语言学基础introduction 10页

Chapter1Introduction1.1Whatislinguistics?LL1Definition:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.language:languageingeneral,notanyparticularlanguage,e.g.English,Chinese,Arabic,andLatin.1.1.2TheScopeoflinguisticsA)generallinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.basicconcepts:language;sentence;wordstheories:descriptions:models:methodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy:B)mainbranchesoflinguisticsLanguagestudyfocusesonMeaningandForm.i)Form:soundphoneticsphonologywrittenmorphologysyntaxii)Meaning:semanticspragmaticsiii)introductiontothemainbranches1)PhoneticsThestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.2)PhonologyThestudyofthewayinwhichthesoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.3)MorphologyThestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords•4)SyntaxThestudyofruleswhichgovernthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages.5)Semantics:meaninginlanguageThestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.6)Pragmatics:meaningincontextWhenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics-\nC)MacrolinguisticsLinguisticsisnottheonlyfieldconcernedwithlanguage.Otherdisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,anthropology,artificialintelligence,medicineandeducationetc.arealsopreoccupiedwithlanguage.1)SociolinguisticsThestudyofthesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformsthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguistics.2)PsycholinguisticsItrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.e.g.tostudylanguagedevelopmentinchildren,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition;3)Appliedlinguisticsa)thestudyofsecondandforeignlanguagelearningandteaching.b)thestudyoflanguageandlinguisticsinrelationtopracticalproblems.Itusesinformationfromsociology,psychology,anthropologyandinformationtheoryaswellaslinguisticsinordertodevelopitsowntheoreticalmodelsoflanguageandlanguageuse,andthenusesthisinformationandtheoryinpracticalareas.1.1.2LinguisticsasaScienceThreeadequaciesHowcanweappraisetheextentofsuccessinscientificstudy?Therearethreelevelstoconsider,namelyobservation,description,andexplanation.Whatalinguistseeksforcanbesummarizedasthreeadequaciescorrespondingly.a)observationaladequacyAsuccessfulresearchisexpectedtobeadequateinobservationatfirst.Itischaracterizedbycorrectlyspecifyingwhatisobservedtobephonologically,morphologically,syntactically,semantically,orpragmaticallywell-formedorill-formed.b)descriptiveadequacyProperdescriptionisbasedonadequateobservation,andapieceofscientificworkisdescriptivelyadequateifitprovidesaprincipledaccountofthenativespeaker'sintuitionsaboutthestructureofthelinguisticphenomenonobserved.c)explanatoryadequacyExplanatoryadequacyistheultimategoalofanyscientificexploration.Inlinguistics,atheoryattainsexplanatoryadequacyjustincaseitprovidesadescriptivelyadequategrammarforeverynaturallanguage,anddoessointermsofamaximallyconstrainedsetofuniversalprincipleswhichrepresentpsychologicallyplausiblenaturalprinciplesofmentalcomputation.L2Whatislanguage?1.2.1DesignfeaturesDesignfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.TheframeworkofthedesignfeatureswasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistCharles\nHockett1)ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Why?a)differentlanguagesmayhavedifferentsoundstorepresentthesameobjectthatexistsinsociety.b)thesamesoundmayexpressdifferentmeaningsexception:onomatopoeia:basedonthenaturalvoices.2)DualityDEFINITION:Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.3)ProductivityDEFINITION:Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.comparingwithanimalcommunicationsystemse.g.anexperimentonbeedance:Beecommunicationregardinglocationhasafixedsetsignals,allofwhichrelatetohorizontaldistance.Thebeecannotmanipulateitscommunicatingsystemtocreatea"new^messageindicatingverticaldistance.4)DisplacementDEFINITION:Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Animalsareunder"immediatestimuluscontrol”.Humanlanguageis,unlikeanimalcommunicationsystems,stimulusfree.5)CulturaltransmissionLanguageculturaltransmissionmeansthatlanguageisculturallytransm让ted.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.1.2.1DefinitionsoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication・1.2.2.1Languageisasystemelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.a)rulesofsoundsystemb)rulesofwrittensystem1.2.2.2Languageisarbitraryandsymbolic1.2.2.3Languageisvocala)theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.b)writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.c)somelanguageonlyhavesoundsystemsandnowritingsystems\n1.2.2.1Languageishuman-specific1.2.2.2communicationvsinformation1.2.3Knowledgeoflanguage:endowedorconventional?TIME-HONOREDPROBLEMS•WHATISKNOWLEDGEOFLANGUAGE?•WHEREDOESITCOMEFROM?Aristotle(384-322B.C.):Languageisarrivedatbyconventionandagreementofthespeakersofagivenlanguage.BEHAVIORISMEMPIRICISMOurbrainwasblankwhenwewerebom.Languageisasocial,empiricalentity.B.F.Skinner:theAmericanpsychologistandafamousHarvardbehaviouristThefamousquotation"languageisbehaviour"Verbalbehaviouristhesameasanyotherfundamentalrespectofnon-verbalbehaviour.Theoccurrenceofbehavioursisdependentuponthreecrucialelements:astimulus,whichservestoelicitbehaviour;aresponsetriggeredbyastimulus;reinforcement,whichservestomarktheresponseasbeingappropriate(orinappropriate)andencouragestherepetition(orsuppression)oftheresponseinthefuture.Verbalbehaviour:thestimulusaswhatistaught(languageinput),theresponseasthelearnerreactiontothestimulus,thereinforcementastheapprovalorpraise(ordiscouragement)oftheteacherorfellowstudents.Argumentforpovertyofthestimulusw•a)Thechild'slinguisticexperience(stimulus)isnotsufficienttojustifytheadultgrammar.•b)Asfarasachildisconcerned,anutterancecontainingamistakeisjustanotherpieceoflinguisticexperiencetobetreatedonaparwitheiTor-freeutterance.Buttheystillknowthecorrectgrammar.•c)Achildandachimpanzeebothliveinthesamelanguageenvironment,onlythechildcanlearnthelanguage.Plato(427?-347B.C.)Thereisauniversallycorrectandacceptablelogicoflanguageformantofollowinexpressinghisideas>NATIVISMMENTALISMThereisabiological,physiologicalentityinsideourbrainwhichdecidesthatwe\nspeak.Languagefaculty/(LAD=LanguageAcquisitionDevice):Humanbeingsdohaveaninbornknowledgeoflanguagewhichmustbeuniversallycorrectandacceptable,thelocationofsuchinnateknowledgejustinourgenes.ExperienceofL—LF一GrammarofLChomskytepistemologyoftheknowledgeoflanguage•TheinitialstateofhumanlanguagefacultyiscalledUG(UniversalGrammar).•UG(universalgrammar):Everyspeakerknowsasetofprincipleswhichapplytoalllanguagesandalsoasetof(binary)parametersthatcanvaryfromonelanguagetoanothe匸principles:allhumanlanguageshavethesubject,verb,andobject.reflexiblepronounprinciple:thereflexiblepronounshouldtakethenouninthesameclauseasantecedent.parameters:binaryparameter:thepositionofthewh・elementinthesentence•Duetotheeffectoflaterexperience,ourbrain/minddevelopsfromtheinitialstateintothesteadystate,whichcorrespondstothecompetenceofspeakingahumanlanguage.experienceUGPG(ParticularGrammar)PG二a・UG\n1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptivePrescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Descriptivestudy:Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribesandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive.Prescriptivestudy:Ifalinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor"correctandstandard^behaviorinusinglanguage,itissaidtobeprescriptive.13.2Synchronicvs・diachronic一byFerdinanddeSaussure.synchronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory,diachronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.1.3.3SpeechandwritingSpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Thespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguage.1)speechispriortowriting:(fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution)2)Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.3)Spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe"revised"recordofspeech.4)Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.1.3ALangueandparoleThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure.1)definitionA)langue:a)theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity(asocialcode);b)thesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby;c)abstract,itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.d)relativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently.B)parole:a)therealizationoflangueinactualuse.b)theconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.c)concrete,itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.d)variesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.2)Thesignificancesofthedistinction:a)itisconvenientinthatitdelimitsanareaofenquirywhichismanageable:thatareaislangueb)theconceptoflanguecanbesaidtocapturethecentralanddeterminingaspectof\nlanguageitself.1)Therelationbetweenthelangueandparolea)Languecomesfromparole.b)Paroleisguidedbylangue.1.3.5competenceandperformanceProposedbytheAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky.1)definitionCompetence:theidealuser^sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.2)Therelationbetweenthecompetenceandperformancea)competenceisessentialandprimary;performanceistheresidualcategoryofsecondaryphenomena,incidental,andperipheral.b)competenceandperformancearequitedifferentphenomenaandyoucannotdirectlyinferonefromtheothe匚3)Thedifferencebetweenthetwopairsofconcepts:languevsparoleandcompetencevsperformancei)similarities:a)Itrepresentsasimilardichotomyofknowledgeandbehaviour.b)Itrepresentsasimilardemarcationofthescopeoflinguisticenquiry.c)Theyarebothbeglossedintermsofabstractknowledgeii)differences:a)thenatureofknowledgeisconceivedofinverydifferentways.—Saussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.—Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual・b)thedifferentstudyinterest—Langue,thefocusofattentionwillbeinwhatmakeseachlanguagedifferent.—Competence,thefocusofattentionwillbeinwhatmakeslanguagesalike.1.3.6Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics1)definition:Modernlinguistics:ThebeginningofmodemlinguisticswasmarkedbythepublicationofF.deSaussure'sbookCourseinGeneralLinguisticsintheearly20lhcentury.Traditionalgrammar:Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyears,beforethebook"CourseinGeneralLinguistics^waspublished.2)differencesbetweentraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics:a)modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.b)modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewriting.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword.c)traditionalgrammarforceslanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework,butmodernlinguisticsdoesnot\nReadingrecommendationBeginner-friendly:S.C.Poole:AnIntroductiontoLinguistics.MacmillanPublishersLtd,1999;外语教学与研究出版社2000（刘润清导读）。H.G.Widdowson:Linguistics.OxfordUniversityPress1996；上海外语教育出版社，2001。胡壮麟、姜旺琪：语言学教程（修订版）。北京大学出版社，2001。Morechallenging:V.Fromkin,etal:AnIntroductiontoLanguage（the7thedition）.Holt,RinehartandWinstonInc.2002；北京大学出版社，2004。DCiystal:TheCambridgeEncyclopediaofLanguage.CambridgeUniversityPress,1995，2003;外语教学与研究出版社2002（王克非等导读）。\nChapter1IntroductionExercises:1.WhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutlanguageisNOTtrue?A.Languageisasystem.B.Languageissymbolic.C.Languageshouldhaveawrittenform.D.Languageisarbitrary.2.WhichofthefollowingfeaturesisNOToneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage?A.Symbolic.B.Dual.C.Productive.D.Arbitrary.3.Whatarethedualstructuresoflanguage?A.Soundsandletters.B.Soundsandmeaning.C.Lettersandmeaning.D.Soundsandsymbols.4.Whichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribe'displacement，，oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage?A.Wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguage.B.Wccanuseboth"shu"and1tree1todescribethesamething.C.Wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresent.D.Wecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore.5.Whichofthefollowingisoneofthecorebranchesoflinguistics?A.Phonology.B・Psycho-linguistics.C・Socio-linguistics.D.Anthropology.6.Whichofthefollowingbranchesoflinguisticstakestheinnerstructureofwordasitsmainobjectofstudy?A.Phonetics.B・Semantics.C.Morphology.D.Syntax.7.Whichofthefollowingmodesofstudyemphasizesonthe"standards”oflanguage?A.Prescriptive.B・Descriptive.C.Synchronic.D.Diachronic.8.WhoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenLangueandParoleA.SaussureB.ChomskyC.HallidayD.Anonymous9.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby.A.SaussureB.HallidayC.ChomskyD.thePragueSchool10.AccordingtoChomsky,istheidealuser'sinternalizedknowledgeofhislanguage.A.competenceB.paroleC・performanceD.langue11.isadesignfeatureofhumanlanguagethatenablesspeakerstotalkaboutawiderangeofthings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandspace.A.DisplacementB.ArbitrarinessC.DualityD.Productivity12.Generallinguisticsisthescientificstudyof.A.languageofacertainindividualB.theGermanlanguageC.humanlanguageingeneralD・thesystemofaparticularlanguage13.Themainbranchesoflinguisticsincludethefollowingexcept.A.phoneticsB.phonologyC・morphologyD.grammar\nChimpanzeesandlanguage◊Afterreadthefollowingpassage,trytoanswerthequestion:Dothechimpanzeeshavethecapacityforlanguage?Whyorwhynot?BeginninginJune1966,theGardnersandtheirresearchassistantsraisedWashoelikeahumanchildinacomfortabledomesticenvironment.SignlanguagewasalwaysusedwhenWashoewasaroundandshewasencouragedtousesigns,evenherownincomplete"baby・versions^ofthesignsusedbyadults-Inaperiodforthreeandahalfyears,Washoecametousesignsformorethanahundredwords,rangingfromairport,baby,andbananathroughtowindow,womanandyou.EvenmoreimpressivewasWashoe'sabilitytotaketheseformsandcombinethemtoproduce4sentencesofthetypegimmetickle,morefruitandopenfooddrink(togettherefrigeratoropened).SomeoftheformsusedappeartohavebeeninventionsbyWashoe,asinthecombinationwaterbird(referringtoaswan).Moreover,Washoedemonstratedunderstandingofamuchlargernumberofsignsthansheactuallyproduced.Shealsoseemedcapableofholdingrudimentaryconversations,mainlyintheformofquestioanswersequences.Intheabsenceofanyhuman,Washoecouldproducecorrectsignstoidentifyobjectsinpictures.Agroupofyoungerchimpanzees(Moja,Pili,TatuandDar)notonlylearnedsignlanguage,butuseditwitheachotherandwithWashoe,evenwhentherewerenohumanspresent.Inalaterdevelopment,aninfantchimpanzeenamedLouliswasadoptedbyWashoeand,withoutanyhumantrainingatall,developedasigningvocabularyofmorethanfiftysigns.