhistoryexam.④Johnlikeslinguistics,butMaryisinterestedinhistory.Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses・oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencehaveunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinate,clauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixsentence・Forexample,⑤MarytoldJane|thatJohnlikedlinguistics!-⑥（ThatJohnlikeslinguistics!puzzleseveryone・⑦Maryshowedinteres（inlinguistics（afterJohngaveheralecture）.Intheaboveihrccexamples,theclausesinthesquarebracketsarcembeddedclauses・Theyarcsubordinatetotheclausesoutside（hebracketswhicharccalledmatrixclauses・1・Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmcaning（语义研尤的主要流派有哪些）?ThenamingtheoryTheconceptualistviewTheContextualistviewTheBehavioristview1.Whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?所描与总义有什么关系？Senseandreferencearetwotermsinlhestudyofmeaning・（I）Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticformwhichisacollectionofsemanticmeaning;abstractandde-contex（ualized・Referencemeanswhatalinguislicformrefersloinlhereal,physicalworld：itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthefonnandthereality2Howmanymajorsenserelationsbetweenwords.Synonymypolysemy,homonymyhyponymyantonymy4.WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?（同义词的分类）Dialectalsynonyms；Stylisticsynonyms：Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning；CollocationalsynonymsSemanticallydifferentsynonyms5・Explainwithexamples“homonymy,"“polysemy,”and“hyponymy.”Homonymy:differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth,butdifferentinmeaning・c.g・nighi—knight,tearv.—tearn.,fasta.—fastv・Polysemy:thesameonewordhasmorethanonemeaning,c.g.earthourplanet,orthesoilonitssurface.Hyponymy:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.e.g.furniture―able.bed・6Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?（反义关系可以分为哪三个类别？各有什么特征？）Gradableantonyms:Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapairsuchasfar/near.dark/brighuugly/beautifulComplementaryantonyms:apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother・left/rigln^vacanv'occupicd,north/southRelationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,fathcr/daughtcr・doctor/palient7・Inwhaiwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaninglea（ures;itislhesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaning・Similarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeaturesanditisthesesoundfeatures（hatdistinguishdificrcmwunds・7.Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?Grammaticality:thegrammaticalwcll-fonnednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconforms（便—致）lo（hegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisno（necessarilysemanticallywcll-Ibrmcdfi.e.itmaynotmakesenseatall.1.Whatdocspragmaticsstudy?HowdocsitdiiTerfromtraditionalsemantics?语用学和传统语义学有什么区別？Pragmaticsstudieshowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.ThebasicdifferencebetweenpragmaticsandtraditionalsemanticisthatPragmaticsconsidersmeaningincontext,whiletraditionalsemanticstreatsmeaningassomethingintrinsic,abstractandde-contexlualized.2・Howisthenotionofcontextinterpreted?（Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialtopragmatics?）Contextisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbyallkindsofknowledgeassumedtobesharedbythespeakerandhearer.1.Howaresentencemeaningandultenmccmeaningrelated・andhowdotheydiffer?句子的语义与话语语义有什么联系和区别？Utterance-meaningisbasedonsentence-meaning：Theformerisconcreteandcontext-dependentandthelatterisabstractanddc-con（cxtualizcd.Asentencemeaningisoftenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyoflhesentenceitselfintermsofapredicaiion.Ilisabsiraciandindependentofcontcxt.Thcultcranccmeaningislherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.2.Howdoesasentencerelateanddifferfromanutterance?（Howasentencebecomesanutterance?）Asentenceisagrammaticalunit.Itsmeaningisoftenstudiedaslheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofaprcdication.Utteranceiswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunicalion.Ifweregardasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyultcrin（hecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshouldbeconsideredinlhesituationinwhichilisactuallyutteredorused・5・AccordingtoJohnAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample・Ixxulionaryact,illocutionaryael,andprelocutionaryact.（*Alocutionaryactis（heactofutteringwords,phrases.clauses・Ilistheactofconveyinglitenilmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology・*Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.*Aperlocutionaryactistheactperfonnedbyorresultingfromsayingsomeihing;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsoniething・）2.WhatarcthefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?JohnSearle足如何对言外行为进行分类的？它们各自的言外指的足什么？Representatives（讲述类）:statingordescribing,sayingwharthespeakerbelievestobetrue・Directives（扌&令类）:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.Commissives（承诺类）:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.Expressives（农达类）:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.Declarations（宜告类）:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingw）me（hing.\n1.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Howdoestheviolationofthesemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures（会话暗示）？合作原则的四个准则是什么？违反合作原则的阿个准则是如何产生会话含义的？Themaximofquantity（数址准则〉Themaximofquality（质址准则》Themaximofrelation<关联准则）:Themaximofmanner（方式准则