Linguistics胡壮麟语言学教程语言学复习资料 60页

.ChapteroneIntroduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.普通语言学GeneralLinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.3.语言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）.\n.Competenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。7.历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.8.共时语言学SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.9.语言langue（抽象）Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.10.言语parole（具体）Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.11.规定性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectbehavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.12.描述性Descriptive.\n.Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.二、知识点1.Languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it’sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：⑴瑞士语言学家F.deSaussure:Langue和parole的区别⑵美国语言学家N.Chomsky:in1950针对Saussure’slangue&parole提出Competence和Performance.⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Hall----languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements..\n.⑷美国语言学家CharlesHockett:提出了语言的识别特征designfeatures3.Theword“language”precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.Inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstiftostudylanguagefacts.5.Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthelinguisticstodealwithitallatonce.6.Firstdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1.Whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics----it’sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it’sconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall..\n.Morphology---It’sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax-------it’sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics---It’ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.Sociolinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.2.Whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it’sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypical.\n.exampletoillustratethe‘arbitrariness’oflanguageis“arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”.3.Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Itisbasedon‘high’writtenlanguage.传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。4.ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?Speechenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguisticsforthefollowingreasons:⑴Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.⑵Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutin.\n.speechthaninwriting.⑶Speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.6.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’s?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy.ThetwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.7.Thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?⑴Langueisabstract,relativelystable⑵paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.ChapterTwoPhonology一、定义1.宽式音标BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.2.窄式音标Narrowtranscription.\n.Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.3.清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.4.浊音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.5.元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.6.辅音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.7.音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,it’sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.8.音位变体Allophones.\n.Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.9.音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it’saspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.10.最小对立对MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalfeaturesThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.12.互补分布complementarydistributionTwoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.13.语言的语音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethe.\n.phonicmediumoflanguage.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]二、知识点1.Statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.2.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.3.Phonetic组成⑴Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学longestestablished,mostlydeveloped⑵Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学⑶Acousticphonetics声学语音学4.ArticulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity–咽腔Oralcavity–口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasalcavity–鼻腔5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,theextremebackof.\n.thetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabicandFrench.6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].7.Nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[η]8.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.9.Sequentialrules例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:⑴thefirstphonememustbe/s/⑵thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/⑶thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w10.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone三、问答题1.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?.\n.Articulatory—describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditory-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.Acoustic-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。2.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?Byplaceofarticulationandbymannerofarticulation3.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?Why?语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics---descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonology---descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguish.\n.meaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcos4.What’saphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone---aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones---actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.5.Whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?Minimalpair—twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?.\n.Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.7.Explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.序列规则SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化规则AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby‘copying’afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略规则DeletionruleIt’saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughit’sorthographicallyrepresented.ChapterThreeMorphology一、定义1.词素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.2.自由词素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.3.黏着词素Boundmorphemes.\n.Boundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcannotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.4.词根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.5.词缀AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.6.曲折词缀inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.7.派生词缀DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.8.词干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.9.形态学规则Morphologicalrules.\n.Theyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.10.前缀PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes‘be-’and‘en(m)-’11.后缀SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.12.CompoundFeatures:⑴orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.⑵syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.⑶semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponent.ChapterFourSyntax.\n.一、定义1.句子sentenceAstructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.2.语言运用LinguisticcompetenceThesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.3.谓语PredicateThepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.4.定式子句FiniteClauseAclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.5.从属子句EmbeddedClause(EC)Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.6.主要子句MatrixClauseInacomplexsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.7.层次结构Hierarchicalstructure.\n.Thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.8.语法关系GrammaticalrelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.9.句法类型SyntacticcategoryAwordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.10.表层结构S-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.11.深层结构D-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.12.普遍语法GeneralgrammarAsystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturelanguage.13.移动α规则MoveαAgeneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.14.句法移位Syntacticmovement.\n.Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.15.转换原则TransformationrulesSyntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.二、知识点Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。句子的分类TypesofsentencesSimplesentence简单句---Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.coordinateorcompoundsentence并列句合成句---Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“but”,”and”.ect..\n.Complexsentence复合句—Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.复合句的特点：⑴Anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause⑵MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas“that”⑶Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子结构层次特点Sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPorverbphraseVP,groupedtogether.Inadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.普遍语法的广义原则GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition和AdjacencyCondition格条件---anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,orbyAUXtothesubject.\n.position.名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。相邻条件—acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。Chapter5Semantics一、定义1.命名论ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheory,oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Thenamingtheory的局限性:⑴It’sonlyapplicabletoNounsonly.⑵Withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdon’texistintherealworld.2.意念论TheconceptualistviewItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationof.\n.meaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Therearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.Thistheorysomewhatisclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.5.意义SenseIt’sconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.It’sthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.6.所指意义ReferenceItmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.7.同义词Synonymy.\n.Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.分类(1)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsSynonyms(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning(4)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms8.多义词PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.9.同音(形)异义HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.10.同音异形异义HomophonesItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.Rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace;leak/leek11.同形异义HomographsItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.Bowv./bown.tearv./tearnleadv./lead12.上下义关系Hyponymy.\n.Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.13.反义词AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.分类(1)Gradableantonyms分级反义词例子Old—middle-aged—young;hot-warm-coldAntonym(2)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词between分类twoextremes例子Alive—dead;male—female;(3)Relationalopposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)father-son;teacher-pupil;doctor-patient;buy-sell;above-below14.成分分析法ComponentialAnalysisIt’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.15.PredicationAnalysis述谓结构分析.\n.由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.16.先设前提PresuppositionIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.17.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.二、知识点1.Majorviewsofmeaningstudy:ThenamingTheory-----希腊ScholarPlatoTheconceptualism-----观点代表人是JohnFirth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力TheConceptualistview----Ogden和Richards用classicsemantictriangleofsignificanceTheBehaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和Jill故事阐明2.句子间的意义关系senserelationbetweensentencesXissynonymouswithY..\n.XentailsY.XpresupposesY.Xisacontradiction.Xissemanticallyanomalous.3.Analysisofmeaning意义的分析(1)Componentialanalysis—awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning对词汇成分的分析(2)Predicationanalysis—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning对句子意义的分析Itisawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledSemanticfeatures.Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.4.Themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.TwoaspectsofSentencemeaning:grammaticalandsemanticmeaning.5.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication----Predicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.itappliestoallformsofasentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogative..\n.PredicationconsistsofArgumentsandPredicates.述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。三、问答题1.Howaresenseandreferencerelated?Sensereferstotheinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,whichisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.Referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itisamatterofrelationshipbetweentheformandreality.2.inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures,theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures;itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaningsimilarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeatures,aphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditsthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds..\n.3.What’sgrammaticality?Whatmighttakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?Grammaticality---thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconformstothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisnotnecessarilysemanticallywell-formed,i.e.itmaynotmakesenseatall.Chapter6pragmatics一、定义1.语境ContextThenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage,it’sgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.2.言语行为理论SpeechacttheoryIt’sanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.It’saphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.itaimstoanswerthequestion‘whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?’Theconceptofcausativesperformatives,thelocutionaryact,theillocutionaryact,theperlocutionary.\n.actandthe5categoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Searleconstitutethespeechacttheory.3.叙述句ConstativesConstativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableanditbearingthetruth-value.4.行为句PerformativesPerformativesaresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.5.言内行为LocutionaryActAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.It’stheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.6.言外行为IllcotionaryActAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionit’stheactperformedinsayingsomething.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家JohnSearle对言外行为分成5类阐述性Representatives---tocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingtheCase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.例词:stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing.\n.指令性Directives---areattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.例词:inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering承诺性Commissives---whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderobligation.例词:promising,undertaking,vowing、表达类Expressives---thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs.例词:apologizing,thanking,congratulating宣告类Declarations---thesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.例句Inowdeclarethemeetingopen/Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee/Ifireyou.Thesefivecategoriesdifferintheirstrengthorforce.7.言后行为PerlocutionaryActPerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.It’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.8.句子意义SentencemeaningItreferstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconcept,themeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstractintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.9.话语意义Utterancemeaning.\n.Itreferstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesandutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered.10.合作原则CooperativePrincipleIt’sproposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate,otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.4MaximofCooperativePrinciples数量准则themaximofQuantity-----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求质量准则themaximofQuality-----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetofalse.Donotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话关系准则themaximofrelation-----berelevant使你的话与话题相关方式准则themaximofmanner-----Avoidobscurityofexpressionandambiguity;Bebrief/beorderly.避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序.\n.11.会话含义ConversationalimplicaturesAccordingtoP.Grice,itreferstotheextrameaningnotcontainedintheutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsoftheCP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。二、知识点1.语用学的几个重要的理论⑴言语行为理论Speechacttheory由英国哲学家JohnAustin在20世纪50年代末提出在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为例子：youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Locutionaryact:expressedwhateachwordofthissentenceliterallymean.Illutionaryact:expressedhisintentionofspeaking,askingsomeonetoclosethedoor.Perlocutionaryact:someoneheardthesentence,andclosethedoor,thenthisactissuccessfullyperformed.在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣Becausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention,andintheirstudyoflanguagecommunication,linguistsare.\n.mostinterestedinhowaspeakerexpresseshisintentionandalsohowhisintentionisrecognizedbythehearer.2.Semantics和Pragmatics的区分Pragmaticsstudieshowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.Thebasicdifferencebetweenthemisthatpragmaticsconsidersmeaningincontext.Semanticsstudiesmeaninginisolationfromthecontextofuse.3.Sentencemeaning与Utterancemeaning的区别Sentencemeaning---abstract,decontextualized.Utterancemeaning---concrete,contextualized区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。Chapter7Historicallinguistics一、定义1.历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsAtermusedinsteadofhistoricallinguisticstothestudyoflanguagechangeatvariouspointsintimeatvarioushistoricalstage.2.元音大交替GreatVowelShiftAseriesofsystematicsoundchangeinthehistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyled.\n.tooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.3.词尾脱落ApocopeThedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.4.插入音EpenthesisTheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofaword.5.首字母缩略词AcronymAwordcreatedbycombiningtheinitialsofanumberofwords.6.混合法BlendingAprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsoftwootherwords.7.缩写词AbbreviationAshortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform.8.略写词ClippingAkindofabbreviationofotherwiselongerwordsorphrases.9.逆向构词法Back-formationAprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawayhesuffixofanexistingword..\n.10.语音同化SoundassimilationThephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.11.派生法DerivationItreferstotheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords.12.语义转换SemanticshiftIt’saprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning.二、知识点1.Languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic.2.英语的语言变化linguisticchangeofEnglish(loss,addition,change)声音Soundchange形态Morphologicalchange句法Syntacticchange语义Semanticchange词汇LexicalchangeChapter8Sociolinguistics一、定义1.言语社区SpeechCommunityItreferstoagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandshareatleastonespeechvarietyaswellassimilarlinguisticnorms.2.社会方言SocialectAvarietyoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoaparticularsocialclass..\n.3.语域RegisterAfunctionalspeechorlanguagevarietythatinvolvesdegreesofformalitydependingonthespeechsituationconcerned.4.标准语StandardLanguageAsuperposedprestigiousvarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.5.通用语LinguaFrancaAvarietyoflanguagethatservesasacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeakdifferentnativelanguagesordialects.6.洋泾浜语Pidgin边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇+缩减的语法结构by其他语言的本族语者Amarginalcontactlanguagewithalimitedvocabularyandreducedgrammaticalstructures,usedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasameansofbusinesscommunication.7.双言现象DiglossiaAsociolinguisticsituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachservingaparticularsocialfunctionandusedforaparticularsituation..\n.8.语言禁忌LinguistictabooAnobscene,profane,orswearwordorexpressionthatisprohibitedfromgeneralusebytheeducatedandpolitesociety.9.委婉语EuphemismAwordorexpressionthatisthoughttobemild,indirect,orlessoffensiveandusedasapolitesubstituteforthesupposedlyharshandunpleasantwordorexpression.10.语码转换Code-SwitchingItreferstoabilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.人们在交际中根据需要轮流使用不同的语言、方言或其他变体。11.语言变体SpeechVarietyItreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.12.双语BilingualismItreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.13.少数民族方言EthnicDialect.\n.Itreferstoaphenomenonthatwithinasocietyspeechvariationmaycomeaboutbecauseofdifferentethnicbackgrounds.14.使用域DomainItreferstoaphenomenonthatmostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,thatistosay,afairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituations,forexample,thehomeDomain,EmploymentDomain.15.语言计划LanguagePlanningIt’scertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentchoosesaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.16.发音AccentIfreferstoawayofpronunciationwhichtellsthelistenersomethingaboutthespeaker’sregionalorsocialbackground.17.习语IdiolectPersonaldialectApersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother..\n.18.混合语CreolesIt’soriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunity.E.g.French-basedcreolesspokeninHaitiandLouisiana.19.语言情景LanguageSituationAlinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguageareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.Forexample,inCanada,bothEnglishandFrenchareofficiallanguages.20.区域变体RegionalVariationSpeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.E.g.AmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish,etc.21.俚语SlangIt’sacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.22.社会语言学SociolinguisticsIt’sthesubdisciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagewithinsocicalcontext..\n.二、知识点1.Sociolinguistsareconcernedwiththesocialsignificanceoflanguagevariationandlanguageuseindifferentspeechcommunitiesincludingregional,ethnicandsocialgroups.2.Insociolinguisticstudies,speakersaretreatedasmembersofsocialgroups.3.Socialgroupsmaybedefinedinanumberofwaysbesidesregionally.Itmaydistinguishitselffromrestofthecommunitybyitsdistinctethnicaffiliation.4.Consideredamoreneutralterm,speechvarietyissometimesusedinsteadofstandardlangauge,vernacularlanguage,dialect,pidgin,creole,etc.5.语言学家最感兴趣的三个语言变体Regionaldialects,sociolectsorsocialdialectsandregisters.6.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernibleanddefinable.7.ThedifferencebetweenLinguaFrancaandPidgin⑴Pidginisusedforsomepracticalpurposes,suchastrading,bygroupsofpeoplewhodonotknoweachother’s.\n.language.LinguaFrancamayhavenativespeakerssuchasEnglish,⑵Pidginisnotanativelanguageofaparticularregion,butsimplyamarginallanguageusedbypeoplewhoseculturesaresharplyseparatedandwhosebusinesscontactisveryspecialized.8.Thegrammaticalfeaturessuchascase,tense,moodandvoicearegenerallyabsentinpidgins,apidgintypicallylacksinflectionalmorphemes.9.Pidginshavestrictrulesfordeterminingwordorderstocompensateforthelackofcaseendingsonnouns.10.Languagereflectsdeep-rootedsexistsocialattitudetowardfemalesbythewayneutraltermsareinterpreted.三、问答题1.双语和双言的区分distinctionbetweenBilingualismandDiglossia.Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedinaspeechcommunity;inadiglossiccommunity,twovarietiesoflanguageareusedfordifferentsituations,onebeingmorestandardandhigher,andusedformoreformalmatters,theotherlessprestigious,usedforcolloquialsituations..\n.2.黑人英语的特点⑴oneofthemostprominentphonologicalfeaturesofBlackEnglishisthesimplificationofaconsonantclusterattheendofaworddroppingtheword-finalphoneme.e.g.“desk”ispronouncedas/des/and“told”ispronouncedas/tou/;音系特征，通过去掉词尾的音素简化位于词尾辅音连缀。⑵oneofthesyntacticfeatureofBlackEnglishistheabsenceofthecopula,suchas“theymine”,“youcrazy”CopuladeletionassuchoccursinsomeotherEnglishdialects,语法特征，经常缺失系词.⑶thedoublenegationconstructionwithsentencelike“Idonotknownobody”.语法特征，双重否定结构.3.列举女性言语和男性言语相异的方面Listseveralwaysofspeechofwomenandmendifferfromeachother.⑴Womentendtousemoreprestigiousforms,morepoliteandindirectlanguage,andmorespecificcolortermsthantheirmalecounterparts.⑵Womenusemorequestionsthandeclarativestatementsthanmales.5.Whyisproductivityuniquetolanguage?⑴Theproductivityoflanguageisthepropertywhichenablesitsuserstoconstructandunderstandanindefinitely.\n.largenumberofutterances,includingthenovelutterancesthattheyhaveneversaidheardbefore.⑵Thefeatureisuniquetohumanlanguagebecausemostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.6.Whyissyntaxregardedasasystemofrules?Asamajorcomponentofgrammar,syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitconformstothegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.If,ontheotherhand,asentenceviolatesaruleaccordingtowhichwordsareorganized,thennativespeakerswilljudgeittobeanimpossiblesentenceofthatlanguage.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.Foranynaturallanguage,it’sthesetofrulesthatmakesitpossibleforthespeakerstoproduce,comprehendandmemorizethevasenumberofsentencesoftheirnativelanguageChapter9Psycholinguistics一、定义.\n.1.大脑皮层CerebralCortexTheoutsidesurfaceofthebrainwhichreceivesmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandwherehumancognitiveabilitiesreside.接受所有感觉器官传来的信息，是人的认知能力所存在的区域。2.大脑侧化BrainLateralizationThelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrain.认知机能和感知机能位于大脑的某一半球。3.语言侧化LinguisticLateralizationHemisphericspecializationordominanceforlanguage.4.两耳分听DichoticListeningAresearchtechniquewhichhasbeenusedtostudyhowthebraincontrolshearingandlanguage,withwhichsubjectswearearphonesandsimultaneouslyreceivedifferentsoundsintherightandleftear,andarethenaskedtorepeatwhattheyhear.5.关键期thecriticalperiodAnearlyperiodofone’slifeextendingtotheageofpuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquirelanguagenaturallyandeffortlessly,aperiodthatcoincideswiththeperiodofbrainlaterlizationforlanguagefunctions.6.TheSapir-WhorfHypothesis假设.\n.AtheoryputforwardbytheAmericananthropologicallinguistsSapirandWhorfwhichstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.人们看世界的方式完全或部分地由他们母语的结构决定。7.自我交际InterpersonalCommunicationTheprocessofusinglanguagewithintheindividualtofacilitateone’sownthoughtandaidtheformulationandmanipulationofconcepts.语言使用者本人用语言促进自己的思维和帮助形成和使用概念的过程。8.无声言语SubvocalSpeechAtermusedtorefertothoughtwhenthoughtandlanguageareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother.用于指语言和思维是同一或近乎相同的.9.神经元NeuronsLyingundertheskull,thehumanbraincontainsanaverageoftenbillionnervecellscalledNeurons.10.脑半球HemispheresThebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledhemisphere..\n.11.Broca’sareaFrenchSurgeon:PaulBrocaThelanguagecentreinthefrontallobeintheleftcerebralhemisphereisknownasBroca’sarea.12.语言决定论LinguisticdeterminismWhorfproposedthatallhigherlevelsofthinkingaredependentonlanguage,orputitmorebluntly,languagedeterminesthought,hencethestrongnotionoflinguisticdeterminism.13.语言相对论LinguisticrelativismItreferstothebeliefthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,thatis,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground.It’shypothesisproposedbyanAmericanlinguistBenjaminLeeWhorfconcerninglanguageandthought.二、知识点1.Threeareasofthelefthemispherearevitaltolanguage:Broca’sarea.=ExpressionWernicke’sarea=UnderstandingAngulargyrus.=convertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryform,viceversa2.Thehumanbrainisthemostcomplicatedorganofthebody..\n.3.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain---Cerebralcortex.4.Mostindividuals,thelefthemisphereisdominantforlanguage,regardlessofhandiness.5.法国外科医生Broca是第一个证明damagetoaspecificareaofthebrainresultsinaspeechproductiondeficit.6.Whenwelisten,thewordisheardandcomprehendedviaWernicke’sarea.7.早期学者针对语言和思想的观点⑴Platosuggestedthatthoughtwasthesoul’sdiscoursewithitself.柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。⑵Aristotle,whoarguedthatmankindcouldnothavethesamelanguagesandthatlanguageswerebutsignsofpsychologicalexperiences.亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。Thedebatebetweenthem,onebeingmentalist,otherempiricist.两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义，另一个是经验主义。⑶Watson,thinkinginvolvedthesamemotoractivitiesusedinspeaking,Bloomfield,thinkingwasasystemofmovementsthathadbeenreducedfromactualspeechtothepointwherethey.\n.werenolongervisible.美国的Watson承袭了Plato的观点，Bloomfield提出了近似的观点。8.Majorfunctionsoflanguage⑴ameansofinterpersonalcommunication.人际交流⑵ameansofintrapersonalcommunication.自我交流22.Sapir-Whorfhypothesis他的假设证明了语言决定思想Sapir-Whorfhypothesisproposesthatthelanguagewespeakdeterminesthewayweperceivetheworldandsothenatureofthought.三、问答题1.Howdoeslanguagerelatethoughtandculture,inyouropinion?Languagedoesn’tdeterminethewaythespeakerperceivestheworld,butlargelyfunctionsasameansbywhichinformationcanbestoredandreceived,bywhichaculturetransmitsitsbelief,valuesandnorms,andbywhichthespeakerinteractsothermembersofthecultures.2.Describetheprocessesoflanguageperception,comprehensionandproduction.It’sbeenproposedthatthebrainactivityinvolvedinhearing,understandingandthensayingawordwouldfollowadefinitepattern.Whenwelisten,thewordisheardandcomprehendedviaWernicke’sarea,thissignalisthen.\n.transferredtoBroca’sareawherepreparationsaremadetoproduceit.Asignalisthensenttothemotorareacontrollingthevocaltracttophysicallyarticulatetheword.Whenwespeak,wordsaredrawnfromWernicke’sareaandsenttoBroca’sareawhichdeterminesthedetailsoftheirformandpronunciation.Theappropriateinstructionsarethensenttothemotorarea.Chapter10LanguageAcquisition一、定义1.语言习得LanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisitionreferstothedevelopmentoftheChild’sacquisitionofhismothertongueorfirstlanguage,i.e.,howhecomestounderstandandtospeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.2.输入InputItreferstothelanguagewhichalearnerbearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.3.行为主义学习理论BehavioristlearningtheoryIt’satheoryofPsychologysuggeststhatthelearner’sverbalbehaviorisconditionedorreinforcedthroughassociationbetweenastimulusandresponsewhenappliedtofirstlanguageacquisition.源自心理学的理论—行为主义,它认为儿童的语言行为是与他们所受刺激和随之的反应成相互条件的。.\n.4.独词句Onewordholophrase/holophraseItreferstoasinglewordthatappearsinchildren’searlyspeechandfunctionsasacomplexideaorsentence.5.电报式言语TelegraphicspeechTelegraphicspeechbelongstoearlymultiwordphrase.Itreferstotheearlyspeechofchildren.It’ssocalledbecauseitlacksthesamesortsofwordswhichadultstypicallyleaveoutoftelegrams(suchasnon-substantivewordsandinflectionalmorphemes).也可以说成缺少inflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexicalcategories.6.语言迁移LanguagetransferItreferstothelearnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirknowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Transfercanbeeitherpositiveornegative.7.对比分析ContrastiveAnalysisItreferstoacomparativeprocedureusedtoestablishlinguisticdifferencesbetweentwolanguagessoastopredictlearningdifficultiescausedbyinterferencefromthelearner’sfirstlanguageandpreparethetypeofteachingmaterialsthatwillreducetheeffectsofinterference.8.错误分析ErrorAnalysis.\n.Anapproachtothestudyandanalysisoftheerrorsmadebythesecondlanguagelearnerswhichsuggeststhatmanylearnererrorsarenotduetothelearner’smothertongueinterferencebutreflectuniversallearningstrategiessuchasover-generalizationandsimplificationofrules.一种研究和分析第二语言学习者所犯错误的方法.它指出语言学习者所犯的许多错误不是母语干扰所致而是体现了一些普遍的学习策略.如概括过度和规则简化。9.语际语InterlanguageTheapproximatelanguagesystemthatasecondlanguagelearnerconstructswhichrepresentshisorhertransitionalcompetenceinthetargetlanguage.第二语言学习这在学习过程中所构建的近乎目标语的语言体系，它体现了学习者在目标学习的过渡性语言能力。10.语言僵化FossilizationAprocessthatsometimesoccursinsecondlanguagelearninginwhichincorrectlinguisticfeatures(suchastheaccentofagrammaticalpattern)becomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesinthetargetlanguage.11.工具性学习动机InstrumentalmotivationThelearner’sdesiretolearnasecondlanguagebecauseitsusefulforsomefunctional,‘instrumental’goals,suchas.\n.gettingajob,passinganexamination,orreadingforinformation.12.介入性学习动机IntegrativemotivationThelearner’sdesiretolearnasecondlanguageinordertocommunicatewithnativespeakersofthetargetlanguage.为了与人交流。13.文化适应AcculturationAprocessofadaptingtothecultureandvaluesystemofthesecondlanguagecommunity.14.干扰InterferenceTheeffectofone’sfirstlanguageknowledgeonthelearningofasecondlanguage.15.国际语法UniversalGrammarThedifferentlanguageshaveasimilarlevelofcomplexityanddetail,andreflectgeneralabstractpropertiesofthecommonlinguisticsystem.16.第一语言的习得the1stlanguageacquisitionThedevelopmentofafirstornativelanguageiscalledthe1stlanguageacquisition.17.It’snormallyassumedthat,bytheageoffive,withanopeningvocabularyofmorethan2，000words,children.\n.havecompletedthegreaterpartofthelanguageacquisitionprocess.18.语法系统发展语音Phonology句法Syntax形态Morphology词汇和语义VocabularyandSemantics19.Theemergencyofarticulatoryskillsbeginsaroundtheagewhenchildrenstarttoproducebabblingsounds.20.Researchersareparticularlyinterestedintheincreasingcomplexityofnegativesentencesinchildlanguagedevelopment.Theyhavefoundthatcorrectionandreinforcementarenotkeyfactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment.21.SLAisprimarilythestudyofhowlearnersacquiresorlearnanadditionallanguageaftertheyhaveacquiredtheirfirstlanguage.22.美国的StephensonKrashen区分了Acquisition和LearningHesaidAcquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.Learning,itisdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.27.Althoughit’sfoundthatformalinstructionhardlyaffectsthenaturalrouteofSLA,itdoesprovideopportunities.\n.toreceivecomprehensibleinput,andinsodoingenablestheclassroomlearnertoperformawiderrangeoflinguistictasksthanthenaturalisticlearnerandtherebyacceleratestherateofacquisition.尽管正规教学几乎不能影响第二语言习得的自然轨道，但却能为学习者提供接受可理解的输入信息的机会，这样做是课堂学习者比自然学习者所进行的第二语言学习得面要广一些，从而加速其习得过程。三、问答题1.WhatarethemajorindividualfactorsforSLA?Theacquisitionofasecondlanguageisdependentonacombinationoffactors.TherateandultimatesuccessinSLAarealsoaffectedbyindividuallearnerfactors.(1)Theearlyyearsofone’slifebeforepuberty;(2)Theymusthavestrongmotivation,instrumentalorintegrative;(3)TheextenttowhichlearnersdifferintheprocessofadaptingtothenewcultureoftheL2community,thatis,acculturation.(4)Learner’spersonality.2.Differenttheoriesofchildlanguageacquisitionhavebeenadvanced;discusstwocontrastingviewswithreferenceto.\n.thebehavioristlearningmodelandthenativistbiologicalmodel.论述行为主义学习理论和生物先天论这两种相对立的观点。TheBehavioristview:languageacquisitionisaprocessofhabitformation.Languageislearnedthroughstimulusandresponse.Reinforcementofselectedresponsesisthekeytounderstandinglanguagedevelopment.Childrenlearntoproducecorrectsentencesbecausetheyarepositivelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingrightandnegativelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingwrong.语言习得是一个习惯培养的过程。语言是通过刺激与反应学习的。对有选择的反应的强化是理解语言发展的关键。儿童学会正确的使用语言，是因为他们正确的言语是得到积极强化而错误的言语得到消极强化。TheNativistview:languageacquisitionisthespecies-specificpropertyofhumanbeings,childrenarebornwithaninnateabilitytoacquirelanguage.Theyarepredisposedtodeveloptheirnativelanguagealongauniversal,predeterminedroutethroughsimilarstages.Theygoaboutacquiringthegrammaroftheirnativelanguageusingprinciplesuniquetolanguageacquisition.语言习得是人类特有的特性。儿童生来就具有天生的学习语言的能力，他们生来就具有习得.\n.本族语的能力，其习得过程沿着一条普遍、自然的轨道，并经历相似的阶段。他们使用语言习得的特有天赋习得本族语的语法。3.Discussonemajorfactorwhichcontributestothedifficultiesmostsecondlanguagelearnersencounter.论述导致大多数第二语言学习者学习困难的一个主要因素。IthasbeensuggestedbysomeSLAscholarsthatlearningdifficultiesconfrontingadultL2learnersarisefromthefactthatformostpeople,asecondlanguageislearnedinaformalsetting,ratherthanacquiredinanaturalenvironment.Languageacquisitioniscontrastedwithlanguagelearningonthegroundthatacquisitionissubconscious,focusingonmeaning,whichlearningisconscious,focusingonform.Itsarguedthatconsciousknowledgeoflinguisticformsdoesnotensureacquisitionoftherules,thatis,doesnotensureanimmediateguidanceforactualperformance.习得是无意识的，注重的是意义；学习是由意识的，注重的是形式。4.Enumeratesomecausesthatleadtothesystematicoccurrenceoferrorsinsecondlanguageacquisition.列举第二语言习得中出现系统性错误的一些原因Somemajorcausesthatleadtothesystematicoccurrenceoferrorsinsecondlanguageacquisitioninclude.\n.(1)Interferencefromthemothertongue;母语干扰Mothertongueinterferenceisfoundatthelevelofpronunciation,morphology,syntax,vocabularyandmeaning,andcanbepredicatedbycontrastingthegrammaticalorothersystemsofthenativeandtargetlanguages.(2)Interlingualinterferencewithinthetargetlanguage;目标语的语际语干扰Interlingualinterference，orcross-association,occurswhenthelearnermixesrulesandpatternsofthetargetlanguageandproducehybridstructures.(3)overgeneralization.过度概括Theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations,i.e.theapplicationofaparticularpatternorruleofthetargetlanguageinmanyotherlinguisticsituations5.NegativetransferNegativetransferoccurswhenthefirstlanguagepatternisdifferentfromthecounterpartpatternofthetargetlanguage.It’scommonlyknownasinterferencebecauseitwouldleadtodifficultiesorerrorsinsecondlanguagelearning.6.Linguisticdeterminism语言判定Itreferstothefactthatallhigherlevelsofthinkingaredependentonlanguage,toputitmorebluntly,languagedeterminesthought..\n.7.Historicalandcomparativelinguistics历史和比较语言学It’sastudyofongoingchangesthatlanguageshaveundergone.It’shistoricalbecauseitdealswiththehistoricaldevelopmentofindividuallanguages.It’scomparativeinthesensethatitaimsatdevelopingandelucidatingthegeneticrelationshipsthatexistbetweenandamonglanguages,classifyingrelatedlanguagesintolanguagefamiliesandreconstructingtheirancestrallanguages.8.正向转移PositivetransferPresumably,positivetransferoccurswhenafirstlanguagepatternisidenticalwith,orsimilarto,atargetlanguage.例如,FrenchpeoplefindnodifficultyinlearningtheEnglishword“table”becauseithasthesamemeaningastheFrenchword“table”.9.Negativetransfer反向转移NegativetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisdifferentfromthecounterpartpatternofthetargetlanguage.二、问答题1.Whatfeaturesoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?.\n.Languageisarule-governedsystem.Languageisbasicallyvocal.Languageisarbitrary.Languageisusedforhumancommunication.2.What’sBroca’sareaandwhatwillhappenifanydamageisinflicteduponit?⑴In1861,aFrenchsurgeonandanatomistPaulBrocadiscoveredthatsomewhereinthefrontallobeintheleftcerebralhemispherehadsomethingtodowithspeechdifficulty.ThisplaceisknownasBroca’sarea.⑵Anydamagetositesintheleftcerebralhemispherewillresultinapatient’slanguagedisorder,whereasdestructionofcorrespondingsitesintherighthemisphereleaveslinguisticcapacitiesintact.⑶Thereforeifanydamageisinflicteduponthisarea,itwillresultinwordfindingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.3.What’thedifferencebetweentheinstrumentalmotivationandtheintegrativemotivationofthelearner’s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？⑴Usually,adultsaremotivatedtolearnasecondlanguagebecauseofacommunicativeneed,theymaylearnasecond.\n.languageinordertouseitfunctionallywhentheyintendtouseitasaninstrumentforthepurpose.⑵incertainsituationsanintegrativemotivationmaybemorepowerfulinfacilitationsmaycountformore.⑶whenthetargetlanguagefunctionsasaforeignlanguage,thelearnerislikelytobenefitfromanintegrativemotivation;⑷butwhenthetargetlanguagefunctionsasasecondlanguage,aninstrumentalmotivationismoreeffective.4.Twofunctionsoflanguage?语言的两种功能Twomajorfunctionsareinterpersonalandintrapersonalcommunication.人际交流和自我交流⑴Languagefunctionsasameansofinterpersonalcommunicationwhenlanguageusersuseittoconveyinformation,thoughtsandfeelingsfromonepersontoanotherortocontroleachother’sbehavior.⑵Itfunctionsasameansofintrapersonalcommunicationwhenitisusedasameansoffacilitatethinking,speechbehaviorandactionfortheindividual..