语言学复习要点 21页

语言学复习要点样题一：Indo-EuropeanLanguagefamily:Itisassumedthattheworldhasapproximately3,000(someputit5,000)languages,whichcanbegroupedintoroughly300languagefamiliesonthebasisofsimilaritiesintheirbasicwordstockandgrammar.TheIndo-Europeanisoneofthem.ItismadeupofmostofthelanguagesofEurope,theNearEast,andIndia.TheprehistoricIndo-Europeanparentlanguageisthoughttobeahighlyinflectedlanguage.Itwasalanguageinwhichthevariousformsofagivenwordshoweditsrelationshiptootherwordsinasentence.Whengroupsofthislanguagemovedawayfromtheoriginalhomeland,believedtobesomewhereintheeasternmostpartofEurope,thelanguageofeachgroupgrewanddevelopedalongdifferentlinesinmuchthesamewaythatAmericanandAustralianEnglishnowshowdifferencesfromthelanguageofEngland.Oververylongperiodsofcompleteisolationfromeachother,thesedialectsofasinglelanguagechangedsomuchthattheybecameseparatelanguages.Speakersofonewerenotunderstoodbyspeakersofanother.　　Thesurvivinglanguagesshowvariousdegreesofsimilarity\ntooneanother.Thesimilaritybearamoreorlessdirectrelationshiptotheirgeographicaldistribution.Theyaccordinglyfallintoeightprincipalgroups,whichcanbegroupedintoanEasternset:Balto-Slavic,Indo-Iranian,ArmenianandAlbanian;aWesternset:Celtic,Italic,Hellenic,Germanic.IntheEasternset,ArmenianandAlbanianareeachtheonlymodernlanguagerespectively.TheBalto-SlaviccomprisessuchmodernlanguagesasPrussian,Lithuanian,Polish,Czech,Bulgarian,SlovenianandRussian.IntheIndo-IranianwehavePersian,Bengali,Hindi,Romany,thelastthreeofwhicharederivedfromthedeadlanguageSanskrit.　　IntheWesternset,GreekisthemodernlanguagederivedfromHellenic.IntheCeltic,wefindScottish,Irish,Welsh,Breton,etc.ThefiveRomancelanguages,namely,Portuguese,Spanish,French,Italian,RoumanianallbelongtotheItalicthroughanintermediatelanguageLatin.TheGermanicfamilyconsistsofthefourNorthernEuropeanLanguages,whicharegenerallyknownasScandinavianlanguages.ThenthereisGerman,Dutch,FlemishandEnglish.　　AlltheselanguageshavesomeinfluenceonEnglishtoagreaterorlesserextentbecauseeachhaslentwordsintothe\nEnglishvocabulary.SomeofthemhaveplayedaconsiderableroleinthecourseofthedevelopmentoftheEnglishvocabulary.Senserelationsbetweenwords:Synonymy:thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.同义现象是指意义的相同或极为相近。Polysemy:thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy.多义现象指同一个词可能有多个意义。Homonymy:referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.同音/同形异义是指某些词的意义不同，但是具有相同形式的现象，即不同的词在发音或拼写上一样，或发音和拼写都一样。Homophones:wordswhichsoundalikebutarewrittendifferentlyandoftenhavedifferentmeanings.同音异义词是指发音相同但拼写不同，通常意义也不同的词。Homographs:wordswhicharewritteninthesamewaybutwhicharepronounceddifferentlyandhavedifferentmeanings.同形异义词是指词形相同但发音、词义各异的词。Completehomonyms:wordswhichareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeanings.完全同音同形异义词是指发音和拼写都相同，但意义不同的词。Hyponymy:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,more\ninclusivewordandamorespecificword.上下义关系是指一个更广义、更具有包容性的词与一个更具体的词之间的意义关系。Superordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate.意义更广泛的词叫上义词。Hyponyms:themorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.更为具体的词称为下义词。Meronymy:thesemanticrelationthatholdsbetweenapartandthewhole部分与整体的关系Antonymy:thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning.反义现象一词用来指意义上的对立。Gradableantonyms:someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.有些反义词是存在级差的，因为在一对词的两个词之间往往具有中间形式。因此，它是一个程度的问题。Complementaryantonyms:Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Inotherwords,itisnotamatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes,butamatterofeitheroneortheother.\n一对互补反义词具有否定该对中的一个词就意味着对另一个的肯定的特征。换句话说，它不是一个两极端之间的程度的问题，而是一种非此即彼的问题。Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.显示两个词项之间关系颠倒的成对词被称为关系反义词。Lexicalcategories:Closed-class:closed-classisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandnewmembersarenotregularlyadded.封闭类：指成员数目确定、有限并且新成员不会经常增加的词类。Open-class:open-classisonewhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimitedandwiththeemergneceofnewideas,inventions,etc.,newexpressionsarecontinuallyandconstantlybeingaddedtothelexicon.开放类：指成员数目原则上无穷无尽，随着新观念、新发明等的出现，新词就会不断地添加到词库中来的词类。Wordlevelcategoriesaredividedintotwokinds:majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategoriesMajorlexicalcategoriesdifferfromminorlexicalcategoriesinthattheyareoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt.MajorlexicalcategoriesareNoun,Verb,Adjectiveandpreposition.Minorlexicalcategoriesaredeterminer,degreeword,qualifier,auxiliary,conjunction.样题二：TermsinSLA:\nAcculturation:theprocessinwhichlearnersadapttothenewcultureoftheL2community文化移入Motivation:thefactorsthatdetermineaperson’sdesiretodosomething.动机Instrumentalmotivation工具型动机：想学习一种语言，是因为它有利于某些“工具型的”目标，如找工作、阅读外国报纸、通过考试。Integrativemotivation综合性动机：想学习一种语言是为了与另一种文化背景说这种语言的人进行交际。Fossilization:(insecondandforeignlanguagelearning)aprocesswhichsometimesoccursinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.Aspectsofpronunciation,vocabularyusage,andgrammarmaybecomefixedorfossilizedinsecondorforeignlanguagelearning.Fossilizedfeaturesofpronunciationcontributetoaperson’sforeignaccent.石化（第二语言或外语学习中）指这样一个过程，有时出现不正确的语言特征永久性地成为一个人说或写一种语言的方式。发音、词汇用法和语法的各个方面在第二语言或外语学习中会成为固定或僵化。发音特征的石化造成一个人的异国口音。Languagetransfer:theeffectofonelanguageonthelearningofanother.Twotypesoflanguagetransfermayoccur.Negativetransfer,alsoknownasinterference,istheuseofanativelanguagepatternorrulewhichleads\ntoanerrororinappropriateforminthetargetlanguage.Positivetransferistransferwhichmakeslearningeasier,andmayoccurwhenboththenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesameform.语言迁移指一种语言对学习另一种语言产生的影响，可能会出现两类语言迁移。负迁移，亦称干扰，是由于套用母语模式或规则而产生的错误或不合适的目的语形式。正迁移是指有利于语言学习的迁移，在母语与目的语有相同的形式时会出现这种情况。Subfieldsoflinguistics:Phonetics:phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.语音学被定义为对语言的语音媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语言中的声音。Phonology:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.音位学研究一门语言中的语音是如何形成模式的，这些语音是如何在语言交际中用来传达意义的。Morphology:referstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形态学指对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。Syntax:abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.\n句法学：是语言学的分支，他研究词是如何被组合成句子的，以及支配句子构成的规则。Semantics:thesubjectconcerningthestudyofmeaningiscalledsemantics.Morespecifically,semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.有关意义研究的学科称为语义学。具体地说，语义学专门以语言单位、词和句子的意义为研究的对象。Pragmatics:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子来进行成功交际的。Sociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguageinrelationtosocialfactors.社会语言学指联系社会因素来研究语言的学科。Languageacquisition:referstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.语言习得是指儿童对其母语的习得，也就是儿童是如何逐渐理解和说其社区的语言的。Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA):formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.第二语言习得是在二十世纪七十年代左右被正式确立为一门学科，它是指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言的系统研究。\nPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagetopsychology.心理语言学Appliedlinguistics:thestudyofsecondandforeignlanguagelearningandteaching.应用语言学Suprasegmentalfeatures:出现在音段层面之上的音位特征称为超切分特征Stress:thepronunciationofawordorsyllablewithmoreforcethanthesurroundingwordsorsyllables.重音指一个词或音节的发音比周围的词或音节的发音要大的力量。Tone:heightofpitchandchangeofpitchwhichisassociatedwiththepronunciationofsyllablesorwordsandwhichaffectsthemeaningoftheword.声调指音节或单词的发音中的音调高低及其变化，声调影响词的意义。Intonation:whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.当音高、重音和音长联结成句子而不是单独的词的时候，它们就统称为语调。样题三：Inflectionalandderivationalaffixes(morphemes):屈折词缀和派生词缀有何区别\n屈折词缀常常在词干后面添加一个微小的或微妙的语法意义。例如，toys,walks,John’s等词中的屈折词缀就是如此。相反，派生词缀常常改变词汇意义，如cite（引用），citation（条文）；generate（产生），generation（一代人）。Importantdistinctions:Prescriptiveanddescriptive:prescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.规定与描写代表了语言学研究中的两种不同的类别。如果一种语言学研究旨在对人们实际使用的语言进行描写和分析的话，它就是描写性的；如果语言学研究的目的是为语言运用中的正确的和标准的言语行为确立规则的话，如告诉人们应该说什么、不应该说什么，那么它就是规定性的。Synchronicanddiachronic:Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.对语言在历史上的某一时间点进行的描写就是共时性研究；对语言随时间变化而变化进行的描写就是历时性研究。Langueandparole:languewasusedbythelinguistSassuretomeanthe\nsystemofalanguage,thatisthearrangementofsoundsandwordswhichspeakersofalanguagehaveasharedknowledgeofor,asSaussuresaid,“agreetouse”.Langueisthe“ideal”formofalanguage.Saussurecalledtheactualuseoflanguagebypeopleinspeechorwriting“parole”.语言学家索绪尔用“语言”这个术语来指语言系统，即某一语言说话者共有的语音和词汇体系的知识，或以索绪尔的话，他们“一致使用”的语音和词汇体系，它是某一语言的“理想”形式。对于人们口头和书面上实际说出的话，索绪尔称“言语”。Competenceandperformance:Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.乔姆斯基将语言能力定义为理想的语言使用者的语言规则方面的知识，把语言运用定义为这种知识在语言交际中的具体实现。Termsinsociolinguistics:Speechvariety/languagevariety:referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.言语变体，或语言变体指的是由一位言者或一群言者所使用的任何具有区别性的言语形式。Varietiesrelatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters.Dialectalvarieties:Regionaldialect:aregionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeople\nlivinginthesamegeographicalregion.地域方言是指生活在同一地理区域的人所使用的语言变体。Sociolect:social-classdialect,orsociolect,referstothelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.社会阶层方言，或社会方言是指具有某一特定社会阶层特征的语言变体。Idiolect:idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.个人语言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了有关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。Ethnicdialect:anethnicdialectisasocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.种族方言是一个不同于地域差别的社会方言；主要是那些经历过像种族歧视或隔离这种形式的社会孤立的，没有多少特权的人群使用这种语言。Register:thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域。样题四：SpeechActTheory:\nLocutionaryact,illocutionaryact,perlocutionaryact:AdistinctionismadebyAustininthetheoryofSpeechActsbetweenthreedifferenttypesofactinvolvedinorcausedbytheutteranceofasentence.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.奥斯汀在言语行为理论中区分三类话语所包含或引起的行为。言内行为就是发出词、短语、从句的动作。它是通过句法、词汇和音位学的方式来传达字面意义的行为。言外行为是表达言者意图的行为，是在说话的过程中执行的动作。言后行为是由说某事或因为说某事而执行的动作；它是由话语所引起的后果或变化；是由说某事而执行的动作。2005真题Designfeaturesofhumanlanguage:Designfeatures:designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.\n识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何一种动物交际系统的规定性特征。Arbitrariness:arbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式和意义之间没有自然的联系。Duality:languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.语言的二层性是指：语言是一个系统，它是由两套结构，或者两个层面构成的。在较低的或者基础的层面上，存在着一个语音结构，它们自身没有意义。但是，语言的语音系统可以组合和再组合成大量的有意义的单位，这些单位存在于语言系统的较高层面。Productivity:languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.语言是能产的或具有创造性的，因为它使得其使用者对新符号的构建和解释成为可能。这就是语言的能产性。Displacement:displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.移位性是指语言使用者可以用语言来表达不在交际现场（时间和空间上）的物体、事件及概念。\nCulturaltransmission:whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Thisiswhatculturaltransmissionmeans.尽管人类的语言能力具有遗传的基础，即我们都天生具有习得语言的能力，但任何一门语言系统的细节都不是靠遗传来传承的，而是要通过被传授与学习。这就说明语言具有文化传承的特点。2006真题Classificationofsynonyms:Dialectalsynonyms:synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects方言同义词Stylisticsynonyms:synonymsdifferinginstyle文体同义词Emotivesynonyms:synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感同义词Collocationalsynonyms:synonymsthatdifferintheircollocation.搭配同义词Semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义上有差别的同义词2009真题Twospeciallanguagevarieties:Pidgin:apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblends\nlanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.洋泾浜语是将几种语言混合或者融合在一起的一种特殊语言变体，它是由操不同语言的人为了有限的目的，如贸易而使用的语言。Creole:whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.当一种洋泾浜语成为了某一言语社区的主要语言，并且由该言语社区的孩子习得作为本族语时，它就成为了克里奥耳语。2010真题Wordformation:Compounding:aword-formationprocessthroughwhichnewwordsarecreatedbycombiningatleasttwofreemorphemes.复合这一构词方式是将至少两个自由词素连接起来构成新词。Derivation:theprocessinwhichnewwordsarecreatedfromalreadyexistingwordsthroughaffixation.Inotherwords,newwordsarecreatedbyattachingprefixesorsuffixestoalreadyexistingwords.派生是指一种构词形式，即通过现有的词上添加词缀来构成新词。也就是说，在现有的词上添加前缀或后缀来构成新词。Conversion:theformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.转化：把单词从一种词类转化成另一种词类从而构成新词。\nBlending:theformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword.拼缀：分别把两个词的部分或一个词外加另一词的部分组合起来构成新词。Clipping:acommonwayofmakingawordistoshortenalongerwordbycuttingapartoftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinstead.截短：通过截除原词的一部分，使用剩余的部分来缩短一个较长的单词从而构成新词。Acronymy:theprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnounphrasesandtechnicalterms.首字母缩略：通过把社会机构以及政治机构的名称或特殊的名词短语和术语的首字母合在一起来构成新词。Back-formation:aprocessofword-formationbywhichawordiscreatedbythedeletionofasupposedaffix.逆生：通过删除一个假想词缀来构成新词。Functionsoflanguage:Phatic:establishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontact.寒暄Directive:getthehearertodosomething.指令Informative/descriptive:giveinformationaboutfacts.信息Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.询问\nExpressive/emotive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.表达Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)唤起情感Performative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.施为Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.复习重点Chapter11.linguistics2.thescopeoflinguistics3.distinctionsoflinguistics4.language5.designfeatures6.functionsoflanguageChapter21.phonetics2.broadandnarrowtranscriptions3.diacritics\n1.phonology2.phone,phoneme,allophone3.phonemiccontrastandcomplementarydistribution4.minimalpair5.suprasegmentalfeaturesChapter31.morphology2.morpheme3.typesofmorpheme4.wordformationChapter41.syntax2.XPrule3.head,specifier,complement4.subcategorization5.complementizer6.deepstructureandsurfacestructure7.transformationrulesChapter51.semantics2.senseandreference3.senserelationsbetweenwords\n1.senserelationsbetweensentences2.componentialanalysis3.predicationanalysisChapter61.pragmatics2.pragmaticsvs.semantics3.context4.constativesandperformatives5.locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,perlocutionaryact6.Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts7.cooperativeprinciple8.conversationalimplicatureChapter81.sociolinguistics2.twoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies3.dialectalvarieties4.register5.standarddialect6.pidginandcreole7.bilingualismanddiglossiaChapter91.culture\n1.Sapir-WhorfHypothesisChapter10and111.languageacquisition2.secondlanguageacquisition3.acquisitionandlearning4.languageacquisitiondevice(LAD)Chapter121.neurolinguistics2.psycholinguistics