普通语言学(红皮书) 知识点 普通语言学教学课件 88页

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eworkinwhichaparticularlanguagecanbeanalyzedanddescribed.ii.Ontheotherhand,thedescriptionsofparticularlanguages,inturn,supplyempiricalevidencewhichmayconfirmorrefutethemodel(s)putforwardbygenerallinguists.Thus,generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguisticsarecomplementarytoeachother.3)Englishlinguisticsisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.Itdealswithaparticularlanguage---English,forthepurposeofconstructingamodeltorepresenttheunconsciouslinguisticknowledgepossessedbyafluentEnglishspeaker.Actuallythestudyofanyparticularlanguageisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.2.Thenatureoflanguage(s)Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbols,whichiscreative,double-structuredandchangeable.\n1)Languageisasystem.i.Everylanguageconsistsofasetofrules,includingphonologicalrules,morphologicalrules,syntacticrules,semanticrules,grammaticalrules,andsoon.Theserulesunderliepeople'sactualspeechorwriting.ii.IndeSaussure's（索绪尔）term,thesystemoflanguageiscalledlangue（语言体系）andthespeaker'sspeechiscalledparole(言语).iii.AccordingtoChomsky（乔姆斯基）,competence（语言知识）is"thespeaker-hearer'sknowledgeofhislanguage"，whileperformance（言语行为）is"theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations".iv.Langueorcompetenceisabstractandnotdirectlyobserved,whileparoleorperformanceisconcreteanddirectlyobservable.Ithastotakeinadefinitetimeandplace,andinaparticularsituation.2)Languageissymbolic.i.Whatisasymbol?Howmanypartsdoesasymbolconsistof?Asymbolisessentiallymadeupoftwoparts:aconcreteobjectorform,andthemeaningortheideathatitconveys.ii.Thereareafewwordswhichcannotbeclassifiedassymbolssuchasthe,a,an,etc.3)Languageisasystemofvocalsymbols.i.Twotypes:visualsymbols,auditorysymbolsii.Notallsoundsproducedbyhumanspeechorgansarelinguisticsymbols.Forexample,sneezes,coughsandsoonusuallydonothavesymbolicvalue.iii.Languageisprimarilyspeech,andnotthewrittenform.Threereasons:A.Biologicallyspeaking,childrenbegintolearntospeakmuchearlierthantolearntoreadandwrite.B.Functionallyspeaking,thespokenformisusedmorefrequently\nthanthewrittenforminourdailylife.C.Historicallyspeaking,allhumanlanguageswerespokenbeforetheywerewrittenandtherearestillmanylanguagesintheworldtodaywhichhavenotbeenwrittendown.4)Languageisarbitrary.i.Therelationshipbetweenthesoundsandtheirmeaningisarbitrary.ii.Bysayinglanguageisarbitrary,wemeanthatwecannotgiveareasonwhyacertainlinguisticformshouldrepresentacertainmeaningandwhyacertainmeaningshouldberepresentedbyacertainform.iii.Itdoesnotimplythatanyindividualspeakerhasthefreedomtodeterminethepronunciationofaword.5)Languageiscreative.i.Everylanguagecontainsaninfinitenumberofsentences,which,however,aregeneratedbyasmallsetofrulesandafinitesetofwords.ii.Thelengthofasentencehasnolimitintheory.6)Languageisdouble-structured.Twolevels:grammatically---meaningfulandsound---meaningless7)Languageischangeable.Languagehaschangesinthreesystems:soundsystem,lexicalsystemandgrammaticalsystem.3.Scientificmethod3.0Definition:Generallyspeaking,ascientificmethodistheprocedureadoptedbyscientistsinconductingtheirinvestigationandestablishingtheirconclusion.\n3.1ScientificmethodingeneralFourstages:collectingdata,formingahypothesis,testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions3.2ScientificmethodinlinguisticsFourstages:gatherdata,constructatentativerule,examinethetentativerule,finalizetheruleAnimportantprinciple---objectivity3.2.1ObjectivityThreecommonlinguisticbiasesA.Somelanguagesareprimitiveandsomelanguagesareadvanced.B.Onlythestandardvarietyisthepureformofalanguage.C.Changeisnotnaturalforlivinglanguagesandsuchachangeisasignofcorruptionanddecay.3.2.2SourcesofdataA.Collectingdataistheinitialworkforanylinguisticdescription.B.Ifthelinguistdescribesalanguagethathedoesnotknowhimself,hemayfindasuitablenativespeakerofthatlanguageashisinformant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），whoisusuallyabilingual.3.2.3RulesconstructionA.Theessentialtaskoflinguisticdescriptionistoconstructruleswhichmayaccountforanativespeaker'simplicitknowledgeaboutthelanguage.B.Howdoesalinguistconstructarule?\nStep1:thelinguiststartswithcollectingdata.Step2:basedonthedatacollected,hemayconstructaverysimpleruleasatentativeversion.Step3:thenheexaminesthetentativeruleagainstfurtherdata.Iftheadditionaldatadonotagreewithit,hehastomodifyit.Step4:hekeepsontestingtheruleand,accordingly,revisingtheruleuntiltherulecanaccountforalltherelevantdatacollected.Attention:verylikely,thedatagatheredarenotcomplete.Thus,theruleformedisopentofurthermodifications.4.Thegoaloflinguistics4.0Definition:thegoaloflinguisticsistoestablishamodelofanativespeaker'scompetence.4.1Modeli.Therearetwokindsofmodels:A.aphysicalorliteralmodel---itcanbeusedtoinvestigatethefunctionandconstructionoftherealobject.B.aconceptualortheoreticalmodel---itcanbeusedtoexaminesomethingunobservablesuchasthenatureofeconomy.Whichtypedoesamodelofthecompetenceofanativespeakerbelongto?---Thelatter.ii.Twofeaturesofanadequatemodelofcompetence:explicitness（明确性）andgenerativeness（生成性）A.Bysayingamodelisexplicit,wemeanthattherulesofthelanguagethemodelcontainsareclearlydefined.\nB.Bysayingamodelisgenerative,wemeanthatwecanuseafinitesetofrulestogenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences.4.2CompetenceAnativespeakerhasfourtypesoflinguisticknowledge:phonologicalknowledge（音位知识）,morphologicalknowledge（词法知识）,syntacticknowledge（句法知识）andsemanticknowledge（语义知识）i.Phonologicalknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofhislanguage.ii.Morphologicalknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionabouthowawordisformed.iii.Syntacticknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot.iv.Semanticknowledgeisanativespeaker'sintuitionaboutthemeaningoflanguage.5.Sub-branchesoflinguistics1)Phonetics（语音学）isthestudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.Itdealswithquestionslikehowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived,howEnglishsoundsareclassifiedanddescribed.2)Phonology（音系学）isthesciencethatdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguage.3)Morphology（词法、形态学）dealswithwordformationandtheinternalstructureofwords.4)Syntax（句法）isconcernedwithhowwordsarecombinedtoformphrasesandhowphrasesarecombinedbyrulestoformsentences.5)Semantics（语义学）isthestudyofthemeaningofwordsandsentences6.Saussure:TheFatherofModernLinguistics\n1)Whendidmodernlinguisticsstart?---Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury.2)Whatarethemostinfluentialschoolsofmodernlinguistics?---Structurallinguistics（结构语言学）andTransformational-generativeGrammar(TGGrammar)（转换生成语法）3)Whoiscommonlyacknowledgedasthefatherofmodernlinguistics?---FerdinanddeSaussure4)Whyisheregardedasthefounderofmodernlinguistics?Answer:1。TheobviousreasonisthatthebookunderhisnameACourseinGeneralLinguistics（《普通语言学教程》）isthefirstrealessayonlinguistictheory.2。Inthisbook,quiteafewtheoreticaldistinctionsintroducedhavebecomefoundationsoflinguisticstudyandexertedgreatinfluenceonthelaterdevelopmentoflinguistics.3．Chiefamongthemarethedistinctionsbetweensynchronicanddiachronic,syntagmaticandparadigmatic,langueandparole.5)Explainthefollowingpairsofterms:(1)synchronicstudy（共时研究）anddiachronicstudy（历时研究）A.Thesynchronic(ordescriptive)studyofalanguageisconcernedwitha"state"ofalanguageataparticularpointoftime.B.Thediachronicstudyofalanguageisconcernedwiththehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguage(orlanguages)throughtime.(2)Syntaghmaticrelation（横向关系）andparadigmaticrelation（纵向关系）A.Asyntaghmaticrelationreferstothesequentialcharacteristicofspeech.Itisthelinearorderingoflinguisticelementswithinasentence.B.Aparadigmaticrelationisarelationbetweenalinguisticelementinanutteranceandlinguisticelementsoutsidethatutterance.\n(3)langueandparoleA.Languereferstotheabstractsystemofalanguage.Itisnotdirectlyobservable.B.Parolereferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginadefinitetime,placeandsituation.C.Langueunderliesparoleandparole,inturn,isamanifestationoflangue.D.Saussurefurtherclaimedthatlinguisticsshouldinvestigatetheabstractsystemofalanguageratherthanconcreteactsofspeaking.LinguisticsChapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticslWhatislanguage?nDifferentdefinitionsoflanguageuLanguageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)u[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)uLanguageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.nEachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.nAsisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.lFeaturesofhumanlanguageCreativityuLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.\nuThegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.nDualityuLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.uCertainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.uCertainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.nArbitrarinessuTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.uThereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.nDisplacementuThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.uLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.nCulturaltransmissionuCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.uLanguageisawayoftransmittingculture.nInterchangeabilityuAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.nReflexivityuHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.uThelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.\nlFunctionsoflanguage–threemeta-functionsnTheideationalfunctionuToidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.nTheinterpersonalfunctionuTogetalonginacommunity.nThetextualfunctionuToformatext.lTypesoflanguagenGeneticclassificationnTypologicalclassificationuAnalyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnameseuSyntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGermanuAgglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkishlThemythoflanguage–languageoriginnTheBiblicalaccountuLanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.nThebow-wowtheoryuLanguagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.nThepooh-poohtheory\nuLanguagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.nTheyo-he-hotheoryuLanguagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.nTheevolutiontheoryuLanguageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.lWhatislinguistics?nLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.uObserving&questioninguFormulatinghypothesesuVerifyingthehypothesesuProposingatheorynBranchesoflinguisticsuInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionslPhoneticslPhonologylMorphologylSyntaxlSemanticsuExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionslPragmaticslPsycholinguisticslSociolinguisticslAppliedlinguisticslComputationallinguisticslNeurolinguisticsnFeaturesoflinguisticsuDescriptiveu\nChapterTwoPhonetics0.Introduction0.1Definition:Phoneticsstudiesspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.EnglishphoneticsdealswithallsoundsavailableintheEnglishlanguage.0.2Threesub-branches:A.Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）isconcernedwithhowasoundisproducedbythevocalorgans.B.Acousticphonetics（声学语音学）dealswithhowasoundistransmittedfromthespeaker'smouthtothelistener'sears.C.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）investigateshowasoundisperceivedbythelistener.Thesesub-branchesarerelatedtotheproduction,transmissionandreceptionofasoundrespectively.1.Thespeechorgans(articulators)i.发音器官名称：(1)lips（唇）（theupperlipandthelowerlip),(2)teeth(齿)（theupperteethandthelowerteeth）,(3)teeth-ridge/alveolarridge(齿龈)，(4)hardpalate(硬腭)，(5)softpalate/velum（软腭），(6)uvula（小舌），(7)tipoftongue（舌尖），(8)bladeoftongue（舌面），(9)backoftongue（舌根），(10)pharynx(咽)，(11)epiglottis（会厌），(12)foodpassage(食道)，(13)vocalcords(声带)ii.Whatisvocaltract?Thespeechorgansabovethelarynx（喉）formthevocaltract（发音系统).iii.Whatarethetwopartsofthevocaltract?oralcavity（口腔），nasalcavity（鼻腔）2.Consonantsandvowels2.0ConceptsA.Whatisaconsonant?\nAconsonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairstreamfromthelungsiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblockedorwheretheopeningissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.Examples:[p],[b],[l],[f],[v]B.Whatisavowel?Avowelisaspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayinthemouthorthroat,andwhichispronouncedwithvibrationofthevocalcords.2.1TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetA.IsthespellingofwordsareliablemeanstodescribeEnglishsounds?Whyorwhynot?Answer:No.Becausesometimesasinglelettermayrepresentdifferentsounds.Forexample,theletterarepresentsfivedifferentvowelsinthewordsbelow:Cat，hate，father，wall，sofaSometimes,differentlettersorcombinationsoflettersmayrepresentasinglesound.Forexample,thebold-facedlettersarepronouncedasasinglevowelinthefollowingwords:Feet，meat，seize，piece，key，weThus,wecannotdependonthespellingofwordstodescribethesoundsofEnglish.B.Whatmeanscanbeusedforthispurpose?Answer:In1889,theInternationalPhoneticAssociationdevelopedtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.Itisasystemofsymbolswhichcanrepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.Theadvantageofthissystemisthatwithinthesystem,onesymbolrepresentsonesoundandeverysymbolhasaconsistentvalue.\nC.HowmanysymbolsintheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetstandforconsonantsandhowmanyforvowels?Answer:Accordingtotherevisedformin1972,therearealtogether72symbolsforconsonantsand25forvowels.2.2DescribingtheEnglishConsonantsTheEnglishconsonantsaredescribedaccordingtofourdimensionswhichinclude:A.thepositionofthesoftpalateB.thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibrationC.theplaceofarticulationD.themannerofarticulation(1)Thepositionofthesoftpalate（参见课本33页图）：Accordingtothepositionofthesoftpalate,theEnglishconsonantscanbedividedintotwogroups:oralsounds,nasalsounds.Whenthesoftpalateisraisedagainstthebackofthethroat,thenasalpassageisblockedandtheairflowisforcedtogoentirelythroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledoralsounds.Whenthesoftpalateislowered,thenasalpassageisopenandtheairflowcangothroughthenoseaswellasthemouth.Suchsoundsarecallednasalsounds.(2)Thepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibrationi.Wherearevocalcords?Vocalcordsareinsidethelarynx(喉).ii.Whatisglottis?Thespacebetweenthevocalcordsiscalledtheglottis.\niii.Howareconsonantsclassifiedaccordingtothepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibration?Theyareclassifiedintovoicelesssoundsandvoicedsounds.A.Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairstreamisnotblockedattheglottisanditpassesfreelyintothevocaltractwithoutvocal-cordvibration.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledvoicelesssounds.B.Whenthevocalcordsarenearlytouchingeachotherbutnotcompletelyclosed,theairstreampassingthroughtheglottishastocausevibration.Thesoundsmadeinthiswayarecalledvoicedsounds.(3)Placeofarticulationi.Definition:Thelocation,insidethemouth,atwhichthecontacttakesplace,iscalledtheplaceofarticulation.ii.Classification（参见课本39页表格）：1)bilabials(双唇音):Thesoundsmadebybothlipsarecalledbilabials.4bilabials:[p][b][m][w]2)labiodentals(唇齿音):Thesoundsproducedbythecontactbetweentheupperteethandlowerliparecalledlabiodentals.2labiodentals:[f][v]3)dentals(interdentals)(舌齿音):thesoundsmadewiththetipofthetonguebehindtheupperfrontteethorwiththetonguetipbetweentheupperandlowerteetharecalleddentals.2dentals:[W][T]4)alveolars(齿龈音):Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthetiporthebladeofthetonguetothealveolarridgearecalledalveolars.\n6alveolars:[s][z][t][d][l][n]5)post-alveolars(齿龈后音):Thesoundsformedbybringingthetipofthetonguetotherearpartofthealveolarridgearecalledpost-alveolars.3post-alveolars:[r][tr][dr]6)alveo-palatals(齿龈硬腭音):Thesoundsproducedwiththetongueattheveryfrontofthehardpalate,nearthealveolarridge,arecalledalveo-palatals.4alveo-palatals:[F][V][tF][dV]7)palatals(硬腭音):Thesoundsmadebybringingthefrontofthetonguetothehardpalatearecalledpalatals.3palatals:[j][c][J]8)velars(软腭音):Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthebackofthetonguetothesoftpalatearecalledvelars.3velars:[^][k][g]9)glottals(声门音):Thesearesoundsthatareproducedwithouttheactiveuseofthetongueandotherpartsofthemouth.Thereareglottals.Oneis[h].Itisproducedwhenthevocalcordsarehalf-openandtheairstreamgoesthroughtheglottiswithfriction.Theotheris[?].Itismadewhenthevocalcordsaretightlyclosedverybrieflyandthenreleased.2glottals:[h][?]inwritten[`ri?n](4)Mannerofarticulation（参见课本39页表格）：Accordingtomannerofarticulation,consonantsaredividedintofivegroups:stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,glides.\n1)stops(闭止音)(包括plosives爆破音，nasals鼻腔音)：threestages:A.closurestage-thearticulatorscomeintocontactwitheachothertoformacompleteclosure.B.holdstage-theairpressurebuildsupbehindtheclosure.C.releasestage-thearticulatorsaresuddenlyseparatedandtheairstreamgoesoutwithaplosion.6plosives:[p][b][t][d][k][g]3nasals:[m][n][9]2)fricatives(摩擦音):Theyaresoundsthatareproducedbybringingtwoarticulatorsveryclosewithoutacompleteclosuresothattheairstreammovesbetweenthemwithaudiblefriction.9fricatives:[f][v][W][T][s][z][F][V][h]3)affricates(破擦音):Sometimestwoarticulatorsarebroughttogethertoformacompleteclosurebutnotfollowedbyasuddenreleaselikeastop,ratherbyaslowreleasewithaudiblefriction.Soundsproducedinthiswayarecalledaffricates.4affricates:[tr][dr][tF][dV]4)liquids(流音):Liquidsareproducedwithsomeobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouthbutnotenoughtocausefriction.[l]isalateralliquid.[r]isacentralliquid.\n5)glides(滑音、延音):Glidesareproducedwhentwoarticulatorsareclosetoeachother,butnotclosetosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamiscreated.Theyaretraditionallycalledsemi-vowels.2glides:[j][w]2.3DescribingtheEnglishvowels(1)VelumstateAccordingtothestateofthevelum,vowelsareclassifiedintotwogroups:oralvowelsandnasalvowels.Vowelscanalsobeproducedwitharaisedvelumoraloweredvelum.Whenthevelumisloweredtopermittheairstreamtoflowthroughthemouthaswellasthenose,nasalvowelsaremade.InEnglish,nasalvowelsoccuronlybeforenasalconsonants,andoralvowelsbeforeoralconsonantsorattheendofwords.(2)Tongueposition（参见课本40页图表）：Itiscustomarytodescribethetonguepositionintermsoftwodimensions:firstly,verticaldistancebetweentheuppersurfaceofthetongueandthepalate;secondly,thepartofthetongue,betweenfrontandback,whichisraisedhighest.Simplyspeaking,thepositionofthetongueisdescribedashigh-mid-lowtoindicatethedegreeoftheheighttowhichthetongueisraised,andasfront-central-backtospecifythepartofthetonguewhichisinvolved.(3)LiproundingIntermsoftheshapeofthelips,Englishvowelsareclassifiedintoroundedvowels（圆唇元音）andunroundedvowels(不圆唇元音).InEnglish,allthebackvowelsexcept[a:]areroundedvowels.\n(4)Diphthongs（双元音），purevowels/simplevowels/monophthongs（单元音）Definition:Diphthongsarevowelsthatconsistofamovementorglidefromonevoweltoanother.Classification:InEnglish,thereare8diphthongs.Thecenteringdiphthongsaremadebyaglidetowardsacentralvowel[E].Theclosingdiphthongsareproducedbyamovementfromarelativelylowervoweltoahighervowel.参见课本42页图表。(5)Triphthongs（三合元音）Definition:Triphthongsareproducedbyaglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathirdonerapidlyandcontinuously.InEnglish,thereare5triphthongs.Somelinguistsdescribethemasconsistingofaclosingdiphthong+[E].3.PhoneticfeaturesDefinitionoffeaturespecification:aphoneticfeaturetogetherwithitsvalue（音值）iscalledafeaturespecification.1)ThemostcommonfeaturesusedforEnglishconsonants:[nasal]（鼻音的），[voiced]（浊音的），[consonantal]（辅音的），[vocalic]（元音的），[continuant]（连续音的），[anterior]（前部音的），[coronal]（舌面音的）and[aspirated]（送气音的）Forexample:               [p][v][t][z][tr][k][m][n][h][r][l][w][j][nasal][voiced][consonantal]\n[vocalic][continuant][anterior][coronal][aspirated]2)ThemostcommonfeaturesusedforEnglishvowels:[high],[low],[front],[back],[rounded],[tense]（紧元音的）Forexample:         [i:][e][u:][a:][high][low][front][back][rounded][tense]3)Whatiscalledalaxvowel?Avowelmarkedwith[-tense]iscalledalaxvowel.Exercises1.Whathumanorgansabovethelarynxareinvolvedinsoundproduction?\nKEY:Thehumanorgansabovethelarynxthatareinvolvedinsoundproductionarethefollowing:2.Whatisaconsonantandwhatisavowel?KEY:Aconsonantisaspeechsound.Itisproducedwhentheairstreamfromthelungsiseithercompletelyblocked,partiallyblockedortheopeningissonarrowthattheairescapeswithanaudiblefriction.Avowelisalsoaspeechsound.Itisformedwhentheairstreamfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayinthemouthorthroat,anditisusuallypronouncedwithvibrationofthevocalcords.3.WhydoweneedtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabettodescribeEnglishsounds?KEY:ThereasonisthatthespellingofEnglishwordsisnotareliablemeanstorecordthesounds.Sometimesasinglelettermayrepresentdifferentsounds,e.g.theletterorepresentsdifferentvowelsinthefollowingwords:potsolewomenoccasioncomewolfmoveSometimesdifferentlettersorcombinationsoflettersmayrepresentasinglesound,e.g.thebold-facedlettersarepronouncedasasinglevowelinthewordsbelow:horsesawboughttalkdoorfourbefore\nButtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetcanrecordthesoundsaccuratelyandpreciselybecauseinthissystem.,onesymbolrepresentsonlyonesoundandonesoundisrepresentedbyonlyonesymbol.4.HowdoweclassifyEnglishconsonantsandvowelsinatraditionalway?KEY:Traditionally,Englishconsonantsareclassifiedaccordingtofourdimensions:(1)thepositionofthesoftpalate;(2)thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration;(3)theplaceofarticulation;(4)themannerofarticulation.Dependingonwhetherthevelumisraisedorlowered,theEnglishconsonantsareeitheroralsornasals.Accordingtothepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration,theyareeithervoicedorvoiceless.Intermsoftheplaceofarticulation,theyareclassifiedasbilabials,labiodentals,interdentals,alvelars,post-alveolars,alveo-palatals,palatals,velarsandglottals.Accordingtothemannerofarticulation,theyaregroupedintoplosives,nasals,frictives,affricates,liquidsandglides.TheEnglishvowelsaretraditionallyclassifiedaccordingtothefollowingthreefactors:(1)thestateofthevelum;(2)thepositionofthetongue;(3)theshapeofthelips.Thevowelsareoraloneswhentheyareproducedwitharaisedvelum.Thevowelsarenasaloneswhentheyareproducedwithaloweredvelum.Theyareeither\nfront,centralorbackonesdependingonwhatpartofthetongueisraisedtowardsthepalate.Theyareeitherhigh,midorlowonesaccordingtotheheighttowhichthetongueisraised.Theyareeitherroundedorunroundeddependingontheshapeofthelips.5.HowdowedescribeandclassifyEnglishsoundsintermsoffeaturespecifications?KEY:WhenanEnglishsoundisdescribedasasetoffeaturespecifications,itisspecifiedbyalistofphoneticfeatures.Eachfeatureismarkedwithtwovalues:eitherplus(+)orminus(-),e.g.[n]isspecifiedas[+consonantal][-vocalic][+nasal][+voiced][+anterior][+coronal][-aspirated];[i]as[+high][-low][+front][-back][-rounded][-tense].Thesoundswhichshareoneormorefeaturespecificationsbelongtothesameclass.e.g.[p][b][f][v]areconsonantsbecausetheyareallmarkedwiththefeaturespecification[+consonant].6.Describetheconsonantsintheword"smiled"usingthechartbelow.(Fillinallfourcolumns)KEY:7.Describethevowelsintheword"handicap"usingthechartbelow.(Fillinallfourcolumns)KEY:\n8.Describetheconsonantsandvowelsyouhavelearned,usingthechartsin(6)and(7).9.Writethesymbolthatcorrespondstotheeachofthefollowingphoneticdescriptions;thengiveanexampleofanEnglishwordbeginningwiththesoundconcerned.(1)voicelessvelarplosiveKEY:(1)[k]car(2)lowbackunroundedtensevowelKEY:(2)[a:]ask(3)alveolarlateralliquidKEY:(3)[l]let(4)highbackroundedtensevowelKEY:(4)[u:]ooze(5)bilabialnasalKEY:(5)[m]met(6)highfrontunroundedlaxvowelKEY:(6)[i]in(7)voicedinterdentalfricativeKEY:(7)[T]this(8)palatalglideKEY:(8)[j]yesterday10.Listentothesoundsofthewords,andbecarefulnottobeconfusedbyspellings.\nKEY:KEY:KEY:\nKEY:KEY:11.Whatcommonfeaturespecificationsdotheinitialsoundsofthewordsineachgroupshare?KEY:12.MatchthefinalsoundsofthefollowingwordsunderColumnAwithoneormorefeaturespecificationsfromColumnB:(1)withKEY:(1)[+voiced][+anterior][-nasal][+coronal][+consonantal][-vocalic](2)witKEY:(2)[-voiced][+anterior][-nasal][+coronal][+consonantal][-vocalic](3)whenKEY:(3)[-voiced][+anterior][+nasal][+coronal][+consonantal][-vocalic](4)wingKEY:(4)[+voiced][-anterior][+nasal][-coronal][+consonantal][-vocalic](5)car\nKEY:(5)[+voiced][-anterior][+back][-consonantal][+vocalic][-front][+tense](6)leaveKEY:(6)[+voiced][+anterior][-nasal][-coronal][-consonantal][+vocalic](7)missKEY:(7)[-voiced][+anterior][-nasal][+coronal][+consonantal][-vocalic](8)weKEY:(8)[+voiced][-back][-consonantal][+vocalic][+front][+tense]ChapterThreePhonology0.Introduction:i.WhatdoesEnglishphonetics（英语语音学）dealwith?EnglishphoneticsisconcernedwithallspeechsoundsthatoccurintheEnglishlanguage.Itstudieshowthesesoundsareproducedandhowtheyaredescribedandclassified.ii.WhatdoesEnglishphonology（英语音系学）dealwith?EnglishphonologyinvestigatesthesoundsystemofEnglish.DifferentfromEnglishphonetics,EnglishphonologyisnotinterestedintheactualproductionofEnglishsounds,butintheabstractaspects:A.thefunctionofsounds---whetherasoundcandifferentiatethemeaningsofwords.B.theirpatternsofcombination---howsoundsarecombinedtoformapermissiblesoundsequence1.Importantconceptsinphonology\n1.1PhonemesForexample:/pit//bit/Definition:aphoneme（音位）isdefinedasaminimaldistinctiveunitinthesoundsystemofalanguage.1.2MinimalpairsandsetsAminimalpair（最小对立体）shouldmeetthefollowingthreeconditions:i.theyaredifferentinmeaningii.theydifferonlyinonesoundsegmentiii.thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestringsJudgewhichofthefollowingareminimalpairs.1)/pet//bet/2)/fi:l//li:v/3)/sed//sit/4)/a:sk//Ask/5)biteboughtWhenagroupofwordsmeetalltheabovethreeconditions,theyarecalledaminimalset(最小对立集).1.3Phonemes,allophonesandphonesFirst,lookatsomeexamples:i.threeterms:\nA.Aphonemeisaminimaldistinctiveunitinthesoundssystemofalanguage.（音位用//表示。）B.Allophones（音位变体）aretherealizationsofaparticularphoneme.（音位变体用[]表示。）C.Phones（音子、单音）aretherealizationsofphonemesingeneral.（音子用[]表示。）ii.Whatisanunreleasedsound?Theproductionofastopusuallyconsistsofthreestages:closurestage,holdstageandreleasestage.Asoundproducedwithoutthelaststageiscalledanunreleasedsound.iii.Aphonemeisanabstractelementinthesoundsystemofalanguagewhileallophonesarevariantsofasingleabstractelement.2.Identifyingphonemes2.1Environmentanddistributioni.environment---Theenvironmentofasoundconsistsofwhatprecedesitandwhatfollowsit.Forexample:在[saiz]中，[ai]的环境可描述为[s-z]，[s]的环境可描述为[#-ai]，[z]的环境可描述为[ai-#]。ii.distribution---Thedistributionofasoundconsistsofallthepossibleenvironmentsinwhichthesoundinquestioncanoccur.Forexample:thedistributionofthesound[m]inEnglishcanbedescribedasA.initially:meet,miss,moreB.finally:home,some,farmC.intervocalically:swimming,army,enemy\nD.betweenavowelandaconsonant:simple,combine,lampE.betweenaconsonantandavowel:smile,smell,smart2.2Threetypesofdistributioni.ContrastivedistributionIftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaning,theyareincontrastivedistribution.ii.ComplementarydistributionIftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,thatis,eachsoundonlyappearsintheenvironmentswheretheothersoundneveroccurs,thentheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.iii.FreevariationIftwosoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundfortheotherdoesnotcauseachangeofmeaning,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.2.3Principlesandproceduresi.Threeprinciples:A.Thesoundsthatareincontrastivedistributionaredifferentphonemes;B.Thesoundsthatarealwaysinfreevariationareallophonesofthesamephoneme;C.Thesoundsthatareincomplementarydistributionandalsophoneticallysimilarareallophonesofthesamephoneme.ii.Procedures:Step1:Aretheyincontrastivedistribution?\nStep2:Aretheyalwaysinfreevariation?Step3:Aretheyincomplementarydistribution?Step4:Aretheyphoneticallysimilar?iii.Examples:Problem1AretheEnglishsounds[θ]and[T]differentphonemes?step1Question:Aretheyincontrastivedistribution?Answer:Yes,becausethereisaminimalpair:wreathandwreathe.Conclusion:[θ]and[T]aredifferentphonemes.Problem2Examinethedatabelowtodecidewhetheravelarplosive[k]andapalatalplosive[c]aredifferentphonemesornot.Problem3.Are[h]and[N]allophonesofthesamephoneme?\n3.Distinctivefeatures（区别性特征）1)Phonemesaremadeupofasetofsmallercomponents.Theyareanalyzableasasetofdistinctivefeatures.Theyarethefeaturesthatcancontrastwords.2)Ingeneral,asetofdistinctivefeaturesthatdefineandcharacterizeaphonemeismuchsmallerthanasetofphoneticfeaturesthatcharacterizesanyoneofitsallophones.3)Distinctivefeaturesareusedtodescribephonemes,whilephoneticfeaturesareusedtodescribetheirallophones.4)Anyfeaturewhichcanbepredictedfromtheotherfeaturesarecalledredundantfeaturesornondistinctivefeatures.4.Naturalclassesofsounds1)Allthephonemesinalanguagethatshareoneormoredistinctivefeaturearecalledanaturalclassofsounds.\n2)Oneoftheadvantagesofhavingtheterm"naturalclassesofsounds"isthatphonologicalrulesconstructedcanbeofhighergenerality.5.SequencesofphonemesAlllanguageshavesequentialconstraints.SomesimplesequentialconstraintsinEnglishareintroduced:(1)Nowordbeginswithmorethanthreeconsonantphonemesandnowordendswithmorethanfourconsonantphonemes.Inotherwords,aninitialconsonantclustercan.,atmost,containthreeconsonants,suchas:/splei/splay/sprei/spray/spju:/spew/stju:/stew/skri:n/screen/skwi:k/squeakandafinalconsonantclustercanatmosthavefourconsonants,suchas:/siksθs/sixths/twelfθs/twelfths(2)Allconsonantphonemes,except/N/,canoccurinitiallyandallconsonantphonemes,except/h,r,w,j/,canoccurfinally(Note:InAmericanEnglishandsomedialectsofBritishEnglish,/r/canoccurattheendofwords,suchasworker).Thus,wedonothavesoundcombinationslike*/Nti/*/fu:j/*/si:w/*/fih/*/ler/3)Iftheinitialsoundisanaffricate,thenextsoundmustbeavowel,suchas:butnot/dAVz/jazz/dp:iV/jeep/tFin/chin/tseF/chessbutnot*/dAlV/*/dp:irV/*/tlFin/*/tserF/4)Twoplosivescannotgotogetheratthebeginningofwords.Thatiswhy*/paA/and*/tpA/arenotpermittedinEnglish.\n5)Onlyshortvowels/i/,/A/,/Q/and/R/canprecedefinal/N/,suchas:/siN/sing/sAN/sang/rQN/wrung/sRN/song6)Shortvowels/e/,/A/,/Q/and/R/donotoccurefinally.SowedonothavethefollowingsoundsequencesinEnglish:*/fe/*/fA/*/fQ/*/fR/6.Suprasegmentalfeatures6.0Twotypesofdistinctivefeatures:i.segmentalfeatures（切分特征）---thedistinctivefeatureswhichcanonlyhaveaneffectononesoundsegmentarecalledsegmentalfeatures.ii.suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）---thedistinctivefeatureswhichcanaffectmorethanonesoundsegmentandcanalsocontrastmeaningarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Suprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandjuncture.6.1Stressi.Theplacementofstresscanbringaboutachangeofmeaninginaword.\nExamples:课本70页6.1单元第一段中间。ii.Stresscannotonlydifferentiatethemeaningofwordsbutalsocandistinguishthemeaningofphrasesandsentences.Examples:`bluebirdandblue`bird         `blackboardandblack`board         `WhiteHouseandwhite`house          Theyare`Englishteachers.andTheyareEnglish`teachersphonologyⅢ6.2Toneandintonationi.tonelanguages（声调语言）：Tonelanguagesarelanguagesthatusepitch（音高）tocontrastmeaningsatwordlevel.6.3Juncturei.Definition:Juncture（连音）referstothephoneticboundaryfeatureswhichmaymarkgrammaticalunitssuchaswordandclause.ii.Examples:\n7.Therulesofphonology7.1Phoneticandphonemictranscriptionsi.Ifweareinterestedinthephoneticunitsofaword,theresultingtranscriptionisphonetic.Phonetictranscriptionsincludeallthelinguisticallyrelevantfeaturesofsounds.ii.Ifweareinterestedinthedistinctivefeatures,theresultingtranscriptionisphonemic.Phonemictranscriptionsonlyrecorddistinctivequalitiesofsoundswhichcandifferentiatethemeaningsofwords.iii.Examples:（参见课本74页）7.2PhonologicalrulesThreekindsofinformationpresentedbyaphonologicalrule:i.theclassofsoundsaffectedbytheruleii.thephoneticchangesthataretooccuriii.thephonemicenvironmentinwhichthephoneticchangeswilltakeplace.Exercises\n15.(a)WhichoftheconsonantphonemesinEnglishnevercomesatthebeginningofaword?(b)Givetwoexamplesthatshowthisconsonant:(a)inthefinalpositionand(b)betweentwovowels.16.Whatconsonants,ifany,neveroccurattheendofaword?/h,r,w,j/neveroccurattheendofaword.(Note:/r/occursattheendofawordinAmericanEnglish.)17.Whatconsonantoccursinitiallybefore/pr/,/tr/or/kr/?Giveasamplewordforeachofthese./s/occursinitiallybefore/pr,tr,kr/.e.g.spring,streetandscream.18.Whatvowelsdonotoccurinitially?/u/and/u/donotoccurinitially.19.Whatphonemesusuallyfollowtheinitial/s/?20.Listfeaturesthatcandifferentiatethefollowingpairsofsounds:\n21.Explainthemeaningofthefollowingwordsorphrasesorsentenceswhenmarkedwithdifferentstressorwithdifferentintonation.15.GivethreeexamplestoshowthedistinctivefunctionofjunctureinEnglish.16.Changethefollowingphonemictranscriptionsintophonetictranscriptions:(a)/tip/(b)/bi:n/(c)/kis/(d)/wi:k/(e)/fel/(f)/'pCkit/\n17.Changethefollowingphonetictranscriptionsintophonemictranscriptions:18.Readthefollowinghypotheticalrulesinwords:(a)saysthathighvowelsaredevoicedwhentheyareprecededbyvoicelessplosivesandfollowedandfollowedbyvoicelessplosives.(b)saysthatnasalsandliquidsbecomedevoicedwhentheyareprecededbyvoicelessconsonants.(c)saysthatvoicedplosivesaredevoicedwhentheyoccurattheendofaword.ChapterFourMorphology0.Introductioni.InChapter1,wehavementionedthatallhumanlanguageshavethefeatureofdualityofstructure.Thatistosay,eachlanguagehastwolevels:thesound-meaninglesslevelandthegrammatically-meaningfullevel.ii.InChapters2and3,westudiedtwosub-branchesoflinguistics:phoneticsandphonology.Phoneticsdealswiththespeechsoundsavailableinalanguage.Butphonologyisconcernedwiththesoundsystemofalanguage.Althoughtheystudydifferentthings,theyworkatthesamelevel---thesound-meaninglesslevel.\niii.Fromnowon,weshallmovetothesecondlevel---thegrammatically-meaningfullevel.Thefollowingchaptersallworkatthislevel.iv.Whatdoesmorphologystudy?Itstudiesthesmallestmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystem.Thenwhatisthesmallestunitinthegrammaticalsystem?1.Morphemesi.Introduction:traditionally,wordswereregardedasminimalmeaningfulunitsatthegrammaticallevel,mainlybecausewordsinwrittenformareclearlyseparatedfromoneanotherbyspaces.Butisthatright?ii.Definition:Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.2.Classificationsofmorphemes2.0IntroductionMorphemescanbeclassifiedbothsemanticallyandstructurally.A.Semantically,morphemesaregroupedintogeneralcategories:rootmorphemesandaffixationalmorphemes:simplyspeaking,rootsandaffixes.B.Structurallyspeaking,theyfallintotwoclasses:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.2.1Roots,affixes,freemorphemesandboundmorphemesi.DefinitionofthetermsA.root---therootisthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.B.affix---affixesarelexicallydependentonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords.\nC.freemorphemes---freemorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesasindividualwords.D.boundmorphemes---boundmorphemesareneverfoundaloneaswords,butarealwaysjoinedwithothermorphemes.举例：disagree,meaningless,receiveii.Classificationoffreemorphemes:Freemorphemescanbefurtherdividedintotwosub-groups:A.lexicalmorphemes---Thelexicalmorphemesincludenouns,adjectives,adverbsandverbswhichcarrythecontentofthemessagesweconvey.B.functionalmorphemes---Thefunctionalmorphemesincludeconjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns.iii.InterrelationsbetweensemanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemesA.Allfreemorphemesareroots.B.Notallrootsarefreemorphemes.C.Allaffixesareboundmorphemes.D.Notallboundmorphemesareaffixes.\n2.2Prefixes,suffixesandinfixesAffixescanbefurtherclassifiedintermsoftheirpositionorintermsoftheirfunction.Alongthedimensionofposition,wemaydivideaffixesintothreegroups:i.prefixes---Theaffixesthatareplacedbeforerootsarecalledprefixes.ii.suffixes---Theaffixesthatareplacedafterrootsarecalledsuffixes.iii.infixes---Theaffixeswithinrootsarecalledinfixes.2.3InflectionalandderivationalaffixesAccordingtofunction,affixesareclassifiedintoinflectionalandderivationalaffixes.Differences:i.function:A.inflectionalaffixes（屈折变化形式词缀）1)markgrammaticalrelationssuchasnumber,gender,tense,aspect,caseanddegree2)nevercreatenewwords3)nevercauseachangeingrammaticalclassB.derivationalaffixes（派生词缀）1)createnewwords2)veryoftencauseachangeingrammaticalclass(butnotalways)ii.position:A.Inflectionalaffixesarealwayssuffixes;theyarealwaysafterderivationalaffixesifbotharepresentinthesameword.B.Derivationalaffixesareprefixesorsuffixes;theyalwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffixesifbotharepresentinthesameword.Question:Are-ingand-edinflectionalorderivationalaffixes?Answer:Botharepossible.\n3.Morphsandallomorphsi.Threephonologicalterms:A.Phonemesareminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguage.//B.Phonesaretherealizationsofphonemesingeneral.[]C.Allophonesaretherealizationsofaparticularphoneme.[]ii.Threemorphologicalterms:A.Morphemesareminimalmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.{}B.Morphs（语子、形素）aretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneral.//C.Allomorphs（词位变体）aretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.//iii.Examples:Themorpheme｛z｝mayberealizedbythreeallomorphs:/s/,/z/and/iz/.Themorpheme｛d｝mayberealizedbythreeallomorphs:/t/,/d/and/id/.Themorpheme｛haus｝mayberealizedbytwoallomorphs:/haus/and/hauz/.4.Identifyingmorphemes（鉴别词位）4.0Introductioni.Identifyingmorphemesgenerallyinvolvestwomajorstages:A.cuttingsoundsequencesintomorphs（把语音的序列划分为语子）B.groupingmorphsintomorphemes（把语子归类为词位）ii.Beforewemovetothequestionastowhatshouldbedoneateachstage,twopointshavetobeclarified:A.Morphsareobtainedonthebasisofphonemicdataratherthanonspellingformsofwords.\nB.Amorphemeisnotequatedwithasyllable.4.1Cuttingsoundsequencesintomorphs（把语音的序列划分为语子）i.Whatisthebasictechniqueofcuttingsoundsequencesintomorphs?Thebasictechniqueofcuttingsoundsequencesintomorphsiscomparison.Forexample:ii.Fourprinciplesofjudgingwhethertwoormoreminimalmeaningfulsequencesofphonemesarethesamemorphordifferentmorphs:IftwoormoreminimalmeaningfulsequencesofphonemesA.areidenticalinbothformandmeaning,thentheyareregardedasonemorph;B.arethesameinformbutdifferentinmeaning,thenthereareasmanymorphsastherearemeanings;C.arethesameinmeaningbutdifferentinform,thenthereareasmanymorphsasthereareforms;D.aredifferentbothinformandmeaning,thereareasmanymorphsastherearedifferentformsandmeanings.4.2Groupingmorphsintomorphemes（把语子归类为词位）i.PrincipleIftwoormoremorphsaresemanticallyidenticalandalsoincomplementarydistribution,theyarethensaidtobeallomorphsofthesamemorpheme.ii.Classificationofallomorphs\nA.phonologicallyconditionedallomorphs音位环境变体B.morphologicallyconditionedallomorphs词位环境变体4.3Emptymorphandzeromorphi.emptymorph---Itisdefinedasamorphthathasformbutnomeaning.ii.zeromorph---Itisdefinedasamorphthathasmeaningbutnoform.5.Morphemicanalysis1)Whatistherelationbetweenthemorphemesofaword?Generallyspeaking,therearetwokindsofrelations.i.Superficially,theyarelinkedtoeachotherlikebeadsinastring,thatis,thelinearorder线性顺序ofmorphemes.ii.Internally,theyarearrangedinhierarchicalstructure,thatis,thehierarchicalorder等级顺序ofmorphemes.IthastoberevealedbyICanalysis.2)WhatisICanalysis?i.Definition:ICanalysismeansthatwedividethemorphemesofawordintotwogroupsandthendivideeachgroupintosubgroups,andsoon,untilwereachsinglemorphemes.ii.Examples:iii.Threeterms:A.ultimateconstituents（最终成分）---Theformsatthebottomofthetree-branchdiagramarecalledultimateconstituents.B.immediateconstituents（直接成分）---Theformsundereachpointwherethetreebranchesarecalledimmediateconstituentsoftheformononelevelabove.\nC.constituents---Alltheformsinthetree-branchdiagramexcepttheworditselfarecalledtheconstituentsoftheword.iv.IsICanalysisarbitrarysegmentation?v.TwobasicprinciplesofICanalysisA.Divisionsdependonmeaningfulrelationsbetweenmorphemes,thatis,divisionsdependonmeaningfulrelationsbetweenmorphemes.例如：untouchabledisgracefulB.Divisionsshouldbecompatiblewithmorphologicalrules.vi.Whataremorphologicalrules?A.Definition:Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedtoformnewwords.B.Rules:1)un+adj,participleàadj2)n,adj+ifyàvt3)v+ableàadj4)adj+lyàadv,n+lyàadj5)in,il,ir,im+adjàadj6)adj+nessàn7)v+mentàn8)v+ence,anceàn9)re+vàv10)en+adj,nàv\n11)adj,n+enàv12)dis+vàv13)adj+izeàv14)de+vàv15)n+fulàadjC.Examples:untruly,unmanly,unmentionable,disagreement6.TheroleofmorphologyinEnglish6.1Grammaticalfunctionsofinflectionalmorphologyi.Inflectionalendings:-s,-'s,-ed,-ing,-er,-estii.Theprimaryfunctionofinflectionalmorphemesisnottotransmitinformation,buttoconveygrammaticalmeanings.iii.Example:SeveralstudentsdiscussedhowtoimprovetheirEnglishyesterdayafternoon.6.2Derivationalmorphology派生词法andword-formationprocesses构词法i.threewaystoobtainnewwordsA.borrowingwordsfromotherlanguagesB.creatingentirelynewwordsC.formingnewwordsfromexistingmorphemesandwordsii.word-formationprocesses1)MainprocessesA.Affixation（词缀法）\na.Definition:Whenanewwordisformedbyputtinganaffixtothebase,theprocessinvolvediscalledaffixation.b.Attention:Dosuchaffixesincludeinflectionalaffixes?Doestheterm'base'necessarilyreferto'root'ofaword?c.Examples:参见105页第三段下面。d.Classification:prefixationandsuffixationB.Conversion（转类法、转化法）a.Definition:Somenewwordsarecreatedsimplybychangingtheirpartsofspeech.Theprocessinvolvediscalledconversion.b.Examples:paper,butter,bottle,vacation,pen,box,ship,doctor,dog;guess,look,talk,rest;dirty,empty;up,down;Don'ttroubletroubleuntiltroubletroublesyou.Butmenobuts.C.Compounding（复合法）a.Definition:Iftwoormoreseparatewordsareconjoinedtoproduceaformwhichisusedasasingleword,thiscombiningprocessisknownascompounding.b.Examples:参见107页第一段下面2)MinorprocessesA.Blending（拼缀法）a.Definition:Itisaprocessinwhichacompoundismadebyblendingpartsoftwowords.b.Examples:参见108页第一段下面B.Clipping（截短法）a.Definition:Itreferstotheprocesswherebyawordisshortenedwithoutachangeinthemeaningandinthepartofspeech.b.Threecases:\nC.Acronymy（首字母缩略法）a.Definition:Itistheprocessbywhichwordsareformedbyputtingtheinitiallettersofseveralwordstogether.b.Twotypes:①Theyarepronouncedasanewword.---acronyms（首字母拼音词）例如：TOEFL，TESOL，ELTS，NATO，TESL，TEFL②Theyarepronouncedasasequenceofletters.---initialisms（首字母缩略词）例如：BBC，VOAD.Back-formation（逆序造词法、逆生法）a.Definition:Back-formationmayberegardedastheoppositecaseofsuffixation.Byback-formation,wedeleteasuffixfromanapparentlycomplexforminsteadofaddingasuffix.b.Examples:\nExercises1.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenmorphemesandallomorphs?Morphemesareminimalmeaningfulgrammaticalunits.Allomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.Morphemesaremoreabstractthantheirallomorphs.Inordertomakeadistinctionbetweenmorphemesandtheirallomorphs,morphemesarerepresentedinbraces{};theallomorphsarebetweentwoslantinglines//.2.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenmorphsandallomorphs?Morphsaretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneralandallomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.Forexample,/s/,/z/and/iz/aretheallomorphsofthepluralmarket{z};/t/,/d/and/id/aretheallomorphsofthepasttensemarker{d}./s/,/z/,/iz/,/t/,/d/and/id/areallmorphsintheEnglishlanguage.3.Howdoinflectionalaffixesdifferfromderivationalaffixes?Themajordifferencebetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalonesaresummarizedintermsoftwoaspects:functionandposition.Functionallyspeaking,theformerservetoindicategrammaticalrelations,suchasnumber,gender,tense,aspectandcase.Whentheyareattachedtoothermorphemes,theyneverproducenewwordsandnevercauseachangeingrammaticalclass.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesareusedtocreatenewwords.Manyofthemcanchangethegrammaticalclassofawordandtheothersdonot.Intermsofposition,inflectionalaffixesinEnglisharealwayssuffixesbutderivationalonescanbeeitherprefixesorsuffixes.Whenthesetwotypesofaffixesbothappearinaword,theinflectionaloneisalwaysafterthederivationalone.4.Giveanexampletoillustratewhatareimmediateconstituents,ultimateconstituentsandconstituents.\nAstheabovediagramshows,book,storeandsaretheultimateconstituents;bookstore,s,book,storearetheconstituents;bookstoreandsaretheICsofbookstore;bookandstorearetheICsofbookstore.5.Whatarethemajorprocessesofcreatingnewwords?Andwhataretheimportantminorones?Pleasegivetwoexamplesforeachprocess.6.Dividethefollowingwordsintoseparatemorphemesbyplacinga+betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:Example:bookshelf=book+shelf\n9.TheindefinitesingulararticleinEnglishiseitheraoranasinthefollowingphrases:ahotel  aboy   awagon   auniversity ayellowdoganapple anhour anorange anoldlady  anairplaneAre/E/and/En/allomorphsofthesamemorpheme?/E/and/En/areallomorphsofthesamemorphemebecausetheyhavethesamemeaning:bothindicateindefinitenessofasingularobjectorperson,andtheyarealso\nincomplementarydistribution:/En/occursbeforeavoweland/E/beforeaconsonant.10.Identifythenegativemorphsaccordingtothedatagiven:inexpensiveillegalirreplaceableimbalanceinevitableillogicalirresistibleimpracticalinsensitiveilliterateirresponsibleimpenetrableindefiniteillegibleirregularimpossibleintangibleillegitimateirrelevantimproperAccordingtothedatagiven,thenegativemorphsare:/in/,asshowninColumnA;/i/,asshowninColumnBandColumnC;/im/,asshowninColumnD.11.AnalyzethefollowingwordsbyICanalysis:boyishnessirreplaceableundesirablegentlemanlyreenactmentthreatenedreplacementsdisappearancedecentralizeddisestablishment\n12.Indicatetheprocessofword-formationbywhichthefollowingwordsarecreated:Thewordhard-lineriscreatedbytwoprocesses:thefirstiscompounding:hard-line;thesecondissuffixation:adding-ertothewordhardline.13.Isolatetherootbysubtractingtheprefix;thenmakeanewwordbyaddingasuffixasshownintheexample:\n14.Aftereachbasicwordwritethreewordsmadebytheadditionofprefixesorsuffixes:Chapter5SyntaxlWhatissyntax?nThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.nTraditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.\nnSyntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.lWhatisasentence?nSyntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.nAsequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguageknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.lKnowledgeofsentencestructurenStructuralambiguityuStructuralambiguityisoneormorestring(s)ofwordshas/havemorethanonemeaning.Forexample,thesentenceTomsaidhewouldcomeyesterdaycanbeinterpretedindifferentways.nWordorderuDifferentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings.Forexample,withthewordsTom,loveandMary,wemaysayTomlovesMaryorMarylovesTom.GrammaticalrelationsuNativespeakersknowwhatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly.Forexample,inTheboatsarenotbigenoughandWedon’thaveenoughboats,thewordenoughisrelatedtodifferentwordsinthetwosentences.nRecursionuThesamerulecanbeusedrepeatedlytocreateinfinitesentences.Forexample,Iknowthatyouarehappy.HeknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.SheknowsthatheknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.nSentencerelatednessuSentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated.nSyntacticcategories\nuAsyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:lThechildfoundtheknife.lApolicemanfoundtheknife.lThemanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.lHefoundtheknife.uAlltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycallednounphrase(NP).Thenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubject.Theknife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.lTraditionalgrammarnIntraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.nSentencesareanalyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:subjects,objects,verbs(predicates),predicatives,…nCompulsoryelementsofasentence:subject,verb,object,complement,adverbial…nNouns:number,case,gender…nVerbs:tense,aspect,voice…nAdjectivesandadverbs:comparativeandsuperlativedegreesnAgreementinnumber/person/gendernParsing:tryingtomakedetailedanalysisinstructurelStructuralgrammar\nnStructuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.nFormclassuFormclassisawiderconceptthanpartofspeechintraditionalgrammar.uLinguisticunitswhichcanappearinthesameslotaresaidtobeinthesameformclass.Forexample,a(n),the,m,that,every,etc.canbeplacedbeforenounsinEnglishsentences.Thesewordsfallintooneformclass.uTheselinguisticunitsareobservedtohavethesamedistribution.nImmediateconstituent(IC)analysisuStructuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysisuAsentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.uExamples:lOldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomenlThe|||little||girl|speaks||French.uInthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.lIwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.uTwoadvantagesofICanalysis:lItcananalyzesomeambiguitieslItshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.\nlTransformational-generative(TG)grammarnBackgroundandthegoalofTGgrammaruChomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.lAdequacyofobservationlAdequacyofdescriptionlAdequacyofexplanationuWritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.uTGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.nSyntacticcategoriesuNounPhrase(NP)uVerbPhrase(VP)uSentence(S)uDeterminer(Det)uAdjective(Adj)uPronoun(Pro)uVerb(V)uAuxiliaryVerb(Aux)uPrepositionalPhrase(PP)uAdverb(Adv)\nnPhrasestructure(PS)rulesuS→NPVP(Det)(Adj)NuNP→{ProuVP→(Aux)V(NP)(PP)uPP→PNPnTreediagramsnRecursionandtheinfinitudeoflanguageuScontainsNPandVPandthatSmaybeaconstituentofNPandVP.NPandPPcanbemutuallyinclusive.Ifphrasalcategoriesappearonbothsidesofthearrowinphrasestructurerules,therulesarerecursive.Recursiverulescanbeappliedagainandagain,andthephrasestructurecangrowendlessly.nSub-categorizationofthelexicon.uTheprocessofputtingwordsofthesamelexicalcategoryintosmallerclassesaccordingtotheirsyntacticcharacteristicsiscalledsub-categorization.Transformationalrules(T-rules)uParticlemovementT-rulelJohnturnedthemachineoff.Johnturnedoffthemachine.uReplacementT-rulelJohnbeatTom.HebeatTom.lThehouseneedsrepairing(toberepaired).\nuInsertionT-rulelAfishisswimminginthepond.Thereisafishswimminginthepond.uDeletionT-rulelTheycameinand(they)satdown.uCopyingT-rulelHeiscoming,isn’the?lHehasfinishedhishomework,hasn’the?uReflexivizationT-rulelIwashme(myself).nTGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.Systematic-functionalgrammarnBackgroundandthegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaruM.A.K.HallidaylLanguageisasystemofmeaningpotentialandanetworkofmeaningaschoices.lMeaningdeterminesform,notviceversa.Meaningisrealizedthroughforms.lThegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaristoseehowfunctionandmeaningarerealizedthroughforms.\nlThethreemeta-functionsoflanguagenIdeationalfunctionnInterpersonalfunctionnTextualfunctionnThetransitivitysystemoflanguageuElementslProcesslParticipantslCircumstancesuCategorizationofrealitylDoing–materialprocessnProcessesinvolvingphysicalactions:walking,running,throwing,kicking,wrapping,etc.nActor,goalandcircumstancelBeing–relationalprocessnProcessesrepresentingarelationbeingsetupbetweentwoseparateentities.nBe(identifying),have(attributive)nCarrier/possessorandattribute/possessedlSensing–mentalprocessnProcessesofsensing,includingfeeling,thinking,perceiving,imagining,wanting,liking,etc.\nnSenserandphenomenonlLesscentraltypesoflinguisticprocessnVerbalprocesses–sayingsomethinguSayerandreceivernBehaviouralprocesses–activeconsciousprocessesuBehaverandrangenExistentialprocesses–existenceofanentityuExistentnMoodandmodalityuMoodexpressesthespeaker’sattitudeandservesforinterpersonalfunction.Itisasyntacticconstituentmadeupofthesubjectandthefinite.uModalityisthedegreeofcertaintyorfrequencyexpressedbythegrammaticalformsoffinite.Itcanbecategorizedbymodalizationandmodulation.nThemeandrhemeuThemeisthegiveninformation,whilerhemeisthenewinformation.uExamples:lJohn|ismyfriendlHe|shouldhaverepliedtomyletter.\nChapter6SemanticslWhatissemantics?nSemanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.However,itisnottheonlylinguisticdisciplinethatstudiesmeaning.nSemanticsanswersthequestion“whatdoesthissentencemean”.Inotherwords,itistheanalysisofconventionalmeaningsinwordsandsentencesoutofcontext.lReferenceandsensenLinguisticexpressionsstandinarelationtotheworld.Therearetwoaspectsofmeaning.nReferenceistherelationbywhichawordpicksoutoridentifiesanentityintheworld.Butthereferentialtheoryfailstoaccountforcertainkindsoflinguisticexpression.uSomewordsaremeaningful,buttheyidentifynoentitiesintherealworld,suchasthewordsdragon,phoenix,unicorn,andmermaid.uItisnotpossibleforsomewordstofindreferentintheworld,suchasthewordsbut,and,of,however,the,etc.uSpeakersofEnglishunderstandthemeaningofaroundtrianglealthoughthereisnosuchgraph.nSenseistherelationbywhichwordsstandinhumanmind.Itismentalrepresentation,theassociationwithsomethinginthespeaker’sorhearer’smind.Thestudyofmeaningfromtheperspectiveofsenseiscalledtherepresentationalapproach.lClassificationoflexicalmeaningsnReferentialmeaning(denotativemeaning)–centralmeaningofwords,stable,universalnAssociativemeaning–meaningthathingesonreferentialmeaning,lessstable,moreculture-specificuConnotativemeaning–thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,embracesthepropertiesofthereferent,peripheral\nuSocialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)–whatisconveyedaboutthesocialcircumstancesoftheuseofalinguisticexpressionuAffectivemeaning–whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingorattitudeofthespeaker/writertowardswhatisreferredtouReflectedmeaning–whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressionlTaboosuCollocativemeaning–theassociatedmeaningawordacquiresinlinewiththemeaningofwordswhichtendtoco-occurwithitlLexicalsenserelationsnSynonymyuSynonymsarewordswhichhavedifferentformsbutsimilarmeanings.lDialectalsynonyms–lift/elevator,flat/apartmentlSynonymsofdifferentstyles–gentleman/guylSynonymsofdifferentregisters–salt/sodiumchloridelSynonymsdifferinginaffectivemeaning–attract/seducelSynonymsdifferingincollocation–beautiful/handsome,able/capableuSynonymsarefrequentlyusedinspeakingandwritingasacohesivedevice.Inordertoavoidrepetitionthewriter/speakerneedstouseasynonymtoreplaceawordinthepreviousco-textwhenhe/shewantstocontinuetoaddressthatidea.Thesynonymstogetherfunctiontocreatecohesionofthetext.nAntonymyuAntonymsarewordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.\nlGradableantonyms–pairsofwordsoppositetoeachother,butthepositiveofoneworddoesnotnecessarilyimplythenegativeoftheother.Forexample,thewordshotandcoldareapairofantonyms,butnothotdoesnotnecessarilymeancold,maybewarm,mildorcool.Therefore,thispairofantonymsisapairofgradableantonyms.lComplementaryantonyms–wordsoppositetoeachotherandthepositiveofoneimpliesthenegativeoftheother:alive/deadlReversal(relational)antonyms–wordsthatdenotethesamerelationorprocessfromoneortheotherdirection:push/pull,up/down,teacher/studentuAntonymyisfrequentlyutilizedasarhetoricalresourceinlanguageuse.Oxymoronandantithesisbasedonantonymy.Gradableantonymsmaygiverisetofuzziness.nHomonymyuHomonymsarewordswhichhavethesameform,butdifferentmeanings.lHomographs–wordswhichareidenticalinspelling,butdifferentinmeaningandpronunciation:tear[tZE](v.)/tear[tiE](n.)lHomophones–wordswhichareidenticalinpronunciation,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning:see/sealFullhomonyms–wordswhichareidenticalinspellingandpronunciation,butdifferentinmeaning:bear(v.togivebirthtoababy/tostand)/bear(n.akindofanimal)uRhetorically,homonymsareoftenusedaspuns.nPolysemyuApolysemeisawordwhichhasseveralrelatedsenses.uPolysemyisbasedontheintuitionofnativespeakersaswellastheetymologyorhistoryofwords.\nnHyponymyuHyponymyisarelationofinclusion.uTiger,lion,elephantanddogarehyponymsofthewordanimal.Wordslikeanimalarecalledsuperordinates.uThiskindofverticalsemanticrelationlinkswordsinahierarchicalwork.ComponentialanalysisnComponentialanalysisistheapproachthatanalyzewordmeaningbydecomposingitintoitsatomicfeatures.Itshowsthesemanticfeaturesofaword.nExamples:uMan:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULTuBoy:+HUMAN+MALE–ADULTuFather:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT→PARENTuDaughter:+HUMAN–MALE0ADULT←PARENTlWordsandconceptsnCategorizationuCategorizationreferstotheprocessbywhichpeopleuselanguagetoclassifytheworldaroundandinsidethem.uItisfundamentaltohumancognition.uInthepasttwodecadescognitivepsychologistsandcognitivelinguisticshavegainednewinsightsintothenatureofcategories.\nnPrototypesuAprototypeisasetthathastypical,centralfeatures.Othersareperipheralfeatures,whicharenottypicalbutrelated.nHierarchiesuConceptualnetworklSentencialsenserelations–semanticrelationsofsentencesnSentencesmayberelatedinsense.Iwillillustratesenserelationswithinandbetweensentences.uTautology:Thebachelorisunmarried.uContradiction:Thebachelorismarried.uInconsistency:Johnissingle./Johnismarried.uSynonymousness:Johnbroketheglass./TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn.uEntailment:Themeetingwaschairedbyaspinster./Themeetingwaschairedbyawoman.uPresupposition:Samhasreturnedthebook./Samborrowedthebook.nThesesemanticrelationsarefoundwithinorbetweenmeaningfulsentences.Therearesentenceswhichsoundgrammaticalbutmeaningless.Thesesentencesaresaidtobesemanticallyanomalous.Forexample:uColourlessgreenideassleepfuriously.uThepregnantbachelorkilledsomephonemes.lMetaphorsnFromrhetoricaldevicetocognitivedevice\nuTheclassicalviewseesmetaphorasakindofdecorativeinadditiontoordinarylanguage,arhetoricaldevicethatmakeslanguageusecolourful.uAnotherviewofmetaphor,whichhasbecomemoreinfluentialinthepasttwodecades,holdsthatmetaphorsareacognitivedevice.Metaphorisanessentialelementinourcategorizationoftheworldandourthinkingprocess.uCognitivelinguisticshasshownthatmetaphorisnotanunusualordeviantwayofusinglanguage.Theuseofmetaphorisnotconfinedtoliterature,rhetoricandart.Itisactuallyubiquitousineverydaycommunication.nThecomponentsofmetaphorsuTargetdomain–tenoruSourcedomain–vehiclenFeaturesofmetaphorsuMetaphorsaresystematic.uMetaphorscancreatesimilaritiesbetweenthetwodomainsinvolved.uMetaphorsarealsocharacterizedbyimaginativerationality.ChapterSixSyntax(II)---PhraseStructureRules0.Introductioni.Chapter5mentionsthatsentencesmaybestudiedintwoways:eitherstaticallyordynamically.ii.However,TGgrammarclaimsthatthestaticstudyofsentencesonlydealswithonelevelofstructure,thatis,surfacestructure,butthedynamicstudyofsentencesisconcernedwithtwolevelsofstructure:bothsurfacestructureanddeepstructure.iii.Furthermore,TGgrammarhasassumedthat,togeneratesentences,westartwithdeepstructuresandthentransformthem\nintosurfacestructures.Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(PSrules)andsurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules(T-rules).Thefollowingdiagrammayhelpusclarifytherelationofthetwotypesofruleswiththetwokindsofstructures:Inthischapter,weshallfocusonPSrulesandhowtoapplyPSrulestogeneratedeepstructures.Inthenextchapter,weshalldiscussT-rulesandhowtoapplyT-rulestotransformdeepstructuresintosurfacestructures.1.Surfacestructureanddeepstructurei.Introduction:Beforewestudyphrasestructurerules,wemustfirstdiscusstwofundamentalconcepts:surfacestructureanddeepstructure.Sincethesetwoconceptsaredifficulttounderstand,weshallfirstlookatsomeconcreteexamples.A.Thechickenistoohottoeat.Thissentencehasstructuralambiguity.Itmaybeunderstoodintwoways:a.Thechickenissohotthatitcannoteatanything.b.Thechickenissohotthatpeoplecannoteatit.\nIntermsofsurfacestructure,wecangetonlyonephrasemarker:Butintermsofthelevelofdeepstructure,SentenceAisrelatedtotwodistinctdeepstructures.Theycouldberepresentedbythefollowingtwophrasemarkers:However,theyhaveonlyonecommondeepstructure,whichisverymuchlikethesurfacestructureoftheactivesentence.It\ncouldberepresentedbethefollowingdiagram:C.Johniseasytoplease.Thissentencehasnostructuralambiguity.Ithasonesurfacestructureandonedeepstructure.Itssurfacestructurewouldbelikethefollowingdiagram:Itsdeepstructurewouldbelikethefollowingdiagram:ii.Differencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure:1)Asurfacestructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothelineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced;adeepstructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.2)Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete;adeepstructureis\nabstract.3)Asurfacestructuregivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication;adeepstructuregivesthemeaningofasentence.4)Asurfacestructureispronounceable;adeepstructureisnotpronounceable.2.AgeneraldescriptionofphrasestructurerulesTGgrammarsaysthatphrasestructurerulescangeneratedeepstructuresofsentences.Theycanspecifythelinearorderingofwords,thehierarchicalarrangementofconstituentsandthesyntacticcategoryofeachconstituent.Theymakeeverythingexplicitthatisneededfordeterminingthemeaningofasentence.TogeneratethedeepstructureofanEnglishsentence,wealwaysstartwiththerule:S→NPAUXVPThisrulemeansthatwemayrewriteSasNPAUXVP.Inotherwords,theruleclaimsthatallgrammaticalsentencesinEnglishconsistofthreeelements:NP,AUXandVP.Andthesethreeelementsalwaysappearinthatorder.Therulecanberepresentedbythefollowingtree-branchdiagram:ThenhowdoweexpandNP,AUXandVPrespectively?The\nfollowingsectionswilldiscusstheprocessesofexpandingthemonebyone.3.NounphraseLookingatthesefourrules,weshallintroducetwoterms:compulsoryconstituent强制成分andoptional选择成分constituent.TheconstituentwhichisalwayspresentontherightsideofthearrowofaPSruleiscalledacompulsoryconstituent.Theconstituentswhichmaybepresentorabsentontherightsideofthearrowarecalledoptionalconstituents.WemaycombineRule1,Rule2,Rule3andRule4intoonebyputtingtheoptionalconstituentsinbrackets:NP→(Det)(AP)N\nThisruleindicatesfourphrasestructurepossibilities:i.anounprecededbyaDet;ii.anounonly;iii.anounprecededbyanAP;iv.anounprecededbybothDetandAPThisphrasemarkerseemstohavenoending.Sucharuleiscalledarecursiverule.Theruleswithrecursiveproperty循环性特征canaccountforthecreativeaspectoflanguage.Lookattheexamplesin(32)onPP150-151andtrytodrawtheirdeepstructurephrasemarkers.4.Verbphrasesi.Introduction:ThusfarwehavediscussedhowtoconstructthePSrulesfornounphrasesandhowtogeneratenounphrasesbythePSrules.NowweshallstudyverbphrasesandthePSrules\nforgeneratingverbphrases.ii.Twopointstobeclarified:Beforeweproceedtothetopicitself,wehavetoclarifytwopointsaboutthetermverbinTGgrammar.A.Firstly,anEnglishverbnormallyhasfiveforms:thebase,thepresent,thepast,thepastparticipleandthepresentparticiple.Butinthedeepstructure,verbsalwaystakethebaseform.Thatistosay,atthelevelofdeepstructure,theinflectionalendingsdonotoccurtogetherwiththeverbs.Theyareseparatedfromtheverbsandarepartofanauxiliaryphrase.B.Secondly,theverbsinverbphrasesarecalledmainverbs.Theotherverbsarehelpingverbs.Thehelpingverbsarealsopartofanauxiliaryphrase.ThuswecansayAUX=inflectionalendingsofverbs+helpingverbsForexample,inthefollowingsentence:iii.ConstructingthePSrulesforverbphrases:Nowconsiderthefollowingdata,andtrytoconstructthePSrulesfortheverbphrasesineachgroup.\nTherewouldbenolimitonthelengthofasentenceasshowninthediagram.Thisalsoindicatedthecreativeaspectoflanguage.\nNowlet'sjoinRules7to11together:Thisruleindicatesfivepossibilitiesofaverbphrase.iv.举例：laythebabyinthecrib5.Auxiliaryphrases助动词短语5.0Introduction:InTGgrammar,anauxiliaryphraseconsistsoffourcomponents:tense时态,modalverbs情态动词,theperfectaspect完成体andtheprogressiveaspect进行体.Nowweshalldiscussthemonebyone.5.1Tense\nInthethreesentencesgivenabove,thereisonlytenseinAUX.ThuswecanconstructaPSruleforAUX:Accordingtotheserules,wecandrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkersofsentencesA,BandC:YoumightfeelstrangewhyweexpandTenseintoeitherPresentorPast.Herewewanttoemphasizeoneimportantpoint.InTGgrammar,thereareonlytwotenses:presentandpast.TGgrammariansarguethattensehastobeestablishedbasedontheinflectionalendingsoftheverb.Tounderstandthispoint,weshouldmakeacleardistinctionbetweentenseandtime.Tenseisagrammaticalcategory,buttimeisasemanticcategory.Let'slookatsomeexamples:(请参考161页上（47）、（48）)\n5.2ModalverbsInTGgrammar,modalverbsincludecan,may,will,shallandmustinthepresenttense;could,might,wouldandshouldinthepasttense.Lookatthefollowingsentences:Accordingtothesentencesgivenabove,wemayconstructPSrulesasfollows:Withtherules,wemaydrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkerforanyofthesentences.Let'stakesentenceBforexample:5.3Perfect\nAccordingtothesesentences,wemayconstructanotherPSruleforAUX:Nowlet'sdrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkerforsentenceA:5.4ProgressiveAccordingtothedatagivenabove,anewPSrulemaybeconstructed:Now,let'sdrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkerforsentencesAandB:Sofar,wehavediscussedthe4componentsofAUX\nrespectively.Actuallywehaveexamined4possiblestructuresofAUX. Rule13-Rule16However,thesearenottheonlypossiblecombinations.Lookatthefollowingsentences:Nowlet'sanalyzethestructuresofthesesentencesfromthelevelofdeepstructure:6.SentencesSofarwehavediscussedallthePSruleswhichareusedtogenerateNP,VP,AUX,APandPP.Nowwecanexaminetheprocessbywhichawholesentenceisgenerated.Forexample:1)Marywaited.2)Thenaughtygirlputthebeautifulbookunderthedesk.3)Ibelievehewillcome.4)Shemighthavebeenwaitingforus.Thedeepstructuresofthesesentencesmayberepresentedbythefollowingtree-branchdiagrams:Exercises\n1.Explainthedistinctionbetweenthefollowingtermsasclearasyoucan:(a)deepstructureandsurfacestructure;InTGgrammar,adeepstructureisgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules.Itisabstractanddecidesthemeaningofasentence.Asurfacestructureisderivedfromitscorrespondingdeepstructurebytransformationalrules.Itisrelativelyconcreteanddecidestheactualfromofasentence.(b)phrasestructurerulesandtransformationalrules.InTGgrammar,phrasestructurerulescangeneratethedeepstructureofasentence;transformationalrulesareappliedtoderivethesurfacefromitsdeepstructure.2.ExpandthefollowingcollapsedPSrulesintotheindividualrulesthattheyabbreviate:\n3.combinethefollowingindividualrulesintoone:4.Drawthedeepstructurephrasemarkersforthefollowingphrases:(a)youngboysaninterestingstorythecharmingoldEnglishchurch\n(b)ateacakestoodinthewayputthepictureonthewallsaid(that)Iwouldleave(c)couldsingasonghasgonetoBeijingareworkingcouldbeworkingmighthavebeenathomemighthavebeenreadingmighthavebeenmakingachair5.Pointoutthemistakesinthefollowingdeepstructurephrasemarkersandmakecorrectionswherenecessary.)\n6.Writedownthephrasestructurerulesthatcangenerateeachofthefollowingsentences(Note:Combinetwoormoreindividualrulesintooneifpossible.)(a)Thisyoungmancanbuyanewhouse.(b)JohnwasstudyingEnglish.(c)Hisbrothersaidthathewouldsellhisoldredcar.(Suggestions:Ifyoufinditdifficult,youmaydoitinthreesteps:Step1:Drawthedeepstructureforeachsentence.Step2:WritedownthePSrulesaccordingtothephrasemarkeryouhavedrawn.Step3:Combineintoonetheruleswhichhavethesamesymbolontheleftsideofthearrow.7.Drawthedeepstructurephrasemarkersofthefollowingsentences.(a)Georgewritespoetry.(b)ShemighthavegonetoShanghai.\n(c)Thosestudentsarereadinginthelibrary.(d)Hecouldhavebeendrinking.(e)Hedemonstrated(that)thetheorywasincorrect.8.Drawtwophrasemarkersforeachofthefollowingsentences:oneisthesurfacestructureandtheotheristhedeepstructure.(Note:Theminimaldifferencebetweenthesurfacestructureandthedeepstructureisthatintheformer,thetensemarkerisattachedtotheverbandinthelatter,thetensemarkerisseparatedfromtheverb.)(a)Thegirllaughed(b)Someoneburnedthetoast.9.ConstructnewPSrulesbasedonthedategivenbelow.衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿\n衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿蚃肅肆薅蚂膈莂蒁蚁袇膄莇蚁羀莀芃蚀肂膃薁虿螂莈蒇螈袄膁莃螇羆莇艿螆膈腿蚈螆袈羂薄螅羀芈蒀螄肃肀莆螃螂芆节螂袅聿薁袁羇芄蒇袀聿肇莃袀蝿芃荿衿羁膅蚇袈肄莁薃袇膆膄葿袆袆荿莅蒃羈膂芁薂肀莇薀薁螀膀蒆薀袂莆蒂蕿肄艿莈薈膇肁蚆薇袆芇薂薇罿肀蒈薆肁芅莄蚅螁肈芀蚄袃芃蕿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肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅肂蒅薅羄膂膄螁袀膁芆薄螆膀荿蝿蚂腿薁薂肁膈芁蒅羇膇莃蚀袃膆蒅蒃蝿膆膅虿蚅芅芇蒁羃芄莀蚇衿芃蒂蒀螅节节蚅螁芁莄薈肀芀蒆螃羆芀蕿薆袂艿芈螂螈袅莁薅蚄羄蒃螀羂羄膂薃羈羃莅螈袄羂蒇蚁螀羁蕿蒄聿羀艿虿羅罿莁蒂袁肈蒄蚈螇肈膃蒁蚃肇芆蚆肂肆蒈葿羈肅薀螄袄肄芀薇蝿肃莂螃蚅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