语言学重点讲解 47页

三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。Chapter1:Invitationstolinguistics；Chapter2:SpeechSounds；Chapter3:Lexicon；Chapter4:Syntax(新版中，这章改成FromWordtoText，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5:Meaning。这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。一定要在理解的基础上记忆。Chapter1:Invitationstolinguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。因为考点还不少！Designfeaturesoflanguage:Arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement.这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。能举出代表性的例子来支持定义。总之是非常重要。Functionsoflanguage:informative,interpersonalfunction,performative,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunction,metalingualfunction.这7个功能也得记住，而且理解。能举出例子。填空容易考其中一个。Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics:descriptive/prescriptive,synchronic/diachronic,langue/parole,competence/performance.Etic/Emic.5对区别特征也非常重要，尤其前四对区别特征，他们几乎是学语言学的必备知识，连这个都不知道，以后就没法学习了!而且有俩对区别特征都是语言学的创始人索绪尔最先提出的。所以这些区别特征的定义等相关知识点都需要记住。最后那个区别特征Etic/Emic不是特别重要，而且我看到新版《语言学教程》已经把这个特征删除了！Chapter2:SpeechSounds首先对Phonetics(语音学)和phonology(音系学)俩个概念要区分下。语音学部分：发音器官还是要熟悉，也有助于后面语音描述的学习。另外，声带（vocalcard）的三个位置（apart,closedtogether,totallyclosed），分别产生清音（voiceless），浊音（voived）和喉塞音（glottalstop）.这部分最重要的还算辅音和元音了。辅音要熟记发音部位和发音方法，能熟练的根据描述，写出对应的语音，或者能描述给出的辅音，这应该是必考得！元音的考察方式跟辅音一样。但元音考得个数少。10个小题里，可能是3个元音描述，7个辅音描述。最后就是coarticulation的定义和理解，举出例子。对什么是宽式标音（broadtranscription）和窄式标音(narrowtranscription)也应该熟悉。音系学部分：理解通过最小对立体的分析，得出的音位(phonemes)的概念.记住音位phoneme的定义；音位变体（allophones）的定义;互补分布（complementarydistribution）的定义.音位过程(phonologicalprocess)只要熟悉Nasalization,Dentalization,Velarization,Devoicing这四个就可以了，自己记几个例子，以防万一！大家也看过书了，音位过程这部分还有些其它知识，挺难的。对于你自己认为很艰涩难懂的东西，其实考试考得可能也不大。这是我们语言学任课老师说的。最后，剩下音节（syllables）了，虽然这个知识点放在本章的最后，以前我以为不重要，但08年，我们有个5分的定义题（definition）,就考了syllables的定义！所以大家对音节结构那块还是熟记下。Chapter3:Lexicon这章的第二节：Theformationofword和第三节thelexicalchange重要。对词素（morphemem）的定义，分类要熟记。Word形成的俩种方式复合（compound）和派生（derivation）也要熟悉。另外语素变体(Allomorph)的定义等也要熟悉。词汇变化（thelexicalchange）这部分，介绍了7种词汇演变的方式，只要记住这7种方式，能给每个方式举个例子就可以了。最后的语义变化（semanticchange）这部分，我觉得broadening,narrowing,meaningshift,classshift需要了解下。Chapter4:Syntax这一章可以说是全书最难的章节。但新版的《语言学教程》把这章进行了彻底的改变！难度下降了很多。所以如果09年参考书改成新版的话，考生还是比较幸运的！！！这里，我把新旧俩版的第四章对比一下：旧版：47\nThetraditionalapproach:number,gender,case,tense和aspect要区别清楚。几个重要概念要背会：Concord,Government.Thestructuralapproach:索绪尔提出的俩个重要概念：组合关系（syntagmaticrelation）和聚合关系(paradigmaticrelation)，他们的定义一定要在理解的基础上记住。索绪尔的另外俩个概念：能指（signified）和所指（signifier）也很重要。注意区分structure和system.因为前者体现了组合关系（syntagmaticrelation）；后者体现了聚合关系(paradigmaticrelation)。本章的另一个重点是直接成分分析法（ICanalysis）。直接成分（immediateconstitute）的定义应该记住。如果给你个句子，你要能够用ICanalysis分析。08年我们就考了这样一道题！这部分的另一个重点是向心结构（endocentricconstructions）和离心结构（exocentricconstruction）。理解这两种结构，能够举出典型的例子。Thegenerativeapproach:第一个重点是deepstructure和surfacestructure.要背会它们的定义。第二个重点是Chomsky’s的转换生成语法理论。这部分特别抽象，理解难度大。那么同学们肯定要问，对于书里的这种知识，该掌握到什么程度呢？其实考试不会涉及这种特别难的东西。所以，转换生成理论这部分，大家只要背会thestandardtheory和extendedstandardtheory的图表。第三就是背会government和binding的定义。理解c-command就可以了。Chomsky的理论这部分知识难度大，一般都不是重点，因为我们老师说特别难的不考。而08年，最后一道大题，就是考的extendedstandardtheory。整个卷子也有好几处考了Chomsky的理论。所以我们考生去年考完都觉得语言学很偏，原因也就在此。Thefunctionalapproach:了解布拉格学派（Pragueschool）,和系统功能语法（systemic-functionalgrammar）.重点是主位（theme）和述位(rheme).他们的概念，以及句子中哪部分是主位，哪部分是述位。另一个知识点是交际动力（communicativedynamism）.新版：Chapter4:FromWordtoText.第一节Syntacticrelation:第二节Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents第三节Syntacticfunction第四节Category第五节Phraseclauseandsentence第六节Recursiveness第七节Beyondthesentence大家可以看到，新版和旧版已经完全不同了。Chapter5:Meaning(semantics-语义学)Meaningsof“meaning”:第一个重点是Leech’sseventypesofmeaning:conceptualmeaning,connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,collocativemeaning,themanticmeaning.第二个重点是thereferentialtheory的概念，semantictriangle,senseandreference的定义。第三个重点是senserelations:synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy.着三种关系应该说很重要。这章后面一部分内容了解即可。比如sentencemeaning那部分。二、二星级重点章节Chapter7language,cultureandsocietyLanguageandculture:语言与文化这部分其实是人类语言学。需要记住：contextofsituation的组成部分。重点是Sapir-Whorfhypotheses的定义和理解。特别是语言相对论linuisticrelativity和语言决定论linguisticdeterminism。Languageandsociety:语言与社会这部分就是社会语言学。会写社会语言学这个词：sociolinguistic.这部分注意下communicativecompetence,linguisticsexism,womenregister.Chapter8:languageinuse(pragmatics语用学)这章的重点就是俩个理论：speechacttheory和thetheoryofconversationalimplicature.其中thetheoryoftheillocutionaryact,cooperativeprincipleanditsfourmaxims要熟记。知道theviolationofthemaxims,thecharacteristicsofimplicature.在post-griceandevelopment部分，比较重要的是relavencetheory.后面的内容了解即可。三、一星级重点章节Chapter6:languageprocessinginmind这章是心理语言学，考的几率很小。但又不能不复习这一章。谁也不能肯定这章肯定不考。比较重要的知识点：cohorttheory,frequencyeffect,recencyeffects,gardenpathsentence,minimalattachmenttheory,schemata.47\nChapter1.InvitationtolinguisticsNaturalvsartificiallanguagesI.ThedefinitionofLanguageII.DesignfeaturesoflanguageIII.FunctionsoflanguageIV.Thedefinitionoflinguistics:V.MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics:Phonology:Morphology:Syntax:Semantics:Pragmatics:Macrolinguistics:Psycholinguistics:Sociolinguistics:Anthropologicallinguistics:Computationallinguistics:VI.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevsprescriptivestudiesSynchronicvsdiachronicstudiesLanguevsparoleSaussureCompetencevsperformanceChomsky(CommunicativeCompetence:.)EticvsemicSyntagmaticvsparadiamaticrelationsChapter2SpeechSoundsI.ThethreebranchesofphoneticsII.Speechorgansvocalfolds(cords)声带:glottis声门:apart(voiceless:/p/),closedtogether(voiced:/b/),totallyclosed(glottalstop:/?/)III.Segments,divergence,andphonetictranscriptionsIV.Consonants1)Mannersofarticulation2)PlacesofarticulationBilabialLabiodentaldentalalveolarPalatoalveolarpalatalvelarglottalnasalmnŋplosivepbtdkɡfricativefvθsz∫ʒhaffricatet∫dʒApproximant(w)rjwLaterall3)Voicing:4)Nasalvsoral:5)Pulmonicvsnon-pulmonic:V.VowelsCardinalvowels:Monophthongvsdiphthongorpurevowelsvsglidings:/a/,/au/SchwaVI.CoarticulationandphonetictranscriptionCoarticulation协同发音:Anticipatorycoarticulation逆化协同发音:Perseverativecoarticulation接续性协同发音:Broadandnarrowtranscriptions宽式和紧式音标:aspiratedDiacritics:VII.PhonologicalanalysisPhonemes音位:minimalpairs最小对立体:contrastivedistribution对立分布:Allophones音位变体:complementarydistribution互补分布:phoneticsimilarity语音相似性:patterncongruity模式一致性:47\nPhonologicalprocessesAssimilation同化:regressiveassimilation逆同化:progressiveassimilation顺同化:Phonologicalprocesses:Voicedsound→voiceless/voiceless_________Epenthesis:Sibilant:Underlyingform:TheElsewhereCondition:VIII.DistinctivefeaturesObstruents.SonorantsIX.Suprasegmentalphonology超切分音系学SyllableSyllabicstructures:onset;rhyme;nucleusorpeak;codaopensyllable:Sentencestress:Pitch:Tones:Intonation:Chapter3LexiconI.WhatiswordThreesensesofwordIdentificationofwordLexeme:II.ClassificationofwordsVariablevsinvariablewordsGrammaticalvslexicalwordsClosed-classvsopen-classwordsWordclasses:NewwordclassesidentifiedParticles:Auxiliaries:Pro-forms:pro-adjectives:Pro-verbs:Pro-adverbs:pro-locative:Determiners:Pre-diterminers:Centraldeterminers:Post-determiners:III.FormationofwordsMorphemeandmorphologyMorphemes:Typesofmorphemes:freemorphemes:boundmorphemes:roots:freeroots:boundroots:affixes:prefixes:suffixes:infixes:stems:DifferencesbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixesInflectionandwordformationCompound:endocentric（向心的）andexocentric（离心的）DerivationPhonologyandmorphologymorphemeandphoneme2)morphemicstructureandphonologicalstructure3)allomorphmorphophonologyormorphophonemics:TheconditionsofmorphemechangephonologicallyconditionedmorphologicallyconditioneIV.lexicalchanges47\nNewwords(neologisms,coinages)arecreatedinthefollowingways:V.PhonologicalchangeVI.SemanticchangeChapter4SyntaxI.ThetraditionalapproachCategories:Number:Gender:Case:Tense:Aspect:Degree:Concord:Government:II.Thestructuralapproach<1>Structuresandsystems<2>ImmediateconstituentanalysisLinearstructures:Hierarchicalstructures:Construction:Constituent:Immediateconstituents:ICAnalysis:Advantagesanddisadvantages<3>Endocentricandexocentricconstructions:Exocentricconstructions：Chapter5Meaning1.Meaningsof‘meaning’Leech’sseventypesofmeaning:2.WordMeaning<1>Thereferentialtheory:Problems:ThesemantictriangleSensereference<2>SenserelationsSynonymy:Antonymy:Gradableantonymy:threefeatures:Complementaryantonymy:threefeaturesConverseantonymyHyponymy:e.g.furniture(superordinate)–desk,sofa,bed,chair,cupboard,etc.(hyponymsorco-hyponyms)<3>Componentialanalysis:woman:HUMAN,ADULT,-MALE.Father:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)=xistheparentofyandxismale.Kill:CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y,(-ALIVE(y))))=xcausesytobecomedeadProblemswithsemanticcomponentialanalysis:<4>Semanticfieldtheory(lexicalfieldtheory)3.Sentencemeaning<1>Predicatelogic,predicatecalculusProposition:apropositionhastwoparts:Truthvalue<2>PropositionallogiccompositepropositionNegationConjunctionDisjunctionImplicationEquivalenceEntailment:<3>Anintegratedtheory47\ntheprincipleofcompositionality.Accordingtothisthem,thesemantictheoryconsistsoftwoparts:adictionaryandasetofprojectionrules.grammaticalclassificationsemanticinformationgrammaticalorsyntacticmarkers.semanticmarkersanddistinguishers.Problems:Chapter7Language,Culture,andSociety1.Languageandculture<1>Nida:<2>Firth:Theoryofcontextofsituation<3>theSapir-WhorfHypothesis:Linguisticdeterminism:Linguisticrelativity:<4>CultureinlanguageclassroomsTheobjectives:Languageandsociety<1>Monisticorautonomouspursuitofanindependentscience:Dualisticview:<2>Thefactorsthatarebelievedtoinfluencelanguagebehaviorinasocialcontext:<3>awomanregister:<4>Linguisticsexism:<5>Linguisticracism:<6>SociolinguisticstoteachingCross-culturalCommunionSuggestivePrinciplesforCross-culturalCommunion:Chapter8languageinuse1.SpeechacttheoryPerformatives（言语行为句）andconstatives（表述句）Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact3.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicature（会话含义）CooperativeprincipleorCPFourcategoriesofmaxims:ViolationofthemaximsCharacteristicsofimplicature4.RelevancetheoryTheQ-andR-principles6.TheQ-,I-andM-principles47\n重点章Chapter1.InvitationtolinguisticsNaturalvsartificiallanguagesI.ThedefinitionofLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.System：rule-governedArbitrary:nonaturalrelationshipbetweenlanguageelementsandtheirmeaning:Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.Asoundmustseemtobeanechotoitssense.Vocal:speechisprimarySymbol:relatedtoarbitrariness,languageelementsareonlythesymbolsforthemeaningtheyexpressHuman:uniquelyhumanorhumanspecificorspeciesspecificCommunication:theprimaryfunctionoflanguageII.DesignfeaturesoflanguageThedefiningpropertiesoflanguage1.Arbitrariness:notentirelyarbitrary:onomatopoeicwords;compounds;derivatives;somesurnames(Conventionality:thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.)2.Duality:thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthattheunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedoftheelementsofthesecondlevel,andeachlevelhasitsownrulesoforganization.3.Creativity:languageuserscanunderstandandproducenewsentencestoexpressnewmeanings.4.Displacement:languagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent(structure-dependentoperations)III.FunctionsoflanguageFunctions:broadcategoriesoflanguageuses1.Informative:whenlanguageisusedtoexpresshumanexperienceandknowledgeabouttheworld.Declarative,interrogative,imperative2.Interpersonalfunction:whenlanguageisusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelations3.Performative:whenlanguageisusedtoperformcertainacts4.Emotivefunction:whenlanguageisusedtochangetheemotionalstatesofanaudienceorusedtoexpressthespeakersemotionsorattitudestowardssomethingorsomeperson.Therewereflashesofsilencethatmadehisspeechperfectlydelightful.Thishonorablegentlemanisindebtedtohismemoryforhisjestsandtohisimaginationforhisfacts.Myhusbandhasbeensoberseveraltimesinthepastfiveyears.Itissohotthatwehavetotakeoffourfleshandsitinourbones.5.Phaticcommunion:occurswhenlanguageisusedforpureinterpersonalpurposes,e.g.greetings,farewells,etc.6.Recreationalfunction:whenlanguageisusedforthepurejoyofusingit7.Metalingualfunction:whenlanguageisusedtodiscussitselfIV.Thedefinitionoflinguistics:ThescientificstudyoflanguageStop/toppipeplay,wheel,lightcap,mapV.MainbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics:thedescription,classificationandtranscriptionofspeechsoundsPhonology:thestudyofspeechsoundsasasystem:therelationsbetweenspeechsounds,thewayinwhichspeechsoundsarerelatedtomeaning,therulesgoverningthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsounds47\nMorphology:theinternalstructuresofwordsSyntax:theinternalstructuresofsentencesSemantics:thestudyofmeaningasencodedinlanguagePragmatics:thestudyoflanguageuse,meaningincontextVI.Macrolinguistics:interdisciplinaryPsycholinguistics:psychologyandlinguisticscombined,thepsychologicalprocessinlanguageproduction,comprehensionandacquisitionSociolinguistics:sociologyandlinguisticscombined,socialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsoflanguageusers.languagevarietiesandfunctionsAnthropologicallinguistics:anthropologyandlinguisticscombined:therelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureComputationallinguistics:theuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage:machine-translation,informationretrieval,expertsystemsVII.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevsprescriptivestudiesDescribinglanguageasitisusedbyitsnativespeakersisdescriptive.TryingtolaydownlanguagerulesforcorrectusesoflanguageisprescriptiveModernlinguisticsisdescriptive.SynchronicvsdiachronicstudiesStudyinglanguageasitisusedataparticularpointintimeisasynchronicstudy.StudyinglanguageasitchangesovertimeisadiachronicstudyLanguevsparoleSaussureLangue(language)isthelanguagesystem:social,essential,stableParoleistheactualuseofthelanguagesystem:individual,accidental,unstableCompetencevsperformanceChomskyCompetenceistheunderlyingknowledgeaboutone’slanguage.Performanceistheactualuseofthatknowledgeinlanguageusesituations.(CommunicativeCompetence:knowledgeofgrammarandthepragmaticabilityforlanguageuse.)EticvsemicEticstudiesaimatproducinganexhaustivelistofalinguisticphenomenon.Emicstudiesaimsatknowingtherelationshipsbetweentheentitiesinthatlist.SyntagmaticvsparadiamaticrelationsSyntagmaticrelationsarerelationsbetweenunitspresentinthesamesequenceorconstruction.Syntagmaticallyrelatedelementsformstructures.Paradigmaticrelationsarerelationsbetweenaunitandotherunitsthatcanreplaceitinagivensequence.Paradigmaticallyrelatedunitsformsystems.Chapter2SpeechSounds(重点：看两遍，术语及常用音如b/p,f/v等，和这些常用音的特点)I.ThethreebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics:thestudyofsoundproductionAcousticphonetics:thestudyofsoundtransmissionbetweeninterlocutorsAuditoryphonetics:thestudyofsoundperceptionII.SpeechorgansLungs肺trachea(windpipe)气管47\nvocalfolds(cords)声带:glottis声门:apart(voiceless:/p/),closedtogether(voiced:/b/),totallyclosed(glottalstop:/?/)tonguetip舌尖tongueblade舌叶tonguefront舌前tongueback舌后tongueroot舌跟epiglottis会厌hardpalate硬颚softpalate(velum)软颚uvula小舌teeth牙teethridge(alveolarridge)齿龈lips(labium)唇nose鼻larynx喉pharynx咽vocaltract声道III.Segments,divergence,andphonetictranscriptionsSegments:smallestcomponentsofspeech:bit--/b/,/i/,/t/Divergence:noone-to-onecorrespondentbetweenpronunciationandspelling:ou–enough,house,through,though,etc.Phonetictranscription:internationalphoneticalphabetIV.ConsonantsConsonants:whenthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamintheproductionofasound1)Mannersofarticulation:Stop塞音:oralstop:/g/,nasalstop:/m/Fricative摩擦音:/s/,/z/(medianorcentral)approximant近音:/r/,/j/Lateralapproximant边音:/l/Affricate破擦音:/t∫/2)PlacesofarticulationBilabial唇音:/m/Labiodental唇齿音:/f/Dental齿音:/θ/Alveolar齿龈音:/t/Post-alveolar后齿龈音:/∫/Palatal硬颚音:/j/Velar软颚音:/k/Glottal声门音:/h/BilabialLabiodentaldentalalveolarPalatoalveolarpalatalvelarglottalnasalmnŋplosivepbtdkɡfricativefvθsz∫ʒhaffricatet∫dʒApproximant(w)rjwLaterall47\n3)Voicing:4)Nasalvsoral:Iftheairisstoppedintheoralcavity,butthesoftpalateisdownsothattheaircanonlygetoutthroughthenasalcavity,thesoundisanasalstop.Otherwiseitisanoralstop.5)Pulmonicvsnon-pulmonic:Apulmonicsoundisaconsonantsoundproducedbypushingairoutofthelungs;whilenonpulmonicsoundsareproducedbyeithersuckingairintothemouth(click吸气音),orclosingtheglottisandmanipulatingtheairbetweentheglottisandaplaceofarticulationfurtherforwardinthevocaltract.V.VowelsCardinalvowels:thereferencepointsforthedescriptionandclassificationofvowels.iueoЄɔaɑThepartofthetonguethatisraised:front/i:/,central/ə/,back/α/Theheightofthetongue:high,mid,low;closed/i:/,halfclosed/e/,halfopen/ε/,open/a/Thedegreeofliprounding:rounded/u:/,unrounded/i:/Monophthongvsdiphthongorpurevowelsvsglidings:/a/,/au/Longvsshortvowelsortensevslaxvowels:/i:/,/I/ThetableofEnglishvowelsonpage52inthetextbook.Schwaistheneutralvowel[ə].VI.CoarticulationandphonetictranscriptionCoarticulation协同发音:inspeechasoundmaybecomemorelikeitsneighbouringsound.Anticipatorycoarticulation逆化协同发音:whenasoundisinfluencedbythefollowingsound,e.g.impossiblePerseverativecoarticulation接续性协同发音:whenasoundisinfluencedbytheprecedingsound,e.g.playBroadandnarrowtranscriptions宽式和紧式音标:whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailsisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription./p/isaspiratedinpeakandunaspiratedinspeakDiacritics:additionalsymbolsormarksshowingtheminutedifferencesbetweenvariationsofthesamesound,e.g.hforaspiratedsounds,~fornasalizedsounds,0fordevoicedsounds.Broadtranscriptionsdonotmakeuseofthesediacritics,whilenarrowtranscriptionsdo.VII.Phonologicalanalysis(重点)Phonemes音位:distinctivespeechsoundsminimalpairs最小对立体:pairsofwordsthatdifferinonlyonesoundcontrastivedistribution对立分布:thetwodifferentsoundsinaminimalpairareincontrastivedistributionAllophones音位变体:variantsofthesamephonemecomplementarydistribution互补分布:thosesoundsthatneveroccurinthesameenvironmentareincomplementarydistributionphoneticsimilarity语音相似性:allophonesofthesamephonememustbephoneticallysimilarpatterncongruity模式一致性:whenassigningasoundtoonephonemeratherthananother,wemusttakethesoundpatternofthelanguageintoconsiderationPhonologicalprocesses47\nAssimilation同化:whenasoundtakeonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighbouringsoundregressiveassimilation逆同化:whenasoundisinfluencedbythefollowingsoundprogressiveassimilation顺同化:whenasoundisinfluencedbytheprecedingsoundPhonologicalprocesses:processesinwhichasoundundergoesachangeincertainenvironmentsorcontextsandwecanwritephonologicalrulestorepresentthesechanges:e.g.Voicedsound→voiceless/voiceless_________Avoicedsoundistransformedintoacorrespondingvoicelesssoundwhenitoccursafteravoicelesssound:e.g.play→istransformedinto;/specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthechangeoccurs;_________indicatesthepositionofthetargetsound.Epenthesis:theprocessofinsertingasoundiscalledepenthesis.Sibilant:/s,z,∫,ʒ,t∫,dʒ/,thisgroupfricativesandaffricates,whichoftenbehavesinthesameway,istraditionallyknownassibilants.Underlyingform:Inordertobringouttherulethatgovernsthepatternofformchange,aformoccurringinmostcasesiscalledthebasicform,technicallyknownasunderlyingform,orunderlyingrepresentation(UR).Thederivedformisthesurfaceformofsurfacerepresentation(SR).TheElsewhereCondition:themorespecificruleappliesfirst.VIII.Distinctivefeatures(重点)Distinctivefeatures:aphonemecanbefurtheranalysedintoasetoffeaturesandthedistinctivefeaturesarephonological,binary;articulatorilyandacousticallybasedfeatures.Obstruentsarestops,fricativesandaffricates.Sonorantsareallotherconsonantsandvowels.IX.Suprasegmentalphonology超切分音系学concernedwiththoseaspectsofsoundfeaturesthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegmentsSuprasegmentalphonemes超切分音位:stress,pitch,intonationSyllableisaspokenlanguageunitwhichconsistsofasinglevowelorsyllabicconsonantandotherconsonants.Syllabicstructures:typically,asyllableconsistsofonset(consonantprecedingtherhyme)andrhymewhichconsistsofnucleusorpeak(vowelorsyllabicconsonant)andcoda(consonantfollowingpeak).(((C)(C)(C)V((((C)(C)(C)(C)Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllablewhileasyllablewithcodaisaclosedsyllable.Stress:degreeofforceusedintheproductionofasyllablewordstress:distinctive,e.g.PERfect,perfect;REcord,recordsentencestress:normally,contentwordsarestressedinsentences,whilegrammaticalwordsareunstressed,butinprinciple,sentencestresscanfallonanywordorsyllablePitch:differentratesofthevibrationofthevocalcordsproduce.Pitchvariationsarecalledtones:tonelanguagesandnon-tonelanguagesIntonation:whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentencesratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.1)intonationcanindicatedifferentsentencetypes:yes-nointerrogativesvsothertypesofsentences.2)intonationcanimposedifferentsentencestructuresonsentences.3)intonationcanbringdifferentpartofthesentenceintoprominence.Chapter3Lexicon(重点:看一遍，选择1或2道)I.WhatiswordThreesensesofword1）thephysicallydefinableunit:betweenpausesinspeechandbetweenblanksinwritingbut“can’t”,“doesn’t”,“forever”2）thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms:work,works,worked,working47\nbut“if”,“and”,“the”,“very”3）agrammaticalunit:sentence,clause,wordgroup/phrase,word,morphemebut“nation”,“fast”Identificationofword1)stability:theconstituentpartsofawordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangementPlayboy:*boyplay;JohnlovesMary:MarylovesJohn2)relativeuninterruptibility:newelementsandpausesarenottobeinsertedintoawordnationalization:*nationinteralization,*nationalization(even)Johndoesn’tloveMary.3)aminimumfreeform:theminimalunitthatcanconstituteanutterancebyitself-IsJanecomingthisevening?–Possibly.-Whatismissinginasentencesuchas‘Dogisbarking’?–A.Lexeme:basicabstractunitsofthelexiconontheleveloflanguagewhichmayberealizedindifferentgrammaticalformssuchasthelexeme“work”inwork,works,worked,working.Alexememayalsobeapartofanotherlexeme,e.g.worker,workbook,workday.Idiomsarealsoconsideredlexemes,e.g.theworksofGod:nature.Lexemesaretheunitswhichareconventionallylistedindictionariesasseparateentries.II.ClassificationofwordsVariablevsinvariablewordsVariablewordsarewordswhichhavedifferentgrammaticalforms.Invariablewordsarewordswhichdonothavedifferentgrammaticalforms.GrammaticalvslexicalwordsGrammaticalwordsarewordswhichmainlyworkforconstructinggrammaticalunist,e.g.pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,etc.functionwordsLexicalwordsarewordswhichmainlyworkforreferringtosubstance,action,andquality,e.g.nouns,verbs,etc.contentwordsClosed-classvsopen-classwordsClosed-classwordsarewordswhosemembershipisfixedorlimited,e.g.conjunctions,pronouns,prepositions,etc.Buteventhoughprepositionsareclosedclasswords,theyhavebeenincreasinginnumberslowly.Open-classwordsarewordswhosemembershipisinfiniteorunlimited,e.g.nouns,verbs,etc.Wordclasses:categoriesofwordsclassifiedaccordingtotheirgrammatical,semantic,phonologicalpropertiesoronthebasisofformalsimilaritiesintermsofinflectionsanddistribution.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,interjections,articlesNewwordclassesidentifiedParticles:theinfinitivemarker‘to’andthenegativemarker‘not’andthesubordinateelementinphrasalverbs,e.g.‘at’inlookatand‘out’inknockout.Auxiliaries:thetraditionalauxiliaryandmodalverbssuchas‘do’and‘can’Pro-forms:Thereareotherpro-formsinEnglishinadditiontopronouns.pro-adjectives:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verbs:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanIdo.Pro-adverbs:HerunsveryfastandsodoI.pro-locative:Jane’shidingthere,behindthedoor.Determiners:wordsprecedingtheheadnounanddeterminingthekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the(definite)student,a(indefinite)student,some(partitive)students,all(universal)students.Pre-diterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,one-third,etc.Centraldeterminers:(articles)the,a,(demonstrativepronouns)this,that,these,those,(indefinitepronouns)every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,(possessivepronouns)my,our,your,his,her,its,their,etc.47\nPost-determiners:(cardinalnumerals)one,two,etc.(ordinalnumerals)first,second,etc.(generalordinals)next,last,past,other,additional,etc.(quantifiers)many,several,much,little,alotof,agreatdealof,etc.Determinersfollowtheorderpre-determiner+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers,e.g.allthestudents,halfayear,etc.Themembersofeachsubclassareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.Butordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals,e.g.thefirsttwodays,thepastthreeweeks,etc.III.FormationofwordsMorphemeandmorphologyMorphemes:minimalunitsofmeaningTypesofmorphemes:freemorphemes:canstandaloneaswords,e.g.dog,map,nationboundmorphemes:havetoappearwithatleastanothermorpheme,e.g.international,precede,etc.roots:thatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved,e.g.internationalism,antidisestablishmentarianismfreeroots:rootsthatcanbeusedaswords,e.g.hopeful,interpersonalboundroots:rootsthathavetobeappearwithaffixes,e.g.precede,receive,submit,retain,recursomerootsinEnglishhavebothfreeandboundvariants,e.g.sleepy,slept;childlike,children;goes,wentaffixes:formativeelementsthathavetobeattachedtoatleastanothermorphemeprefixes:paragraph,miniskirt,unemployed,incorrectsuffixes:national,socialist,physicsinfixes:foot/feet,man/men,inCambodian/sepolah/(field),/segepolah/(fields)stems:amorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeattached,e.g.national,internationalisminflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes1)inflectionalaffixesaregenerallylessproductivethanderivationalaffixes:inflectionalaffixesoftenaddonlyagrammaticalfunctiontothestem,butderivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalcontent,e.g.maps,worker.2)Inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthestem,whereasderivationalaffixesmayormaynotchangethewordclassofthestem,maps,smoker,incorrect.3)Inflectionalaffixesareoftenconditionedbynon-semanticlinguisticfactors,e.g.JohnlovesMary.whereasderivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions,correctvscorrectness.4)InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesarenormallysuffixes,whereasderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesaswell.5)InEnglishinflectionalaffixesareverysmallinnumber,whereasderivationalaffixesaremuchlargerinnumber.InflectionandwordformationInflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Wordformation:theprocessofhowwordsareformed.Itcanbefurtherclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compounding)andthederivationaltype(derivation).Compound:wordsthatconsistofmorethanonefreemorphemeorthewaytojointwoormoreseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.Compoundscanbecompletelyunited:playboy,hyphenated:mother-in-law,separated:highfrequency.Therearenouncompounds,e.g.daybreak,haircut,verbcompounds,e.g.brainwash,lip-read,adjectivecompounds,e.g.man-eating,heartfelt,prepositionalcompounds,e.g.into,throughout.Compoundscanbeclassifiedintoendocentric（向心的）andexocentric（离心的）compounds.Inendocentricnominalandadjectivalcompounds,theheadisderivedfromaverb.Nominal:self-control,pain-killer,core-meaning;adjectival:eye-entertaining,bullet-resistant,machine-washable.Inexocentricnominalandadjectivalcompounds,thefirstwordisderivedfromtheverb.Nominal:playboy,scarecrow,breakthrough,get-together;adjectival:take-home,runaway,drive-ins.Derivation:theprocessbywhichwordsareformedfromexistingwordsorbasesbyaddingaffixes,bychangingtheshapeoftheword,orbyaddinganaffixandchangingthepronunciation,e.g.unconscious,booklet,disobey,lengthen47\n,foolish.Phonologyandmorphology1)morphemeandphonemeAsinglephonememayrepresentamorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical,e.g./z/:goes,boys,boy’s,is.2)morphemicstructureandphonologicalstructureMorphemesmayalsoberepresentedbymorphemicstructuresotherthanasinglephoneme,e.g.lovely(monosyllabic),tobacco(polysyllabic).Thesyllabicstructureofawordanditsmorphemicstructuredonotnecessarilycorrespond.3)allomorphSomemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,e.g.dog,cat,etc.othermorphemesmayhavedifferentshapesorphoneticforms,e.g.{z}:maps,dogs,watches,oxen,teeth,criteria,craft;{in}:incorrect,impossible,irregular,illegal.1)morphophonologyormorphophonemics:thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphonology.(1)phonologicallyconditionedassimilation:maps,dogs,incorrect,impossibledissimilation:peregrinus(Latin)→pilgrim,marbre(French)→marble(2)morphologicallyconditionedthreerequirements:a.Alltheallomorphsshouldhavecommonmeaning,e.g.maps,dogs,watches.b.Alltheallomorphsshouldbeincomplementarydistribution,e.g.maps,dogs,watches.c.Allomorphsthatsharethecommonmeaningshouldbeinparallelformation,e.g.ox→oxen,cow→cowsIV.lexicalchangesNewwords(neologisms,coinages)arecreatedinthefollowingways:Invention:Kodak,coke,nylon,fax,etc.Compounding:moonwalk,chairperson,etc.Derivation:semiconductor,supersonicBlending:transfer+resister→transistor,smoke+fog→smogtele-printer+exchange→telex,modulator+demodulation→modemFusion(aspecialtypeofblendings):spaddle←spank（拍）+paddle（打）,riffle←ripple（波纹）+ruffle（波纹）,rampacious←rampageous（暴跳的）+rapacious（掠夺的）Abbreviation:Clippings.Cuttingthefinalpart:advertisement→ad,mathematics→math;cuttingtheinitialpart:aeroplane→planeomnibus→bus;cuttingboththeinitialandfinalparts:influenza→flu,refrigerator→fridgeAcronym:theinitiallettersofthewordsinaphraseoridiomorthenameofanorganization:EEC←EuropeanEconomicCommunity,CIA←CentralIntelligenceAgency,Aids←acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome,Radar←radiodetectingandrangingBackformation:ashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerform:televise←television,edit←editor,diagnose←diagnosisBorrowings:frommanydifferentlanguages,especiallyGreek(electricity,atom),Latin(tumor,alibi),French(table,pork),Spanish(armada,ranch)etc.Loanwords:bothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyalightadaptation,e.g.coupon(French),sputnik(Russian),kung-fu(Chinese),Judo(Japanese).Loanblends:partoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed,e.g.coconut(Spanish),Chinatown(Chinese),loanshifts:themeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative,e.g.bridge(acardgamefromItalian),artificialsatellite(fromRussian)loantranslation:eachmorphemeorwordistranslatedfromtheequivalentmorphemeorwordinanotherlanguage,e.g.47\nfreeverse←verselibre(Latin),blackhumour←humournoir.V.PhonologicalchangeLoss:thedisappearanceofthesoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystem,e.g./x/(thevoicelessvelarfricative)waslostbetweenthetimesofChaucerandShakespeare:hit→it,niht→night.Soundlossmayalsooccurinutterancesattheexpenseofsomeunstressedvowels:temperature,postscript,thepenandpencilAddition:Soundsmaybeaddedtotheoriginalsoundsequence,e.g.rascal→rapscallion,lier→liaisonMetathesis:thealternationinthesequenceofsounds,e.g.brid→bird,middel→middle,lytel→little.Assimilation:thechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound(contactorcontiguousassimilation),e.g.immobile(n→m),support(b→p).Sometimesassimilationmayoccurbetweentwosoundsthatarenottoofarapart(distantornon-contiguousassimilation),e.g.discussingshortly(s→∫),confoundit(∂→au).VI.SemanticchangeBroadening:toextendorelevatethemeaningofawordfromitsoriginalspecificsensetoarelativelygeneralone,e.g.offend(tostrikeagainst→tocreateorexciteanger),bird(youngbird→anykindofbird),companion(apersonwithwhomyousharebread→apersonwhoaccompaniesyou),etc.Narrowing:theoriginalmeaningofawordisnarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense,e.g.girl(youngpersonofeithersex→youngwoman),deer(beast→aparticularkindofanimal),queen(wife→wifeofakingorafemaleking),etc.Meaningshift:thedepartureofawordfromitsoriginaldomainasaresultofitsmetaphoricalusage,e.g.bead(prayer→prayerbead→small,ball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwood),etc.Classshift:conversion:theprocessinwhichawordchangesfromonewordclasstoanother,e.g.must(haveto→anindispensableitem),word(alanguageunit→toexpressinwords),etc.Chapter4Syntax(大重点:术语，“分析方法”一定会分析、会标注，可能会有句法分析-歧义句、书中的例子)4.1ThetraditionalapproachCategories:grammaticalcategories:thedefiningpropertiesoflanguageunitslikenouns,verbs,adjectives,adverb,etc.Number:thegrammaticalcategoryofnouns,pronounsandverbsinEnglish.Thereareusuallytwotermsofnumber:singularandplural,e.g.abook,somebooks;he,they;HespeaksEnglish.TheyspeakEnglish.Gender:thegrammaticalcategoryofnounsandpronounsinEnglishe.g.actor,actress;waiter,waitress;he,she.InEnglishthegenderdistinctionisnaturalascontrastedwiththegrammaticalgenderinmanyotherEuropeanlanguages.Thereareonlyasmallnumberofnounsindicatingthegenderdistinction,andtheelementsindicatingitarehardlyinflectional.47\nCase:thegrammaticalcategoryofnounsandpronouns.InEnglishpronounshavethreecases:nominative(I,he,they),accusative(me,him,them)andgenitive(my,his,their),butnounshaveonlytwocases:common(John,boy)andgenitive(John’s,boy’s).Tense:thegrammaticalgenderofverbs,indicatingthetimeofaneventinrelationtothemomentofspeaking,e.g.Iamastudent.Iwenttothezooyesterday.Traditionally:past,present,future,pastfuture.Nowadays:pastandpresent.Aspect:thegrammaticalcategoryofverbs,distinguishingthestatusofeventsinrelationtothetimeofanotherevent,e.g.Iwasreadingwhenhecametoseeme.WhenIgottotherailwaystationthetrainhadalreadyleft.Progressiveorcontinuousvsperfect.Degree:thegrammaticalcategoryofadjectivesandadverbs,distinguishingpositiveorbasic(good,smart),comparative(markinganinequalityoftwostatesofaffairsrelativetoacertaincharacteristic,e.g.better,smarter),andsuperlative(markingthehighestdegreeofsomequantity,e.g.best,smartest)levels.Forsomethereisanotherlevelofdegree,elative(absolutesuperlative,markingaveryhighdegreeofsomepropertywithoutcomparisontosomeotherstatesofaffairs,e.g.Theperformancewasmostimpressive.Concord:agreement:therequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories,e.g.concordinnumber,e.g.thisboy,theseboys;abook,somebooks,concordinnumberandpersonbetweenthenounasthesubjectandtheverb,e.g.HespeaksEnglish,TheyspeakEnglish.Government:controlovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions,arelationshipinwhichawordofacertainwordclassdeterminestheformofotherwordsintermsofacertaincategory,e.g.theEnglishverbsandprepositionsdeterminesorgovernstheformthepronounsfollowingthem,e.g.Johngaveherabook.47\nThetestisimportanttome.II.ThestructuralapproachStructuresandsystemsStructures:syntagmaticallyrelatedelementsformstructures.Systems:paradigmaticallyrelatedelementsforsystems.ImmediateconstituentanalysisLinearstructures:consistingofindividualwordsoneafteranotherinaline,e.g.JohnlovesMary.Hierarchicalstructures:madeupoflayersofwordgroups,e.g.TheboykickedtheballConstruction:thegrammaticalstructureofasentenceoranysmallerunits,representedbyasetofelementsandrelationsbetweenelements,e.g.Johnsonsmiled.Thissentencehasaconstructionwithtwoelements(John,smiled)andtherelationbetweenthemisoneofsequence.Constituent:thecomponentpartofaconstruction.Immediateconstituents:constituentsimmediately,directlybelowthelevelofaconstruction,e.g.PoorJohnranaway.(poorJohn)and(ranaway)aretheimmediateconstituentsoftheconstruction(PoorJohnranaway.)(poor)and(John)aretheimmediateconstituentsoftheconstruction(poorJohn),etc.ICAnalysis:theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents,wordgroupsorphrases,whichareinturnanalysedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituents(morphemes)arereached.Inpractice，however，forsakeofconvenience,weusuallystopatthelevelofword.Bracketing:((poor)(John))((ran)(away)47\nTreediagram:poorJohnranaway.AdvantagesanddisadvantagesAdvantages:ThroughICanalysis,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,andtheambiguities,ifany,willberevealed,e.g.a.Leavethebookontheshelf.(Placethebookontheshelf.)b.Leavethebookontheshelf.(Keepawayfromthebookontheshelf)a.mysmallchild’scot(mysmallcotforachild)b.mysmallchild’scot(mycotforasmallchild)c.mysmallchild’scot(thecotofmysmallchild)47\na.ThesonofPharaoh’sdaughteristhedaughterofPharaoh’ssonAdj.Adj.Nb.moreexpensiveclothesAdv.Adj.NPron.V.NAdv.c.Theycanfishhere.Pron.Aux.V.Adv.47\nDisadvantages：1)binarydivisionsarenotalwayspossible,insomecases,athree-divisionmayhavetobemade,e.g.oldmenandwomenLeavethebookontheshelf2)Constructionswithdiscontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagrams,e.g.a.IsJohncoming?b.makeitupc.JohnsaidMaryisafool.47\n1)TherearestructuralambiguitiesthatcannotberevealedbyICanalysis.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.-ingVNAuxVAdjtheloveofGodDet.N.Prep.N.Endocentricandexocentricconstructions:Endocentricconstructions：anendocentricconstructionisaconstructionthathasacentreorheadwhichisfunctionallythesameastheconstructionasawhole.Typicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases,e.g.thethreesmallchildren,thebookontheshelf,verbphrases,e.g.willhavebeenleaving,wasbeingconstructed,adjectivephrases,e.g.veryexpensive,absolutelynecessary,adverbphrases,e.g.veryrapidly,andgerundialphrases,Eatingfruitsandvegetablesisgoodforyourhealth,Helikesplayingbasketball.Endocentricconstructionscanbedividedintotwosubtypes：Coordinateandsubordinateconstructions.Thoseinwhichthereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstituentsdependent,aresubordinateconstructions.Incoordinateconstructions,therearetwoormoreheads,e.g.boysandgirls,coffeeortea,thecityRome,westudents.Exocentricconstructions：anexocentricconstructionisaconstructionwhichisnotfunctionallythesameasanyofitsconstituentsandthereisnocentreorheadinit.Typicalexocentricconstructionsareprepositionalphrases,e.g.onthewall,simplesentences47\n,Johnsmiled.,subordinateclausesincomplexsentences,e.g.Ifitrains,wewill…,verbandobject,e.g.producecars,writeraletter.III.Thegenerativeapproach(NoamChomsky)Theclassicalmodel(1957:SyntacticStructures)deepandsurfacestructuresdeepstructures:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.surfacestructures:thefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.Forexample,initssurfacestructureChildrenarehardtoplease,childrenisthesubjectandtopleaseispartofthecomplement.Butinitsdeepstructure,ishardwouldhaveasubordinatesentenceasitssubjectandinthesubordinatesentencechildrenistheobjectofplease:thus,inoutline,s[pleasechildren]ishard.Incontrast,thoughinitssurfacestructureChildrenareeagertoplease,childrenisstillthesubjectandtopleasepartofthecomplement,however,initsdeepstructure,topleasewouldhaveasubjectchildrenandanobjectothers:thus,childrenareeagers[childrenpleaseothers]Agraphicpresentationoftheclassicalmodel:PhrasestructurecomponentDeepstructureTransformationalcomponentSurfacestructureMorpho-phonemiccomponentphrasestructurerules47\nThephrasestructurecomponenthasphrasestructurerules.e.g.S→NP+VPVP→V+NPNP→Det+NDet→the,a,etc.N→man,ball,etc.V→hit,took,etc.SNPVPDetNVNPThemanhitDetNaballSNPVPNVNPJohnlikesNSpeachesNPVPPronVNPthathaveAdjNsmoothskintransformationalrulesThetransformationalcomponenthastransformationalruleswhichchangethedeepstructuresintosurfacestructures.AccordingtoChomsky,activeandpassive,declarative47\nandinterrogative,positiveandnegativesentenceshavethesamedeepstructures.Thedifferencebetweensimplycomesfromtheoperationoftherelevanttransformations,e.g.thedeepstructureofJohnwillfinishthepapertomorrowissomethinglike:NP1+Aux+V+NP2Thepassivetransformation:NP2+Aux+be+en+V+by+NP1ThepaperwillbeenfinishbyJohn(tomorrow)JohngaveabooktoMary.NP1+V+NP2+to+NP3Thedativemovementtransformation:NP1+V+NP3+NP2John+gave+Mary+abookThemorpho-phonemiccomponentisresponsibleforthecorrectspellingandpronunciationofthewordsinthesurfacestructure,e.g.theaffixhoppingtransformationwillchangetheorderofen+finishandamorpho-phonemicrulewillgetentobespeltasedandpronouncedas/t/.Thestandardtheory(1965:AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax)*Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.ThegraphicpresentationBaseComponentCategoriesLexiconDeepStructureSemanticComponentTransformational47\nComponentSurfaceStructurePhonologicalComponentThebaseandtransformationcomponentstogetherformthesyntacticcomponent.Sonowlanguageisseenasconsistingofthreemajorparts:Syntax,semanticsandphonology.Categoriescontainrewritingrulesmoreorlessthesameasthephrasestructurerulesintheclassicalmodel.Butattheendofaderivationtherearenolongerrulesinsertingwordsdirectly,butruleswithfeaturespecificationsforthewordstobeinserted.Featuresofnouns:+Common,+Count,+Abstract,+Animate,+HumanFeaturesofverbs:+---#,+---NP,+---Adjective,+---that⌒S’e.g.sincerity[+N,(+Common,)(-count,)+Abstract]boy[+N,+Common,(+Count,)(+Animate,)+Human]elapse[+V,+---#]grow[+V,+---NP,+---#,+---Adjective]Amorecompletespecificationwillhavetoincludethekindofsubjectorobjectaverbtakesaswell,e.g.Frighten→[+V,+---NP,+[+Abstract]Aux---Det[+Animate],…],Sinceritymayfrightentheboy.Sub-categorizationofthistypeisintendedtoensurethegenerationofonlyacceptablesentences.Theextendedstandardtheory(StudiesonSemanticsinGenerativeGrammar)IhavebeentaughtphysicsbyNewton.Newtonhastaughtmephysics.Beaversbuilddams.47\nDamsarebuiltbybeavers.Surfacestructuresalsohavesomebearingonsemanticinterpretation.Sothestandardtheorywasextendedas:BaseComponentCategoriesLexiconDeepStructureSemanticComponentTransformationalComponentSurfaceStructurePhonologicalComponentThetracetheoryItwassuggestedthatifweintroducethenotiontrace,allthenecessaryinformationforsemanticinterpretationmaycomefromthesurfacestructure.Thatisafterthemovementofanelementtherewillbeatraceleftintheoriginalposition,e.g.Beaversbuilddams.Damsarebuiltbybeavers.Damsarebuilttbybeavers.Thedeepstructureinformationthatdamswasoriginallytheobjectofbuildisalsocapturedbythesurfacestructure.Thenthesemanticcomponentcouldrelyentirelyontheoutputofsurfacestructure.47\nBaseComponentCategoriesLexiconDeepStructureTransformationalComponentSurfaceStructurePhonologicalComponentSemanticComponentIV.ThefunctionalapproachFunctionalsentenceperspective(Pragueschoollinguists)AccordingtothePragueschoollinguists,apartfromtheanalysisofasentenceintermsofsubjectandpredicatefromtheformalpointofview,theremayalsobeafunctionalanalysisintermsofTheme(thestartingpointofanutterance)andRheme(thenucleusorthecoreoftheutterance).InEnglish,themeandrhemeareoftenexpressedbythegrammaticalsubjectandpredicate.However,thereareutterancesinwhichtheydonotcorrespond,e.g.YesterdayIwenttothezoo.AttheairportImetJohnyesterday.Theanalysisofasentenceintermsofthemeandrhemeisnowknownasthefunctionalsentenceperspectivebecausethispatterningisdeterminedbythefunctionalapproachofthespeaker.47\nCommunicativeDynamismmeanstheextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthecommunication,e.g.themeisconstitutedbythesentenceelementscarryingthelowestCDwithinthesentenceandneednotnecessarilyconveyknownorsuchascanbegatheredfromtheverbalorsituationalcontext.ThisanalysispresentsanunevendistributionofCDoverthesentence.Systemic-functionalgrammar(M.A.K.Halliday)Thislinguistictheoryhastwocharacteristics:systemicandfunctional.AccordingtoHalliday,languageelementsformintosystems.Theitemsinasystemareinaparadigmatic(choice,vertical)relation.ItischaracteristicofHalliday’stheorythatmoreattentionispaidtoparadigmaticrelationsthantosyntagmaticrelations.Hallidayidentifiedthreeimportantfunctionsoflanguage:ideational,interpersonalandtextual:languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’,(ideational);languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelations(interpersonal);languageenablespeopletoconstruct‘texts”(textual).Thesethreefunctionsarerelatedtothreegrammaticalsystems:transitivity,moodandtheme.Transitivity:therepresentationofouterexperiencesandinnerexperiences.Materialprocesses:processesofdoingActor:theonewhodoesthedeedGoal:theonethedeedisextendedtoordirectedatThelioncaughtthetouristActorProcessGoal47\nMentalProcesses:ProcessesofsensingSenser:theonewhofeelsPhenomenon:whatisbeingfeltHesawthemorningstarShelikedthegiftIknowtheydon’tcareIdon’tunderstanditSenserProcessphenomenonRelationalProcesses:ProcessesofbeingSarahiswiseCarrierProcessAttributeTomistheleader;IdentifiedProcessIdentifiedBehaviouralProcessesTheseareprocessesof(typicallyhuman)physiologicalandpsychologicalbehabiour.Behaver:theparticipant,typicallyaconsciousbeing,whoisbehaving,No-one’slistening.He’salwaysgrumbling.VerbalProcesses:processesofsaying47\nSayer:theone(notnecessarilyahumanbeing:mywatchsaysit’sseven)whosays,e.g.JohninJohnsaidhe’shungry.Receiver:theonetowhomthesayingisdirected,e.g.me,yourparentsinTellmethewholetruth.andDidyourepeatthattoyourparents?Verbiage:thefunctionthatcorrespondstowhatissaidThemanagerwilloutlinehisplanofcampaign.ExistentialProcessesTheserepresentthatsomethingexistsorhappens,e.g.Therewasalittlepig.Thereisn’tenoughtime.Moodstructure:therepresentationofexchangeMoodconsiststwoparts:thesubject(anominalgroup)andthefiniteoperator(partoftheverbalgroupexpressingtenseormodality).Residue:theremainderoftheclauseThedukehasgivenawaythatteapot,hasn’the?1)thepresenceofthemoodelement,consistingofSubjectplusFinite,realizesthefeature‘indicative’;2)withintheindicativewhatissignificantistheorderofSubjectandFinite:a)theorderSubjectbeforeFiniterealizes‘declarative’b)theorderFinitebeforeSubjectrealizes‘yes-nointerrogative’c)ina‘wh-interrogative’theorderisi)SubjectbeforeFiniteifthewh-elementisSubjectii)FinitebeforeSubjectotherwise47\nThemeandrhemeTheme:theelementwhichservesasthepointofdeparture;itisthatwithwhichtheclauseisconcerned.Asageneralguide,theThemecanbeidentifiedastheelementwhichcomesinfirstpositionintheclause.Rheme:thepartinwhichthethemeisdeveloped,theremainderofthemessage,iscalledtheRheme.AmessageconsistsofaThemecombinedwithaRheme.e.g.onceuponatimeverycarefullyforwantofanailwithsobsandtearstherewerethreebearssheputhimbackonhisfeetagaintheshoewaslosthesortedoutthoseofthelargestsizeThemeRhemeChapter5Meaning(重点:术语，名词解释，选择)1.Meaningsof‘meaning’Leech’sseventypesofmeaning:Conceptualmeaning（central）:logical,cognitive,denotativecontent,e.g.woman:afemalehumanbeing,book:anumberofprintedpagesboundtogetherwithacover.Associativemeaning(peripheral):Connotativemeaning:Whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.Cross-individualdifferences,e.g.woman:longhairwearing,dressandskirtwearing,havingmaternalinstinct,subjecttoinstinct,pronetoshedtears,physicallyweaker,47\ninconstant,sociableandgregarious,emotional,compassionate,sensitive,tenderandgentle,capableofspeech,experiencedincookery,hard-working.Cross-culturaldifferences:individualism:(English)adoctrineclaimingthattherightsofindividualsshouldbeputoverandabovetherightsofsociety,(Chinese)selfishness;book:(English)containingideasforpeopletothinkabout,todiscuss,tomakecomments,(Chinese)containingknowledgeforpeopletolearn.Therearesynonymsdifferinginconnotation:politicianandstatesman,farmerandpeasantSocialmeaning(stylisticmeaning):Whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse,e.g.torchandflashlight,departmentforrentandflattolet;answerandreply,roomandchamber;fire,flameandconflagration,weak,feebleandfragile;domicile,residence,abodeandhome,steed,horseandnag.Affectivemeaning:whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer,e.g.you’realiar.Ihateyouforthat.Hehadflashesofsilencethatmadehisconversationperfectlydelightful.Forshewasbeautiful–herbeautymadeThebrightworlddim,andeverythingbesideSeemedlikethefleetingimageofashade.“Generallyspeaking,”saidMissMurdstone,“Idon’tlikeboys.Howd’yedo,boy?”undertheseencouragingcircumstances,IrepliedthatIwasverywell,andwishedthatshewasthesame,withsuchindifferentgracethatMissMurdstonedisposedofmeintwowords,--“Wantsmanner！”Reflectedmeaning:Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression,e.g.TheComforterandTheHolyGhost,themorningstarandtheevening47\nstar;intercourse,ejaculation,erectionandcook.Collocativemeaning:Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword,e.g.Pretty:girl,woman,flower,garden,colour,villageHandsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriterThematicmeaning:whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis,e.g.Mr.Micawberhastalentbutdoesn’thavecapital.TalentMr.Micawberhas,capitalMr.Micawberhasnot2.WordMeaning<1>Thereferentialtheory:atheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor.Problems:1)noteverywordhasareference,e.g.but,on,the.2)awordisnotrelatedtoaparticularobjectintheworld,e.g.bookdoesnotrefertoaparticularbook.Itsname,author,publisher,color,thicknessandpricedonotmatterwhenthewordisused.Thewordreferstosomethingabstractinlanguageusers’mind,whichisusuallyknownasconcept.Thesemantictriangle(associatedwithOgdenandRichards):conceptword------------------thingSensereferstotheabstractpropertiesofanentity,whilereferencereferstoconcreteentitieshavingtheseproperties.Inotherwords,Leech’sconceptualmeaninghastwosides:senseandreference.Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.47\n<2>SenserelationsSynonymy:samenessrelation.Buttotalsynonymyisrare.Synonymsmaydifferinstyle(LittleTom(bought,purchased)atoybear.)andinconnotation(AtfirstIwaspoor,thenIbecameneedy,laterIwasunderprivileged.NowI’mdisadvantaged.Istilldon’thaveacenttomyname,butIsurehaveagreatvocabulary).Therearedialectaldifferencesaswell,e.g.biscuit（英：饼干，美：软饼）,corn（英：谷物，美：玉米）,jumper（英：毛衣，美：套衫）,truck（英：铁路平板车，美：卡车）,store（英：货栈，美：商店）。Antonymy:oppositenessrelation.Gradableantonymy:e.g.big-small,old-young,cold-hot,etc.thesesynonymshavethreefeatures:1)theyaregradable:theydifferintermsofdegreeandcanbemodifiedbyveryandusedincomparativeandsuperlativedegrees,2)theyaregradedagainstdifferentnorms:averysmallelephantismuchbiggerthanaverybigmouse,3)usuallythetermforthehigherdegreeservesasthecoreterm(orunmarkedterm),longvsshort.Complementaryantonymy:alive-dead,male-female,present-absent,odd-even.Theassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheotherandthedenialofonemeanstheassertionoftheother.Complementaryantonymshavethreefeatures,1)theyaresimilartocontradictorypropositionsinlogic:theycannotbebothtrueorfalse,e.g.Thisisamalecat.Thisisafemalecat.Incontrast,apairofgradableantonymscanbecomparedtocontrarypropositionsinlogic:theycannotbebothtrue,eventhoughtheycanbebothfalse,e.g.Thecoffeeishot.Thecoffeeiscold.2)thenormofthistypeisabsolute,e.g.amalecreaturecannotbemaleinsomesituationswhileafemaleinothersituations.3)thereisnocoverterm(theunmarkedterm)forthetwomembersofapair.47\nConverseantonymy(relationalopposites):thereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities,e.g.buy–sell,lend–borrow,parent–child,host–guest,before–after.JohnborrowedsomethingfromJanemeansthesameasJanelentsomethingtoJohn.Hyponymy:meaninginclusiveness,e.g.furniture(superordinate)–desk,sofa,bed,chair,cupboard,etc.(hyponymsorco-hyponyms)colorgreenyellowredScarletcrimsonvermilionlivingplantanimalbirdfishinsectanimalhumananimaltigerwolfelephantmonkey<3>Componentialanalysis(重点):themeaningofawordisseenasacomplexofsemanticfeaturesorcomponents,e.g.boy:HUMAN,YOUNG,MALE;girl:HUMAN,YOUNG,FEMALE;man:HUMAN,ADULT,MALE;woman:HUMAN,ADULT,FEMALE;dog:CANINE,ADULT,MALEbitch:CANINE,ADULT,FEMALE47\npuppy:CANINE,YOUNGbull：BOVINE,ADULT,MALEcow:BOVINE,ADULT,FEMALEcalf:BOVINE,YOUNGIfcombinedintobinaryfeatures,then:boy:HUMAN,-ADULT,MALE;girl:HUMAN,-ADULT,-MALE;man:HUMAN,ADULT,MALE;woman:HUMAN,ADULT,-MALE.Wordsthatinvolvearelationbetweentwoentitiescanbeshown:Father:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)=xistheparentofyandxismale.Mother:PARENT(x,y)&-MALE(x)=xistheparentofyandxisfemale.Son:CHILD(x,y)&MALE(x)=xisthechildofyandxismale.Daughter:CHILD(x,y)&-MALE(x)xisthechildofyandxisfemale.Verbscanalsobeanalyzedinthisway,e.g.Take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)))=xcausesxtohavey.Give:CAUSE(x,(-HAVE(x,y)))=xcausesxnottohavey.Die:BECOME(x,(-ALIVE(x)))=xbecomesdead.Kill:CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y,(-ALIVE(y))))=xcausesytobecomedeadSenserelationsmaybebetterexplainedintermsofsemanticcomponents.Twowordsorexpressionshavingthesamesemanticcomponentswillbesynonyms,e.g.bachelorandunmarriedman:HUMAN,ADULT,MALE,UNMARRIED.Twowordshavingcontrastingsemanticcomponentswillbeantonyms,e.g.manandwoman,takeandgive,etc.47\nHyponymshaveallthesemanticcomponentsoftheirsuperordinates,e.g.boyandgirl:HUMAN，-ADULTandchild:HUMAN，-ADULT.Problemswithsemanticcomponentialanalysis:1)Manywordsarepolysemous.Consequentlytheyhavedifferentsetsofsemanticcomponents,e.g.manusuallyhasthesemanticcomponentMALE,butitmayalsoapplytobothsexes,e.g.Manismortal.2)Somesemanticcomponentsarebinary,e.g.MALEandFEMALE,ADULTandYOUNG.Thereisaclear-cutdivisionlinebetweenMALEandFEMALE.Butthereisnotsuchaclear-cutdivisionlinebetweenADULTandYOUNG.Thedivisionlinebetweenboyandmanisfuzzyandthatbetweengirlandwomanisevenfuzzier.3)Theremaybewordswhosesemanticfeaturesaredifficulttoascertain.Sowhetheritispossibletoanalyzeallthelexicalitemsinthiswayremainsaquestiondifficulttoanswer.<4>Semanticfieldtheory(lexicalfieldtheory)isassociatedwithprimarilyJ.Trier.Thefollowingpremisesarefundamentaltothelexicalfieldtheory.1)Themeaningofanindividualwordisdependentuponthemeaningoftherestofthewordsofthesamelexicalorconceptualfield,e.g.evaluativewords:good,excellent,exceptional,first-rate.MilitaryranksTheUSAChinaGeneralofthearmy（五星上将）上将General（上将）中将Lieutenantgeneral（中将）少将47\nMajorgeneral（少将）大校Brigadiergeneral（准将）上校Colonel（上校）中校Lieutenantcolonel（中校）少校Major（少校）上尉Captain（上尉）中尉Firstlieutenant（中尉）少尉Secondlieutenant（少尉）六级士官Chiefwarrantofficer（准尉）五级士官Mastersergeant（军士长）四级士官Sergeantfirstclass（上士）三级士官Sergeant（中士）二级士官Corporal（下士）一级士官Privatefirstclass（一等兵）上等兵Private（二等兵）列兵1)Anindividuallexicalfieldisconstructedlikeamosaicwithnogaps;thewholesetofalllexicalfieldsofalanguagereflectsaself-containedpictureofreality.2)Ifasinglewordundergoesachangeinmeaning,thenthestructureofthelexicalfieldchanges.Chapter6LanguageandCognitionI.WhatisCognitionCognition:II.Psycholinguistics(重点)1.LanguageAcquisition<1>Holophrasticstage<2>Two-wordstage<3>Stageofthree-wordutterances<4>Fluentgrammaticalconversationstage2.LanguageComprehension47\n<1>WordcognitionCohorttheory:Interactivemodel,racemodel<2>ComprehensionofsentencesMinimalattachment;Gardenpath;Serialmodel;Parallelmodel<3>ComprehensionoftextResonancemodel1.LanguageProductionChapter7Language,Culture,andSociety(重点在术语)Anthropologicallinguistics:Oftensimplythestudyoflesser-knownlanguagesthroughfieldwork.Also,moregenerally,ofanyworkonlanguagefromananthropologicalviewpoint:oftheuseoflanguageinritual,ofvocabularyinrelationtoculture,oftheorganizationofinformationinatext,andsoon.Sociolinguistics:Anystudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.Commonly,fromthelate1960s,ofstudiesofvariationinlanguagebyLabovandhisfollowers.Inthatsense,sociolinguisticsmightbedefinedasthestudyofcorrelationsbetweenlinguisticvariables(e.g.theprecisephoneticqualityofavowel(e.g.individualsfromdifferentsocialclassesmaypronouncearindifferentways),orthepresenceorabsenceofacertainelementinaconstruction(e.g.Cicily:WhenIseeaspadeIcallitaspade.Gwendolen:IamgladtosayIhaveneverseenaspade.Itisobviousoursocialspherehavebeenwidelydifferent.)andnon-linguisticvariablessuchasthesocialclassofspeakers,theirage,sex,etc.Increasingly,fromtheendofthe1970s,oftherangeoflooselyconnectedinvestigations,includingConversationAnalysis(concentratesonrelationsbetweensuccessiveturnsandtheoperationofahypotheticalturn-takingsystem)asconductedespeciallybysociologists,thestudyofrelationsingeneralbetweenlanguageandideology(aspoorasachurchmousevs穷得房无一间,地无一垄)orlanguageandpower,linguisticaspectsofsocialpsychology,etc.Languageandculture(重点)Culture:thecharacteristicsofcultivatedmanthelife-wayofapopulationthecomponentsofculture:1）Materialstosatisfyhumanneeds2）Socialinstitutionsandorganizations3）Knowledgeabouttheworldandartisticdevelopment4）Languageandothercommunicationsystems5）Customs,habitsandbehavioralpatterns6）Valuesystems,worldviews,nationaltraits,aestheticstandardsandthinkingpatterns.Nida:1)ecologicalculture2)linguisticculture3)religiousculture4)materialculture5)socialcultureTheanthropologicalorientationinthestudyoflanguageInEnglandMalinowsky:afunctionalanthropologist.Accordingtohim,languagefunctionsasalinkinconcertedhumanactivity…Itisamodeofactionandnotaninstrumentofreflection.Themeaningoflanguageelementsgreatlydependeduponthecontextofsituationinwhichtheyoccur.((John’slikeafish.)Firth:thefirstprofessoroflinguisticsinEnglandandaclosefriendofMalinowsky.Hetriedtosetupa47\nmodelforillustratingthecloserelationshipbetweenlanguageuseandcontextofsituationwhichcontainthefollowingcomponents:A.therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:persons,personalities(i)Theverbalactionoftheparticipants(ii)Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipantsB.TherelevantobjectsC.TheeffectsoftheverbalactionHalliday:astudentofFirthandthefounderofsystemic-functionallinguisticsthat,especiallythefunctionalaspect,isalsotermedassociosemantics.AccordingtoHalliday,thecontextofsituationcontainsthreecomponents:Fieldofdiscourse:thesubjectmatterbeingdiscussed.Tenorofdiscourse:thesocialrelationsbetweentheparticipantsofconversationsModeofdiscourse:thechannelofcommunicationAnillustrationZhaoYan：Excuseme.I’dlikesomeinformationonhowtogetintoanAmericanUniversity.Officer:Yes,ofcourse.Well,first,youwriteandgetanapplicationform.Then,yousenditwithacopyofyourschoolrecordsandanaffidavitofsupport.Andafterthat,youaskyourteachersforsomelettersofrecommendation.ZhaoYan:AnddoIneedtotakeanytests?Officer:yes,youhavetotaketheTOEFLtestforone,andforsomeschoolsIthinkyoumayalsohavetotaketheSATZhaoYan:Andisitallrighttoapplytoseveraluniversitiesatthesametime?Officer:Oh,sure.Noproblem.Thefieldofdiscourse：informationonhowtogetintoanAmericanuniversity:writingtogetanapplicationform,sendingitwithacopyofschoolrecords,anaffidavitofsupport,andsomelettersofrecommendation,takingtheTOEFLtestandinsomecasesaSATtest,andthepossibilitytoapplytoseveraluniversitiessimultaneously.Thetenorofdiscourse：communicationbetweenastudentandanofficerinAmericanEmbassyThemodeofdiscourse：oralEnglishThenatureofHalliday’ssociosemanticscanbecapturedbythefollowingtable:Phonology/graphologyTransitivity:the6processesMode-residuestructureTheme-rhemestructureIdeationalmeaningInterpersonalmeaningTextualmeaningFieldofdiscourseTenorofdiscourseModeofdiscourseIntheUSABoas,SapirandWhorf:theanthropologicalapproachtothestudyoflanguagewhichcanstillbefeltwhenwetalkaboutEthnographyofCommunication.WhatisbestrememberedofAmericanAnthropologicallinguisticsistheSapir-WhorfHypothesis:Linguisticdeterminism:Languagedeterminesourwayofthinking.Linguisticrelativity:similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.BasiccolortermsInEnglishandChinesethereare11basiccolorterms,butinsomeotherlanguagestheremightbefewerbasiccolorterms.Thespeakersofthoselanguageswhichhavedifferentnumberofbasiccolortermsmayhavedifferentviewonthecolorspectrum.47\nButAuniversalevolutionaryprocessofbasiccolorterms:White<[red]