语言学复习材料 12页

LinguisticsChapter1LanguageandLinguisticsLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Featuresoflanguage:displacement,arbitrariness,productivity,culturaltransmission,duality,discreteness1.1〔Thenature/featuresoflanguage):考论述©languageissystematic.Innaturalverbalcommunication,peoplecanlearnandusealanguageconsistently.Thisshowsthatlanguageissystematic.Thispropertyisusuallyclaimedtobeuniquetohumans•②languageissymbolic.Asweknow,peopleusesignstocommunicate,whichmeansthatlanguageinvolvessigns.Theconceptionofsignthroughhasevolvedthroughalonghistoryofphilosophicaldiscussions,datingtotheMiddleAge•③languageisarbitrary.Arbitrarinessdoesnotmeanthateverythingaboutlanguageisunpredictable.Theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalresemblancetotheirmeaning.©languageisprimarilyvocal.Verbalcommunicationcaninvolvevariousforms.Speechandwritingarethemostcommon,butthereareotherformsaswell.Theprimarymediumoflanguageissound.⑤languageishumanspecific.Therearecertaincharacteristicsofhumanlanguagethatarenotfoundinthecommunicationsystemsofanyotherspecies.Althoughmostanimalsareassumedtocommunicateinsomeway,theyconveylimitedinformationandonlyexpressemotionssuchasfearandwarnings.©languageisusedforcommunication.Wefeelcertainthatlanguageisusedforcommunication.Languageistheresultofourcommunicativeneeds.Itsattractivenesscomesfromitssocialutility.1)languageissystematicEachhumanlanguageisorganizedintotwobasicsystems,asystemofsoundsandasystemofmeanings.Thisiscalledthedualityoflanguage.Linguisticsisconcernednotonlywithcharacteristicsofthetwosystemsbutalsowiththeirrelationship.Soundsareunitswhichcombinetomakewordsorpartsofwords,differentsequencesofsoundshavedifferenceinmeaning.Elementshavenomeaningthemselves.Thenumberofwordsinalanguageisrelativelyfinitebuttheirpossiblecombinationcanbeinfinite・Inalanguagewecanfindagreed-uponsound^meaningrelationsandagreed-uponsequences.Theseprinciplescanbecalledmles.Theserulesmakeupthesyntaxofthelanguage.2)languageissymbolicLanguageinvolvessignswhoseconceptioncanbedatebacktotheMiddleAges.Therehasbeenadisciplinetostudytheworkingofsigns,Sassurecallsit“semiology'；andPeircetermsit"semiotics^CharlesPeirceviewssemioticsasabranchoflogicandphilosophy.Signsaredividedintonaturalsignsandconventionalsigns.Signsareubiquitousinhumansocietyandcanbecategorizedintothreemajortypes:icon象征符,index标记符andsymbol代码符.3)languageisarbitraryAccordingtoSaussure,thelinguisticsignsunites,notathingandaname,butaconceptandasound-image.Thesound-imageisnotthematerialsoundbutthepsychologicalimprintofthesound,theimpressionitmakesonoursenses.考判断Arbitrarydoesnotmeanthateverythingaboutlanguageisunpredictablebutthathumanlanguagesuseneutralsymbols.Conceptandsound-imagearereplacedbysignified所指andsignifier能扌旨respectively.Themostarbitraryleveloflanguageisthatofthedistinctiveunitsofsound.Itisbecausesoundunitsaredistinctive.Syntaxislessarbitrarythanwords.Wordsarearbitraryinform,buttheyarenotrandomintheiruse.4)languageisprimarilyvocalVerbalcommunicationcaninvolvevariousforms.Speechandwritingarethemostcommon.Theprimarymediumoflanguageissound.Writingisbasedonspeakingandcaninfluencespeaking.Writingsystemsrepresentsomelevelsofthespokenlanguage,suchasdistinctwords,syllables,or\nsounds.Thereasonswhylanguageisprimarilyvocal1.Childrenlearntospeakbeforetheylearntoreadandwrite.2・Childrenautomaticallylearnalanguageastheygrowup.3.Thespokenformcameearlierthanthewritteninhumanhistory.4.Writingisbasedonspeech・5.Peopleusespokenlanguagemoreoftenthanwriting・1)languageishumanspecific(purelyhuman)Humanlanguageisgenerallysaidtobedifferentfromanimalcommunicationinthefollowingaspects:1・Languagehastheabilitytorefertothingsfarremovedintimeandspace・2.Humanshavetheabilitytoproduceandunderstandanindefinite无限期的，不明确的numberofnovelutterance.(opennessorproductivity)3.Learningismuchmoreimportantasafactorinhumanlanguagethaninanimalcommunication.4.Languageiscomplexinitsstructure.5.Animalcommunicationsystemsareclosed,whereashumanlanguagesareopen-ended.6.Accordingtospeechacttheory,humanscanperformactswithlanguagejustastheycanwithobjectsofdifferentkinds.2)languageisusedforcommunicationAconversationsassumedtobeapatternoftwo-waycommunication.1.2Thefunctionsoflan^uaze:generalfunctionsoflanguage;metafunctionsoflanguage1)GeneralfunctionsoflanguagePhysiologicalfunctionoremotive/expressivefunction,phaticfunction交际功能(creatingormaintainingsocialrelationshipbetweenspeakers),recordingfunction,identifyingfunction,reasoningfunction,communicationfunction,pleasurefiinction(orrecreationalfunction)Informativefunction^performativefunction施为功能(ppt补充)2)MetafUnctionsoflanguageIdeationalfunction概念功能：Divideintoexperimentalfunctionandlogicalfunction/asasymboliccodetorepresenttheworldaroundusInterpersonalfunction人际功能：Theparticipatoryfunctionoflanguage/enablethespeakers(writers)andthelisteners(readers)maintaininteractionsandthusenactasocialandintersubjectiverelationshipTextualfunction语篇功自士Enabletheothertwofunctionstooperate,representthespeaker^text-formingpotential1.3Theoriginandclassificationoflanguage1)Theoriginoflanguage(divinesource。thenatural-soundsource。evolutionarysource)ThebeliefthatalllanguagesoriginatedfromasinglesourceisfoundinGenesis.Manyscientiststodaybelievethatmanaroseinmanydifferentplacesoftheworld.Threebroadcategoriesoftheoriginoflanguage:creation,evolutionandinvention.Creation/DivineOrigin:impossibleformantonamethingswithoutacquiringlanguageEvolution：Manevolvedfromlowerformsofliffe.LanguageevolvedasanadjuncttoearlycommunicationInvention/thenatural-soundsource:theimitationofnaturalsoundsandseekstoexplainthecorrespondencebetweensoundandmeaning(onomatopoeticwords)2)Languagefamilies语系Twomainwaysofclassifyinglanguages:geneticclassification遗传分类andtypologicalclassification类型分类(isolating孤立语，inflecting屈折语，agglutinating粘着语language)\n1.2Whatislinguistic(Phonetics语音学.Phonology音位学.Morphology形态学.Semantics语义学.Pragmatics语用学.Syntax句法学)1)definitionoflinguisticsLinguisticshassomethingtodowithsounds,vocabulary,grammar,meaningandhistoricaldevelopmentoflanguage.Themainpurposeoflinguisticsistodevelopageneraltheoryoflanguageandtheoriesonaspectsoflanguage.2)someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics考概念langueandparole,prescriptiveanddescriptive,synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时,speechandwriting,syntagmaticandparadigmatic纵聚合，competenceandperformance,functionalismandformalism.Theconceptoflanguecanbesaidtocapturethecentralanddeterminingaspectoflanguageitself.ForChomsky,competenceisnotasocialbutapsychologicalphenomenon,notasharedgeneralitybutageneticendowmentineachindividual.l・5Thescopeoflinguistics1)UseoflinguisticsPragmatics,anthropologicallinguistics,psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,neurolinguistics彳申经语言学，appliedlinguistics,computationallinguistics.2)Recentdevelopments考小题Corpuslinguistics语料•库语言学，discourseanalysis,cognitivelinguistics,systemicfunctionalgrammarChapter2phoneticsandphonology语音学和音系学1.1productionofsounds1)scopeofphoneticsMakingsoundsconsistthreestages:theproductionofthemessage,thetransmissionofthemessage,andthereceptionofthemessage.Phoneticsiscomposedofthreeseparatefields:articulatoryphonetics发音语音，acousticphonetics声学语音,auditoryphonetics听觉语音.2)articulationofsounds发音Voice:soundmaybeeithervoiced浊音orvoiceless清音.Alllanguageshavebothvoicelessandvoicedsoundscontrastingintheirphonologicalsystems,allvowelsarevoiced.Mannerofarticulation:basedonthesizeoftheairpassagePlosives爆破音nasal鼻音fricative摩擦音affricates塞擦音Approximants滑动音trills颤音taps轻音Placeofarticulation：Bilabial双唇音Dental齿龈音Post-alveolar后齿龈音glottal声门音Labiodentals唇齿咅alveolar齿龈咅palatal腭咅retroflex卷舌咅lateral侧咅Vbwels:Theheightofthetongueraising…hign,mid,lowThepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue---front,central,backThelengthortensenessofthevowel■一laxortenseTheshapeofthelips…rounded,unrounded3)characteristicsofEnglishspeechsoundsEnglishvowels:Thereare7shortvowels,5longvowels,8diphthongs双音，and5triphthongs三元音・P5monophthongs单元音Englishconsonants:consonantsareusuallyclassifiedaccordingtotheirplaceofarticulationandmannerofarticulation.Englishissaidtohave24consonants:6plosive爆破咅consonants,9fricatives摩擦音，2affricates塞擦音，3nasals鼻音，3approximantsand1lateralconsonant.P53\n1)thetranscriptionofsoundsAphoneticalphabetcanrepresentspeechintheformofsegments,orindividualspeechsounds.Aphonetictranscriptionisaneconomicalmeansforcapturingsoundsonpaper.Thebest-knownsystem,theInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA),hasbeendevelopingsince1888.Thissystemoftranscriptionattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbol.Therearetwokindsoftranscription:narrowtranscriptionandbroadtranscription.1.1Phonenws音位Phonology咅彳立学isthestudyofsoundpatternsinhumanlanguage.Phonologyisalsocalledphonemicswhichstudiesthedistinctivesoundunitsofalanguageandtheirrelationship・1)definitionofDhonemesThesegmentsofanunderlyingrepresentationarecalledphonemes.Phonemesequaldistinctivesounds.Phonemeistheminimumphoneticunitthatisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunits.Humanlanguagesusealargenumberoforallytransmittedunitscalledphonemes・2)minimalpairs最力、语音主力:ApairofphonemesisalsoknownasaminimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwowordsarecalledminimalpairs.Forinstance,deedandseed.Phonemicdistinctionscanoccurinanypositionwithinaword・Thesubstitutionofonefeatureforanotherdoesnotresultinachangeinmeaning.Thus,wesaythatthesoundsorfeaturesinquestionareinfreevariation.Thus,wesaythatthesoundsorfeaturesinquestionareinfreevariation.3)distinctivefeatures考名词解释Distinctivefeaturesareoftenshownintheformofabinary二元的opposition.Thefeaturescanbeshownaseitherpresent[+]orabsent[-].Mostdistinctivefeaturesarebinary,thatis,theycanhaveonlyoneoftwovalues—plusorminus.L3soundpatternsSoundpatternsrefertothesetofsoundsthatoccurinagivenlanguage,thepermissiblearrangementsofthesesoundsinwords,andtheprocessesforadding,deletingorchangingsounds-Itishighlyunlikelythatanytwolanguageshaveexactlythesamesoundpattern.1)sequentialconstTaints(语咅)序列的限制Alllanguageshaveconstraintsonthepermittedsequencesofphonemes,thoughdifferentlanguageshavedifferentconstraints.Thephonologicalsystemdetennineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.2)complementarydistribution互补性分布Whentwoormoresoundsneveroccurinanidenticalphonemiccontextorenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Theaspiratedandtheunaspirated不送气phonesareincomplementarydistribution・AccordingtoWardhaugh,phoneticallysimilarsoundsincomplementarydistributionareallophones音位变休ofasinglephoneme.1.4Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征1)Syllable咅节AccordingtoRoach,aminimumsyllableisasinglevowelinisolation.Structurally,thesyllablemaybedividedintothreeparts:theonset,thepeak,andthecoda.首音，音核，音节尾。Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanuncheckedoropensyllable;onewithacodaiscalledacheckedorclosedsyllable.Thepeakandcodaofasyllableformaunit,thesyllablecore.2)Stress:Stressisgenerallydefinedassyllableprominence.Asyllablethatismoreprominentthanothersinawordorphraseissaidtobestressed.Languageswhichhavesyllablesthatdifferinstressarecalledstresslanguage・Somewordsmayhaveaprimarystressandoneormorethanonesecondarystress.Nowordhasmorethanoneprimarystress.Alltheotherstressedvowelsarereducedtosecondary\nstress.1)Pitch咅高：Differentlanguagesusepitchdifferently.2)intonationandtone语调声调Functions:1)groupingofwords;2)emphasizingwords;3)differentiatingmeanings.SomefunctionsofEnglishtones:1)fallingtone2)risingtone3)falling-risingtone4)rising・fallingtone5)LeveltoneChapter3morphologyandlexiconMorphology形态学studiesmorphemes词素andtheirdifferentformsandthewaytheycombineinwordformation.Lexiconreferstothesetofallthewordsandidiomsofanylanguage.Weknowtheword,bythecompanyitkeeps1.1wordandwordclasses1)Word:Bloomfield,definesawordas“aminimumfreefbmf；thatisthesmallestformthatcanoccurbyitself.Characteristicsofword:aword1)isasoundorcombinationofsounds;2)issymbolic;3)ispartoflanguage・4)Helpshumanbeingsinteractculturallywithoneanothe匸2)Wordclasses1.derivation(affixation)(派生)Prefixesareaddedtothebeginningofaword(e.g.un-5mis-,anti-,dis-,non-,etc);Forexample:antibacterial,antimagnetic,antihero;Suffixesareaddedtotheendoftheword(-ish,-less,-ism,etc);Infixesareincoiporatedinsideanotherword.Forexample:4Absogoddamlutely!\'Unfuckingbelievable!\2xonversion(转换)——Conversionreferstoachangeinthefunctionofaword・A.fromnountoverb-•“He'spaperingthebedroomwallsoHaveyoubutteredthetoast?They'revacationinginFrance.B.fromVerbtonoun——aguess;aprintout;C.fromVerbtoadjective——see-throughmaterialD.fromAdjectivetoverbtoempty;todirty3