语言学 discourse analy 80页

Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis语篇分析\nMajorcontents1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers5.Conversationalanalysis6.Criticalanalysis\n1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseLanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.(Stubbs,1983:1)Textlinguistics/discourseanalysiswrittenspokenUsedinterchangeablynow\n1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseanalysisDiscourselinguistics/discoursestudies/textanalysisThestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.p168\n1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisLanguageinusePragmatics:meaningDiscourseanalysis:informationstructureMostpowerfulinstrument:FunctionalSystemicGrammar\n1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisFertilizersputbackwhattherainandplantstakeaway.Plasticpotsarenotjustsubstitutesforclayones.Pearsarealittlemoretemperamentalthanapples.Supportingandtrainingarenotquitethesamething.×\n1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisPickupahandfulofsoilinyourgarden.Ordinary,unexcitingearth.YetitisoneofNature’smiracles,andoneofhermostcomplexproducts.Yoursuccessasagardenerwilllargelydependuponitscondition,sotakethefirstboldstepingardening---gettoknowyoursoil.√\n1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisAprimarytaskofDAistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourse.ThegoalofDAistoexaminehowreaderoruserofadiscourserecognizesthatpartsofadiscoursearedependentonothers.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdiscourseiscohesion(衔接)\n1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisTopicsofDA:Informationstructure(信息结构)Cohesion(衔接)Coherence(连贯)Discoursemakers(话语标记语)Conversationalanalysis(会话分析)\n2InformationStructureHowdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse?2.1GivenandnewinformationAlice:Whoatethebread?Tom:Maryatethebread.Giveninformation:knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation:unknowntotheaddressee.\n2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationcanbeintroducedbyonespeakeralone:Amancalledwhileyouwereonyourbreak.Hesaidhe’dcallbacklater.Giveninformationcanbesomethingcloselyrelatedtothementionedinformation(e.g.meronymy)（部分-整体关系）Kentreturnedmycarlastnightafterborrowingitfortheday.Oneofthewheelswasabouttofalloffandthedashboardwasmissing.\n2.1GivenandnewinformationFormsofN/Ginformation:New-informationcarriersusuallyreceivemorestress,andtheyarecommonlymoreelaborated,e.g.withafullnounphrase,relativeclauseoradjectivalmodifier(s).E.g.WhenIenteredtheroom,therewasatallmanwithanold-fashionedhaton,quiteelegantlydressed.\n2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationisexpressedinshorterforms(pronouns/unstressednounphrase/omitted):A:Whoatetheapple?B:Marydid./Mary.\n2.2Topicandcomment话题和述题Topic话题:whattheutteranceisabout.Comment述题:whatissaidaboutthetopic.Topicistheelementofasentencethatfunctionsasthecenterofattention.Topicisusuallythesubject,nounphrase.Maryatethebread.\n2.2TopicandcommentOtherelementscantaketheroletoo.Aftertea,willyoutellmeastory.MarkthetopicPlacetopicintheinitialpositioninEnglish.Abeautifuldressshedidmake.Topicisnotnecessarilyapropertyofthesentence;itmaybeapropertyofthediscoursecontext:Oh,look!\n2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.given-newinformationGiven-newinformation:thepointofviewofthelistener.Topic-commentrelatestothatofthespeaker.Thegivenelementisthatwhichthespeakerpresentsasalreadybeingknowntothelistener.Thetopicelementrepresentswhattheutteranceisabout.\n2.2TopicandcommentGiveninformationisnotalwaysthetopic.Maryatethebread.Asforherlittlesister,shedranktheCoca-Cola.new/topicPeterdidn’tbelieveanythingthecharlatansaid.AsforMary,shebelievedeverythinghesaid.given/comment\n2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.rheme-themeRheme-theme:sentenceTopic-comment:discourseRheme-theme:concretesentencestructure(linguisticform)Topic-comment:abstractinformationstructureMike'shousewassocomfortableandwarm!Hereallydidn'twanttoleave,buthecouldn'taffordtherent,youknow.Andithadsuchanicegardenintheback!\n2.2TopicandcommentTopicsarenotsoimportanttothegrammarofEnglish.ThereisonlyonegrammaticalstructurewhichmarkstopicsinEnglish.Asforme,I’mgonnagotobed.Otherlanguageshavespecialformstomarkthetopic(Japanese,Korean)Chinesemarkstopicsbywordorder:作业终于做完了！\n2.2TopicandcommentInEnglish,markingthetopicofasentenceisfarlessimportantthanmarkingthesubject.Therearespecialformstoindicatethesubject:Shelooksathim.\n2.3Contrast对比Contrast:anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse.contrastiveA:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,Johndid.B:Yes,Tomsawtheghost.\n2.3Contrast对比Oneoutstandingfromalliscontrastedwiththewhole:Ofeveryonepresent,onlyPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Adeleknewwhatwasgoingon,andPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Contrastisalsomarkedinsentencesthatexpressthenarrowingdownofachoicefromseveralcandidatestoone.\n2.3Contrast对比Testforcontrast:Ifanounphrasecanbefollowedby“ratherthan”,itiscontrastive:A:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,John,ratherthanTom,sawtheghost.B:No,Tomseetheangle,ratherthantheghost.\n2.3Contrast对比Asinglesentencecanhaveseveralcontrastivenounphrases:A:DidTomseeaghost?B:Yes,Tomsawaghost,butJohnsawanentirecastofspirits.Contrastisobservedfromthediscoursecontextorsituationalcontext.MarylikesgoingtoMaineduringthewinter.\n2.3Contrast对比Employee:CanIleaveearlytoday?Manager:Idon’tmind.InEnglish,contrastivenounphrasecanbemarkedbypronouncingitwithstrongstress:Youmaybesmart,buthe’sgood-looking.\n3.CohesionandCoherence衔接&连贯Howsentencesarecombinetoformtexts?It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Whichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuildtoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.\n3.CohesionandCoherenceWhichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuilttoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.\n3.CohesionandCoherence3.1Cohesion衔接Thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelements(sentencesorsegments)ofadiscourse.Cohesivedevices衔接手段Acoherentdiscoursehascertainwordsandexpressionsinitwhichlinkthesentencestogether.Reference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.\n3.1CohesionAcoherentdiscoursearesentenceslinkedclosely.A:IsJanehere?B:No,sheisn’t.Youcanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan’tmakehimdrink.Howsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscourse?\n3.1.1Reference参照/照应Referencewords:pronouns(it,they..),demonstratives(this,that…),thedefinitearticle(the)anditemslikesuchas.e.g.Thereisahouseneartheriver.ThatisJohn’s.Ididn’tknowitwashis.\n3.1.1Reference参照/照应Twotypesofreference:endophora内参照:theinterpretivesourceliesintheco-text.exophora外参照:theinterpretivesourceliesinthecontext.e.g.(Maryisstandinghere)Ilikeher.\nEndophora(内参照):anaphora回指:thereferentliesinthepriortext.e.g.Lookatthedog,itisdancing!cataphora后指:thereferentliesinthefollowingtext.e.g.WhenImether,Marylookedill.\nTypesofreferenceanaphora回指endophoraReference内参照cataphora后指指称exophora外参照\n3.1.2Substitution替代Theprocessorresultofreplacingonewordbyanotherataparticularpositioninastructure.A:I’velostmydictionary.(substituted)B:Getanewone.(substitute)ThreetypesofsubstitutionNominalsubstitution(toreplaceanounornounphrase)Verbalsubstitution(toreplaceaverbphrase)Clausalsubstitution(toreplaceaclause)\nReferencevs.SubstitutionReferenceisarelationonsemanticlevel.Noun–pronoun/nounphraseJack–himAgroupofstudents–thosestudentsSubstitutionisarelationonthelexico-grammaticallevel,arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions,andtheyhavesamefunction.newwatch---newone.\nReferencevs.SubstitutionAsrelationbetweenmeanings,referencecanbeanaphoric,cataphoricandexophoric.Substitutionisarelationwithintext,themajorityofsubstitutionarehighlydependingonthelinguisticcontext,anditmainlyhappensinthelatertext.\n3.1.3Ellipsis省略Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofeconomy,emphasisorstyle,andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse.SubstitutionbyzeroDoyoulikeit?No,Idon’t(likeit).Subtypes:Nominal,verbalandclausalellipsis\n3.1.4Conjunction连词Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction.Iwasnotinvited.Otherwise,Iwouldhavebeenthere.coordinator并列连词(and,but…)subordinator从属连词(because,when)conjunctiveadverbs连接副词(however,indeed…)Ifyoudogood,goodwillbedonetoyou;butifyoudoevil,thesamewillbemeasuredbacktoyou.Therefore,let’sdogood.\nLexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems.repetition重复Threetypes:synonym同义词collocation上义词3.1.5Lexicalcohesion词汇衔接\nRepetition:repeatthesamewords,orgeneralnouns,orotherwordssharingthemajorityofsemanticfeatures.Thedonkeydied;thepoorcreaturehasworkedhardallhislife.Superodinate:thesameword,synonymornear-synonym,superordinate,generalwords,collocation.Iwatchedafootballgamelastnight,andbecameveryupsetwhentherefereepulledout3redcardsinaminute.\nRepetitionoflexicalitems.Arepeateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuperordinate,orageneralword.Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(synonym)Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(superordinate)Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(generalword)\nCollocation搭配：thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexed（生气的）thefatmanofBombay\n3.2Coherence连贯Interestinglyenough,theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat“makesense”.Considerthefollowingpassage:e.g.IboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElysees(香榭丽舍大街)wasBlack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.\n从前有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和尚，老和尚在和小和尚讲故事:从前有座山……\nCoherence:therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.Itconcernspeople’sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword.Ifastretchofalanguageisinlinewithsomeexperienceortheir“commonsense”,itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext.\nCoherenceissthunderlyingthetext---semanticconnections,logicalconnectionsortemporalsequence.Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge.Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcoherenceintheformofcohesivedevices.Asweseeinthelastsamplepassage.\n(50)Student:I’velostmybunchofkeys!Roommate:It’safinedaytoday.Student:Soyou’vegotafreedinner.(p197)\nGeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Andheisnowalawyer.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Heisnowalawyer.Theabsenceoftheconjunctions“and”inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall.Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw.Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible.\n7.4Discoursemarkers话语标记语Whatisthedefinitionofdiscoursemarkers?Howmanytypesofdiscoursemarkerarethere?\ndiscoursemarkers(DM):expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence.conversationalparticles:wellandohparentheticallexicalizedclauses:y’know,Imeanandyousee,connectiveelementsso,afterall,andmoreover.\nThemainroleofdiscoursemarkers:toguidespeaker’sinterpretationsoftheutterances.ThefeaturesofDMs:DMsseemtoclarifyatext’sstructuralrelationsforthereader.Despiteanydifferencesintheiruseindifferenttypesofdiscourse,theseitemsshareanumberofformalandtextualfeatures.\n7.5ConversationalanalysisTheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylifeiscalledconversationalanalysis(CA).\nThreemechanismsinCAadjacencypairs(相邻语对)preferencestructure(首选结构)presequences(前序列)Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewhentospeakduringaconversation,howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated,andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor.\n7.5.1Adjacencypairs相邻语对Certainturnshavespecificfollow-upturns.Questionstakeanswers.Greetingsarereturnedbygreetings,invitationsbyacceptancesorrefusals,andsoon.Suchsequencesofturnsarecalledadjacencypairs:asequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers.Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.\n(56)A:Youleftthelighton.B:Itwasn’tme!thesequenceofcomplaint-denialisanadjacencypair.\nAdjacencypairshavefiveproperties:Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances,afirstpartandasecondpart.Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers.Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes,forexample,questionandanswer,orgreetingandgreeting.\nTheformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart.Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart,thesecondpartisrelevantandexpectableasthenextutterance.\nAdjacencypairscomeinmanytypesquestion-answergreeting-greetinginvitation-acceptance/non-acceptanceoffer-acceptance/non-acceptancecomplaint-apology/denialsummons传唤-responseassertion-assent赞成request-acceptancepromise-acknowledgementthanks-acknowledgementgoodbye-goodbye.\nHowever,notallfirstpartsimmediatelyreceivetheirsecondparts.Itoftenhappensthataquestion-answer(Q-A)sequencewillbedelayedwhileanotherquestion-answersequenceintervenes.ThesequencewillthentaketheformofQ1-Q2-A2-A1,withthemiddlepair(Q2-A2)beingcalledaninsertionsequence插入语列.\n(57)Agent:Doyouwanttheearlyflight!(=Q1)Client:Whattimedoesitarrive?(=Q2)Agent:Nineforty-five.(=A2)Client:Yeah—that’sgreat.(=A1)\nAninsertionsequenceisoneadjacencypairwithinanother.Inprinciple,thenumberofinsertionsequencescanbeinfinite,butthelimitofhumanmemorydoesnotallowthat.Threeorfourinsertionsequencesarecommon.\n(58)A:AreyoucomingtoourpartyTuesdayevening?(Q1)B:CanIbringafriendalong?(Q2)A:Maleorfemale?(Q3)B:Whatdoesthatmatter?(Q4)A:Justamatterofbalance.(A4)B:Male.(A3)A:Okey.(A2)B:I’llbetherethen.(A1)\nEx:1)Son:CanIwatchTV,Dad?Father:Haveyoufinishedyourhomework?Son:No.Father:Thenyoucan’t.Inthisexample,thefatherdelayshisanswertohisson’squestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists.\n2)A:Couldyoulendmeafewbucks?B:Whatfor?A:IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend.B:Howmuchdoyouwant?A:Well…uh…50dollarsisok.B:Whenareyougonnareturn?A:NextMonday.B:Allright.Waitforme.I’llberightback.\n7.5.2Preferencestructure首选结构Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts.Forexample,aquestioncanbefollowedbya)aquestion,b)byapartialanswer,c)byastatementofignorance,d)byadenialoftherelevanceofthequestionore)byadenialofitspresupposition:\n(59)A:WhatdoesJoedoforaliving?B:a.Doyouneedtoknow?b.Oh,thisandthat.c.I’venoidea.d.What’sthatgottodowithit?e.Hedoesn’t.\nPreferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispreferredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.\n(60)A:Haveyougotalight?B:Yes.(61)A:Haveyougotalight?B:No,sorry.Idon’tsmoke.B’sreplyin(60)ispreferredanddispreferredin(61):\n7.5.3Presequences前序列(63)Jeff:Mornin’,Stan!Stan:Hi.How’sitgoin’?Jeff:Oh,can’tcomplain,Iguess.Readyforthemeetingthisafternoon?Stan:Well,Idon’thavemuchchoice!\nGreetingsexemplifyopeningsequences,utterancesthateasepeopleintoaconversation.Theyconveythemessage“Iwanttotalktoyou”.Theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactionsarecalledpresequences.\nGreetingsareusuallyreservedforacquaintanceswhohavenotseeneachotherforawhile,oraspresequencesforlongerconversationsbetweenstrangers.Somesituationsdonotrequireagreeting,aswithastrangerapproachinginthestreettoaskforthetime:“Excuseme,sir,doyouknowwhattimeitis?”\n(64)A:WhatareyoudoingthisSunday?B:Nothingspecial.Why?A:Whydon’tyoucomeoutwithusthen?Herethepre-invitationistreatedastransparentbyBwhosuspectsby“why”thatsomethingisforthcoming.\nPre-request:(65)A:Areyougoingouttomorrow?B:No,notreally.A:Areyouusingyourcarthen?B:No.Doyouwanttoborrowit?A:Yes,ifyou’renotusingit.A:Doyouhavesomehotchocolate?B:Hum.A:CanIhavehotchocolatewithwhippedcream?B:Sure.\npre-announcementsA:Iforgottotellyouthetwobestthingsthathappenedtometoday.B:Yeah?Whatwerethey?A:IgotaB+onmymathtest…andIgotanathleticaward.\n7.6Criticaldiscourseanalysis批评话语分析Itisaperspectivewhichstudiestherelationshipbetweendiscourseeventsandsociopoliticalandculturalfactorsespeciallythewaydiscourseisideologicallyinfluencedby,andcanitselfinfluence,powerrelationsinsociety.\nThebasicassumptionisthattherelationshipbetweentheformandcontentofdiscourseisnotarbitrary.Therearestrongconnectionsbetweenlinguisticstructureandsocialstructure,totheextentthatlinguisticmeaningisinseparablefromideology意识形态.\nHeadlinesinTheObserver,TheSundayTimes,andTheSundayTelegraphon12December,1976:(66)a.NUSregretsfuryoverJoseph.b.StudentleaderscondemninsulttoKeithJoseph.c.Studentschiefs‘regret’attackonSirKeith.\nNowadays,criticaldiscourseanalysisispracticedwithindisciplinessuchassocialpsychology,law,andpolitics;interdisciplinaryresearchisgrowingin,e.g.,medical,educational,media,andpoliticaldiscourse.\nSummary1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers5.Conversationalanalysis6.Criticalanalysis\nwww.themegallery.comThankYou!