英语语言学笔记 6页

英语语言学笔记LinguisticsChapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticsWhatislanguage?DifferentdefinitionsoflanguageLanguageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity・(deSaussure,1916)[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements・(Chomsky,1957)Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage・Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.FeaturesofhumanlanguageCreativityLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.DualityLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings・Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds・ArbitrarinessTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary・Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.DisplacementThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage・Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture・CulturaltransmissionCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.InterchangeabilityAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.ReflexivityHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language・Functionsoflanguage-threemeta-functionsTheideationalfunctionToidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.TheinterpersonalfunctionTogetalonginacommunity.ThetextualfunctionToformatext.\nTypesoflanguageGeneticclassificationTypologicalclassificationAnalyticlanguage一noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnameseSyntheticlanguage-grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGermanAgglutinatinglanguage-wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkishThemythoflanguage-languageoriginTheBiblicalaccountLanguagewasGod'sgifttohumanbeings・Thebow-wowtheoryLanguagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.Thepooh-poohtheoryLanguagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.Theyo-he-hotheoryLanguagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort-liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.TheevolutiontheoryLanguageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed・Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Observing&questioningFormulatinghypothesesVerifyingthehypothesesProposingatheoryBranchesoflinguisticsInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionsPragmaticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsFeaturesoflinguisticsDescriptiveDealingwithspokenlanguageSynchronicChapter2PhoneticsWhatisphonetics?Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds・Sub-branchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics-theproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticphonetics-thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryphonetics-theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundsThespeechorgansWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?FromthelungWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?ControllingtheairstreamWhatarethecavities?OralcavityPharyngealcavityNasalcavityTranscriptionofspeechsoundsUnitsofrepresentationSegments(theindividualsounds)\nPhoneticsymbols\nThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage・Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.DescriptionofspeechsoundsDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsGeneralfeature:obstructionCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionPlacesofarticulationMannersofarticulationVoicingofarticulationPlacesofarticulationThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound・Bilabial:[p][b][m][w]Labiodental:ff][v]Interdental:[][]Alveolar:[t][d][s][z][1][n][r]IUlVelar:[k][g][JGlottal:[hjPalatal:[J[J[t][dMannersofarticulationThisreferstohowtheairobstructed・Stops:[p][b][t][d][k][g][d]Liquids:[1][r]VoicingofarticulationThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced・VoicedsoundsVoicelesssoundsDescriptionofEnglishvowelsGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionCriteriaofvoweldescriptionPartofthetonguethatisraisedFrontExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalateHighMidstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyFricatives:[s]⑵[][][f][v][][][h]Glides:[w][j]Nasals:[m][n][]Affricates:[t]CentralBackLowKindofopeningmadeatthelipsPositionofthesoftpalateSinglevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongsPhoneticfeaturesandnaturalclassesClassesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalclasses.Majorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelboundary.Classificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbeanalyzed.Chapter3PhonologyWhatisphonology?Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?PhonernesandallophonesAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.\nWeuseallophonestorealizephonemes・DiscoveringphonemesContrastivedistribution一phonemesIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes・Complementarydistribution-allophonesSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme・FreevariationIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanothe匚PhonologicalrulesPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech・Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples・[+voiced+consonant]-[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_[-voiced+bilabial+stop]-unaspirated/f-voiced+alveolar+fricativel_SyllablestructureAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.SequenceofphonemesNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogethe匚SomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish・Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.Sequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps・Whennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.Suprasegmentalfeatures\nFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.StressStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword・Stressisarelativenotion・Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress・Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress・Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable・InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable・IntonationWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas・Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.ToneToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwords讦utteredwithdifferenttones・Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Chapter4MorphologyWhatismorphology?Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning・Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.MorphemesandallomorphsThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletivesSomecountablenounsdonotchangefonntoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.Someverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense・Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.FreeandboundmorphemesSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves・Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting・Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).Inflexionalandderivationalmorphemes