现代语言学 笔记 15页

现代语言学Chapter11，Whatislinguistics?1.1,definition:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage,isbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata，conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.“language”impliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral;“study”means“investigate”or“examine”;“scientific”referstothewayinwhichitisstudied.Linguisthastodofirstintostudylanguagefacts.Processoflinguisticstudy:A)Certainlinguisticfactswhichdisplaysomesimilaritiesandgeneralizationsareobserved;B)Basedonthesegeneralizations,hypothesesareformulatedtoaccountforthesefacts;C)Thehypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;D)Alinguistictheoryisconstructedaboutwhatlanguageisandhowitworks;1.2，thescopeoflinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics,whichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethods;andlanguageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets;Branchesoflinguisticsasfollow:A)Phonetics(发音学、语音学):thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication;B)Phonology（音系学、音位学）:thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication;C)Morphology(词态学)：soundsarerepresentedbycertainsymbolsinlinguisticcommunication,thestudyofthewayinwhichthosesymbolsarearrangedtoformwords;D)Syntax(句法学)：thestudyofrulesthatcombinewordstoformpermissiblesentences;E)Semantics(语义学):thestudyofmeaningF)Pragmatics(语用学)：whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolated,butinthecontextofuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics;Thestudyofalltheseaspectsoflanguageformsthecoreoflinguistics.Languageisasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironment,inthecourseoftimethestudyoflanguagewhichlinkswithotherbranchesofsocialstudies,resultingininterdisciplinary(跨学科)branchedoflinguisticstudy,including\nsociolinguistics(社会语言学)andpsycholinguistics（心理语言学）;Inabroadsense,Studiescanbeappliedtothesolutionofsomepracticalproblemsisgenerallyknowasappliedlinguistics;inanarrowsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage;Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学),neurologicallinguistics（神经语言学）,mathematicallinguistics（数理语言学）andcomputationallinguistics（计算语言学）.1.3someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.3.1Prescriptive规定性vs.descriptive描述性---方法Definition:Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;Ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive;Modernlinguisticsandlinguisticstudycarriedoutin20thcenturyismostlydescriptive;1.3.2Synchronic共时性vs.diachronic历时性---方法Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy;adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime;Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy;1.3.3Speechandwriting----对象Speechandwritingarethetwomajorlinguisticcommunicationmedia;modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten,because(1)speechprecedeswriting,(2)manylanguagesintheworldhaveonlyspokenform,(3)theninthetermsoffunction,spokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesandcarriesalargerloadofcommunication.1.3.4langueandparole----对象ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguisticF.deSaussureearly20thcentury;Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;\nParolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby;Paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;Langueisabstract,isnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse;Paroleisconcrete,itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents;Langueisrelativelystable,doesn’tchangefrequently;Parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation;1.3.5Competenceandperformance---对象ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasmadebytheAmericanlinguisticN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s;Competenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage;Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication;DifferencebetweenSaussure’sandChomsky’sdistinction:Saussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflanguageisamatterofsocialconventions;Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandthinksthatcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.2.whatislanguage?2.1definitionsoflanguageSapir,1921:Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols;Hall,1968:Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”Generalaccepteddefinitionoflanguage:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.First,languageisasystem,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules;Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword“pen”andthethingweusetowritewith;Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare;Forth,theterm“human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific,verydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsformsoflifeposses,suchasbirdsongs\nandbeedances.2.2designfeatures识别特征Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AframeworkwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett,hespecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,andfiveofwhichwillbediscussedmainly.1)Arbitrariness任意性A）ArbitrarinessisoneofthetypicalfivedesignfeaturesproposedbyHockett;B）Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds;C）Forexample,differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages;D）Languageisnotentirelyarbitrary,althoughitisarbitrarybynature;E）Non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthetotalnumberofwordsusedinalanguage;Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2)Productivity多产性/创新性A）ProductivityisoneofthetypicalfivedesignfeaturesproposedbyHockett;B）Languageisproductivityinthatitmakespossiblefortheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers;C）Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage;D）Forexample,agibboncallsarenotproductive,ithasalimitedrepertoireandrapidlyexhausted;beedancingisusedonlytoindicatefoodsources,andistheonlykindofmessagecanbesentthroughthedancing;3)Duality结构双重性A）DualityisoneofthetypicalfivedesignfeaturesproposedbyHockett;B）Dualityisasystemwhichconsistsoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels;C）Atlowerlevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless;D）Athigherlever,thesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,suchasmorphemesandwords;E）Theunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences;4)Displacement替代性A）DisplacementisoneofthetypicalfivedesignfeaturesproposedbyHockett;B）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker;\nA）Incontrast,animalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation;B）Forexample,animalcallswheninpresenceofdangerorinpain,oncethedangerorpainisgone,callsstop;1)Culturetransmission文化传递性A)CulturetransmissionisoneofthetypicalfivedesignfeaturesproposedbyHockett;B)Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butthedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,havetobetaughandlearned;C)Incostrast,animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted,theyarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies;Chapter2Phonology语音体系、音系学1.ThephonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage;2.Phonetics发音学、语音学2.1whatisphonetics?Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage;1)itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorgantoarticulatethesounds---articulatoryphonetics发音语音学2)itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer---auditoryphonetics听觉语音学3)itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother---acousticphonetics声学语音学Ofthethreebranchesofphonetics,thelongestestablished,anduntilrecentlythemosthighlydeveloped,isarticulatoryphonetics;Spectrographs摄谱仪/光谱仪（spectrum光谱）:amachineforrecordingthesoundwaves;2.2OrgansofspeechThreeimportantareasorcavitiesofhumanarticulatoryapparatus:Thepharyngealcavity–thethroat;Theoralcavity--themouth;\nThenasalcavity--thenose;Theprinciplesourceofsuchmodificationsisthetongue;Words：larynx喉，uvula小舌头，velar膜的、软腭音，hardpalate硬腭，softpalate(velum)软腭，glottis声门，teechridge(alveolus)牙龈，bladeoftongue舌胎，backoftongue舌根，vocalcords声带，windpipe气管pharyngealcavity咽腔，nasalcavity鼻腔，ThepharyngealcavityVibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoicing;Voicingisafeatureofallvowels元音andsomeconsonants辅音,suchas[b]、[z]、[m];Whenthevocalcordsletaisgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundproducedinsuchaconditionarenotvoiced,calledvoiceless;someconsonantsinEnglishsuchas[t]、[s]、[f]TheoralcavityThegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundinoralcavity;Ofalltheplaceincavity,thetongueisthemostflexible,andisresponsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother;ThenasalcavityThesoundspronouncedinnasalized,suchas[m][n][ɧ]1.1Orthographic(正字术/拼字法)representationofspeechsounds–board（宽式）andnarrow（严式）transcriptions音标Theinternationalphoneticalphabet(IPA)isastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription;ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingadifferentletterforeachdistinguishablespeechsound;Thevowels:totally20,including12monophthongs单元音and8diphthongs双元音--page20Theconsonants:totally24,--page21Thevowels:(monophthongsanddiphthongs)ɨ：beatɨpiteɨbayɑ：barneletɑɨbuyɔ：bornǽpatɔɨboyȗ：moonʌputtəʊgoɜ：burnɒhotáʊnow\nʊputɨəpeerəanothereəpairʊəpoorTheconsonants:ppenffallhhowbbadvvoicemmantteaθthinnnoddidðthenŋlongkcatssollegggamezzoorredʧchainʃshipjyesʤjaneʒmeasurewwetDiacritics变音符号isasetofsymbolswhichcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalone；Broadtranscriptionisoneoftwowaystotranscribespeechsounds;Broadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly;Broadtranscriptionisnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks;Narrowtranscriptionisoneoftwowaystotranscribespeechsounds;Narrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacrities;Narrowtranscriptionisrequiredusedbythephoneticiansinstudyofspeechsounds;Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspirated,andincaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.1.1ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsPage23TwodefinitionsofvowelsgeneratedbyBloomfieldandJones;AVowelisdefinedasavoicesoundinformingwhichtheaircomesfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenose,orthemouth,whenpronunciation;whileitisobstructedinonewayoranotheriscalledConsonant;1.1.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotheristheplaceofarticulation;\n“mannerofarticulation”meansthemannerinwhichobstructioniscreated,and“placeofarticulation”meanstheplaceinwhichobstructioniscreated.Intermsofmannerofarticulation,Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedasfollow:P231)Stopes爆破音：threepairs:[p][b],[t][d],and[k][g];2)Fricatives摩擦音：theyare:[f][v][s][z][θ][ð][ʃ][ʒ][h]3)Affrictes涩擦音：twoare:[ʧ][ʤ]4)Liquid流音：[l][r]5)Nasal鼻音：[m][n][ŋ]6)Glides音渡：[w][j]，sometimescall“semivowels”Intermsofplaceofarticulation,Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedasfollow:P251）bilabial双唇音：[p][b][m][w]2）labiodental唇齿音：[f][v]3）dental齿音：[θ][ð]4）alveolar齿龈音：[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]5）palatal硬腭音：[ʃ][ʒ][ʧ][ʤ][j]6）velar软腭音：[k][g][ŋ]7)glottal喉音：[h]Thefollowingtableincorporatesthetwoclassifications:PS:VLvoiceless;VDvoiced/voicing;and[ʧ][ʤ]canbedescribedeitheras“alveolar”or“palatal”　　labiallabio-dentaldentalalveo-larpalatalvelarglottalStopsVLp　　t　k　VDb　　d　g　FricativesVL　fθsʃ　hVD　vðzʒ　　AffricatesVL　　　(ʧ)ʧ　　VD　　　(ʤ)ʤ　　NasalsVDm　　n　ŋ　LiquidsVD　　　l,r　　　GlidesVDw　　　j　　1.1.1ClassificationofEnglishvowelsVowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront、centralandback;\nAfrontvowelisoneoftheproductionofwhichthefrontpartofthetonguemaintainsthehighestposition;Englishfrontvowels:[ɨ:][ɨ][e][ǽ][ɑ]Acentralvowelisoneoftheproductionofwhichthecentralpartofthetonguemaintainsthehighestposition;Englishcentralvowels:[ɜ:][ə][ʌ]Abackvowelisoneoftheproductionofwhichthebackpartofthetonguemaintainsthehighestposition;Englishbackvowels:[ȗ:][ʊ][ɔ:][ɒ][ɑ:]Accordingtohowwideourmouthopen,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:Theclosevowels:[ɨ:][ɨ][ȗ:][ʊ]Thesemi-closevowels:[e][ɜ:]Thesemi-openvowels:[ə][ɔ:]Theopenvowels:[ǽ][ɑ][ʌ][ɒ][ɑ:]Thefollowingdiagramsummarizesourclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteria:Vowelsalsocanbeclassifiedaccordingtothelengthofthesound,thelongvowelsare:[ɨ:][ɑ:][ɔ:][ȗ:][ɜ:],andalltherestareshortvowels;Andthelongvowelsarealltensevowels(紧元音),theshortvowelsarelaxvowels(松元音)Excepttheindividualvowels(monophthongs单元音)，therearealsoanumberofdiphthongs(双元音),whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughintervening(干涉)positions，thediphthongsinclude[eɨ][ɑɨ][əʊ][áʊ][ɔɨ][ɨə][eə][ʊə]\n1.Phonology音系学/音位学1.1Phonologyandphonetics语音学Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds,buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus;Phoneticsisoneofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;Phonologyisconcernedwiththestudyofthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage,andsotheconclusionswereachaboutthephonologyofonelanguageshouldnotbegeneralizedintothestudyofanotherlanguage,whatistrueinonelanguagemaynotbetrueinanotherlanguage;1.2Phone音素（语言学单位），Phoneme音位(音位学单位)，andallophone音位变体Phonereferstothespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage;Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment;itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctive区分性的value；phonemeisanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotasound,itiscollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures;Inactualspeech,aphonemeisrealizedphoneticallyasacertainphone.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme;PhonologicalruleinEnglish:Thethreevoicelessstops/p//t//k/areunaspiratedwhenprecededby/s/andfollowedbyavowel;forexample:sport,scheme,steamThefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures;Distinctivefeaturesarelanguage-specific,whatdistinguishesmeaninginonelanguagedoesnotnecessarilydosoinanotherlanguage;NasalizationisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish;1.3Phonemiccontrast(音位比对),complementarydistribution(音位互补),andminimalpair(最小对立体)Phonemiccontrast:Like/p/and/b/,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,thereforetheyareinphonemiccontrast;\nComplementarydistribution:Thetwoallophonesofsamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Like[p]and[ph],whicharetwoallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/,theyoccurindifferentenvironments:whenEnglishspeakerspronounceawordwhichbeginswith/p/,theychoosetheaspiratedallophone[ph];andifthe/p/occursafterthesound/s/,theywillchoosetheunaspiratedallophone[p];Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aeasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.3.4SomerulesinphonologyP363.4.1Sequentialrules系列规则Therearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,theserulesarecalledsequentialrules.InEnglish:1)Awordbeginswitha[l]ora[r]、a[w]ora[j],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel;(流音+两个半元音)2)Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:(a),Thefirstphonememustbe/s/;(b),Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/;(c),Thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/or/j/;3)Theaffricates[ʧ][ʤ]andthesililants[s][z][ʃ][ʒ]arenottobefollowedbyanothersilibant;涩擦音丝音Therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific;3.4.2Assimilationrules同化规则Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar;Nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound;3.4.3Deletionrule略音规则Deletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented;example,signanddesign;\nTheruleis:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant;3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures超切分特征--stress重音,tone声调,intonation语调Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.超切分特征是指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征.Therearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable、theword、thesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone;3.5.1StressTherearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress,dependingonthecontext.Wordstress:(a)Wordstressisarelativenotion,onlywordswithtwoormoresyllablescanbesaidtohavewordstress;(b)Englishisalanguageinwhichstressisfree,thelocationofstressdistinguishesmeaning.Rules:(a)Theadjective/nounhasthestressonthefirstsyllableandthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable;(b)PhonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,andthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress;(c)Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationof–ingformsandnouns.Sentencestress:Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence;themoreimportantwordsinEnglisharenouns,mainverb,adjectives,adverbs,anddemonstrativepronouns(指示代词);Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed;3.5.2Tone声调Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguages;Englishisnotatonelanguage;Chineseisatypicaltomelanguage,ithasfourtones:thefirsttoneis\nlevel(阴平),thesecondrise(阳平),thethirdfall-rise(上声)andthefourthfall(去声)3.5.3Intonation音调Whenpitch,stress,soundlengthandpausearetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation;Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish;Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownas:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetoneandtherise-falltone;Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.Thefallingtoneindicatesstatement;Therisingtonemakesaquestion;Thefall-risetoneindicatesanimpliedmessage;Intonationcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingthenucleus(调核)onit;Nucleusreferstothemajorpitchchangeinanintonationunitwithinoneintonationunit,thenucleusnormallyfallsonthelaststressedsyllable,whentheunitisspokeninthefallingtone,thefallinpitchnormallyoccursonthelaststressedsyllable.Chapter3Morphology形态学/词法学P481.DefinitionMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphology(屈折形态学)andlexicalorderivationalmorphology(派生形态学);Theinflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflectionsandthederivationalmorphologystudiestheword-formation;2.Morpheme词素2.1Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageSentencesareoftenanalyzedintowords,andwordsareoftenthoughttobethesmallestunitoflanguage,butthisisafalsenotion,wordsarefurtheranalyzable,canbebrokendownintoevensmallercomponents;\n1.2Typesofmorphemes2.2.1Freemorphemes自由词素Freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves;2.2.2Boundmorphemes粘着词素P51Boundmorphemesrefertomorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformword;Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:roots词根andaffixes词缀RootsArootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword;Someroots:geo-:theearth-ology:abranchoflearningtele-:distant,farvision:seeing,sight,visionisafreemorphemeliter-:wordsaudi-:listening,auditor/audience/auditoriumgene-:life,generate/genetic/genitalaqu-:water,aquarium,aquatic-loqu:speech,eloquent,loquacious,soliloquy-ium:hall,stadium,gymnasium,auditorium,aquarium-path-:emotion,sympathy,empathytoler-:endure,tolerate,tolerablethermo-:heat,thermometer,thermostatic,thermonuclearmanu-:hand,manuscript,manual,manfactureAffixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivationalInflectionalaffixes:Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber数量,tense时态,degree度,andcase格.Derivationalaffixes:Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingform(stem)tocreateaword;\nSuchawaytoword-formationiscalledderivation,andthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative;Astem(existingform)canbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.Accordingtoitspositioninthenewword,affixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixesandsuffixes,prefixesoccuratthebeginningofastemandsuffixesattheendofstem2.2.3MorphologicalrulesP54