现代语言学 笔记 13页

本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netIntroduction一、Linguistics:Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.二、Thescopeoflinguistics1、phonetics:Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified.2、phonology:Howspeechsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveythemeaning3、morphology:Howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords4、syntax:Howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences5、semantics:Thestudyofmeaning(inabstraction.)6、pragmatics:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse7、sociolinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety8、psycholinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetoworkingofthemind9.appliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.  三、Some　importantdistinctioninlinguistics1、descriptive(描述性):Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.2、prescriptive(规定性):Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behaviors.i.e.whattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnottosay.1、synchronic(共时语言学):Itreferstothestudyofvariationinlanguageindifferentplacesandamongdifferentgroupsatagivenpointintime.2、diachronic(历时语言学):Studieslanguagechangeovervariousperiodsoftimeandatvarioushistoricalstages.1、speech2、writingarethetwomediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.1、langue(语言):referstoabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofthespeechcommunity.Itisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Suchas:InEnglishsentencemusthavesubjectandpredicate.2、parole(言语):referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Itisconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.1、competence(语言能力):Astheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage2、performance(语言应用):theactualrealizationofhisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.四、Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Languageisasystemi.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Languageisarbitrary.becausethefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesomeobject.Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages.英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netLanguageissymbols.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.五、designfeatures(识别特征)Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Therearetwelvedesignfeatures,butthisbookonlytellusfiveofthem.Arbitrariness:thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguage,butitisnotentirelyarbitrary.Productivity:languagemakepossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitusers.Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Duality(二重性):Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevelsatthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords.Displacement:Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinpast,presentorfuture.orinfar-awayplace.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofspeakers.Phonology一、phoneticsThespeechandwritingaretwomediaorsubstanceusedbynaturallanguageasvehiclesforcommunication.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedwithonlythosesoundsthatareproducedbythehumanspeechorgans.Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofphonicmediumoflanguage.It’sconcernedwithallsoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfrom3distinctbutrelatedpointofview.Theyare:Articulationphonetics(发音语音学):Howaspeakeruseshisspeechorgansarticulatethesounds. Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）:Howahearerperceivesthesounds.Acoustic(声学语音学）:Howthesoundsaretransmitter.Organs:pharyngealcavity–thethroat oralcavity—themouth nasalcavity—thenoseVoiceless:whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration.Voicing:soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibrating Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwiththeletter-symbolsonlyNarrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwiththeletter-symbolsandthediacritics.英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netEnglishsoundscanbeclassifiedtwocategories:vowelsandconsonantsConsonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairsteamatsomepointofthevocaltract.Vowels:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.Phonology:thestudyofsoundsystem—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Phoneticsandphonology:arestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisinterestedinallspeechsoundintheworld’slanguage:howtheyareproducedandclassified.Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatterns,andhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone(音素):Isdefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedon’t.Phoneme（音位）:Itisbasicunitinphonology;itiscollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Allophone（音位变体）:Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledallophonesofthatphoneme.Phonemiccontrast(音位对立);Complementary（音位互补）;Minimalpair（最小对立）:Twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.Somerulesinphonology:1Sequentialrules,2Assimilationrules(onesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakethetwophonessimilar)3Deletionrule(ittelluswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.)Suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesare:stress,tone,intonation.MorphologyItisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesthatformthewords.Morphologyistwosub-branch:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.(Aphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.)Typeofmorphemes:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes(includerootandaffixes)Freemorphemes:areindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.Forexample:boy.Boundmorphemes:cannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netRoots:Arootisoftenseenasapartofaword,itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.SuchrootsarenumerousinEnglishforexample:"geo-“bearsthemeaningof“theearth”.Whenitcombineswithanotherroot“-ology”meaning“abranchoflearning”,wegottheword“geology”whichmeans“thestudyoftheearth’sstructure.Affixesaretwotypes:inflectionalaffixes(inflectionalmorpheme)andderivationalaffixes.Inflectionalaffixes:manifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns.-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense.-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons.-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect.-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns.Derivationalaffixes:areaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.TheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastemAffixescanbedividedintotwokinds:prefixesandsuffixes.PrefixesandSuffixesPrefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword,modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Suffixesattheendofaword,areaddedtotheendofstems.Theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.CompoundingispopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,derivationcanbeviewedadtheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords,andcompoundingthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.Featuresofcompounds1.orthographically(拼写特征):acompoundcanbewrittenasonewithorwithoutahyphen,orastwoseparatewords.Forexample:armchair,follow-up,thunderbird.2.syntactically(句法特征):thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.Forexample:ice-cold(adj.)greenhouse(noun).3.sematically（语意特征）:themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofthemeaningsofitscomponents.Forexample:ablacklegisnotalegthatisblack,itmeanscheater4.phonetically（语音特征）:thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netSyntaxSyntaxisasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Sentencesarestructuredaccordingtoparticulararrangementofwords.Syntaxasasystemofrules.asamajorcomponentofgrammar,syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentencesSentencestructureSubjectalllanguagehavewaysofreferringtosomeentity,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,thisreferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsubject.Asubjectmaybeanounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthepredicate.Typeofsentence1.Thesimplesentence:asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Forexample:Johnreadsextensively.Marydecidedtotakealinguisticsclassthenextsemester.2.Thecoordinatesentence:acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”,“but”,“or”.Thetwoclausesinacoordinatesentencearestructurallyequalpartsofthesentence;neitherissubordinatetotheother.Inanotherwords,eachclauseisseparablefromtheotherandcanstandonitsownasastructurallyindependentsentence.3.Thecomplexsentence:acomplexsentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,onewhichisincorporatedintoanother.Thatis,thetwoclausesincomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinated,clauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.Someconclusionscanbedrawnfromthecomplexsentence.1.anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause.2.mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledasubordinator,suchas“that”,”if”.3.anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitformchanges.Languageisahighlystructuredsystemofcommunication.Sentencesarenotformedbyrandomly(随意)combininglexicalitems,butbyfollowingasetofsyntacticrulesthatarrangelinguisticelementsinaparticularordertomakeastringofwordsnotonlymeaningfulbutalsolinearly-andhierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchicalstructure:thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.Syntacticcategories:1.lexicalcategories(fourmajorlexicalcategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories)2.Phrasalcategories(lexicalitemshavecertain英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netcombinationalpropertiesthatallowthemtocombinewithwordsofdifferentcategoriestoformphrase.NPVPPPAP)Grammaticalrelations(语法关系)thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.S-structure(表层结构):Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.X-bar:ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasestructurerulesintoasingleformat:x”—(spec)X(comp.)Generalgrammar:asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturallanguage.Moveα:Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning:1.Thenamingtheory.Oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.2.Theconceptualistview(意念论):washoldsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretation（解释）ofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisviewissuggestedbyOgdenandRichards.3.Contextualism(语境论)：contextualismisbasedonthepresumption(假定)thatonecanderive(推导)meaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservable(可观测的)contexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized,thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.4.Behaviorism(行为主义论):behaviorismreferstotheattempt(企图)todefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakerutteritandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”(Bloomfied,1933).Thistheorysomewhatclosetocontextualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.SenseandreferenceReference（所指意义）:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Sense(意义):Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Majorsenserelations:1.synonymy(同义):referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Synonymycanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:①Dialectalsynonyms(地域性同义词)---synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.Thesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedin英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netdifferentregionaldialects.Suchas:AmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish.②Stylisticsynonyms(文体同义词)---synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality(礼节).Suchas:oldman,daddy,father.③synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.④collocationalsynonyms(搭配上的区别)⑤semanticallydifferentsynonyms(语意上的差别)。Surpriseandamaze2.polysemy(多义)：referstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Forexample:table1apieceoffurniture2allthepeopleseatedatatable3thefoodthatisputonatable….3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意)：homonymyreferstothephenomenon(现象)thatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidentical(相同的)insoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophones(同音异意):refertotwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain/reignHomographs(同形异意):refertotwowordareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tearn./tearv.4.hyponymy(上下关系):referstothesenserelatingbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Componentialanalysis(成分分析法):isawayproposebythestructuralsemanticists(语义学者)toanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Predicationanalysis(述谓分析法):isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argument(logicalparticipant)andpredicate(relationelement).Thepredicateisthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless(无意义的)?Grammaticality—thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconformstothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisnotnecessarilysemanticallywell-formed,i.e.itmaynotmakesenseatall.Presupposition(先设前提):isasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.e.g.A:John’watchneedsrepairing.B:Johnhasawatch.IfAistrue,Bmustbetrue.Entailment(蕴涵):canbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.e.g.A:Markmarriedablonde(金发碧眼的)heiress（女性继承人）.B:Markmarriedablonde.AisTthenBisT,Bis英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netfalse,Aisfalse;Aisfalse,Bisnotfalse.PragmaticsPragmaticsisacomparatively(比较的)newbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics;itsdevelopmentandestablishmentinthe1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudyoflinguistics,especiallythatofsemantics.Ageneraldefinitionofpragmaticisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Context(语境):Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstituted(构成)bythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeoflanguagetheyuse,theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.Sentencemeaning(句子意义):referstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiesastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Utterancemeaning(话语意义):referstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication.Itbecomesanutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).Constative(表述句):arestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableandconnotative(内涵的)bearingthetruth-value.Performatives(行为句):aresentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastateandarenotverifiable(可证实的),inotherwords,performativesareutterancethat“dothings”.Locutionaryact(言内行为):istheactofutteringwords,phrase,clauses.Itistheactconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lectionandphonology.Illocutionaryact(言外行为):istheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Perlocutionaryact(言后行为):istheactperform(执行)byorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Theclassificationofillocutionaryacts:issuggestedandformulatedbyJohn.R.Searle,thestudentofJohnAustin.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintotruegeneralcategoriesandeachtypehasacommon,generalpurpose:1.Representative(表述句):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.2.Directives(指令句):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.3.Commissives(受约句):committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction4.Expressives(表情句):expressingfeelingorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.5.Declarations(宣布句):bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.Speechacttheory(言语行为理论):itisproposedbyJ.AustinandhisstudentJ.Searle,isatheoryaboutlanguageusedto“dothings”.Typicalutterancesare“Ido”,”InametheshipElizabeth”,“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow”.Inthesecasestheutteringoftherelevant(有关联)wordsisthe英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netleadingevent,withouttheactionspecifiedcannotbedone.Theconceptofconstatives(确认事实的)performatives,theLocutionaryact,theillocutionaryact,thePerlocutionaryactandthefivecategoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Sealeconstitutesthespeechacttheory.Co-operativeprinciple/cp(合作原则):proposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Theprinciplehasthefollowingformaxims:1.themaximofquantity:(a).makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.(b).donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.2.themaximofquality:a.donotsaywhatyoubelievetofalse.B.donotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.3.themaximofrelation:berelevant(有关联的)4.themaximofmanner:a.avoidobscurity(含糊)ofexpression.B.avoidambiguity（多意的）.(c.)bebriefed.beorderly(顺序).Conversationalimplicatures(会话含义):accordingtoP.Grice,referstotheextrameaningnotcontainedintheutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximoftheCP.HistoricallinguisticsHistoricallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.Historicallinguistsareconcernedwiththehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguagesandtheprocessesinvolvedinlanguagechange.Historicallinguistslookintothenatureoflanguagechangeandthecausethatleadtolanguagechange.MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish:EnglishhasundergonedramaticchangesthroughoutthethreemajorperiodsofOldEnglish(449-1100),MiddleEnglish(roughlyfrom1100-1500),andmodernEnglish(1500tothepresent).Linguisticchange:isessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthegrammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.TheGreatVowelshiftaseriesofsystematicsoundchangeinthehistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyledtooneofthemajordiscrepancies(差异)betweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.Apocope(尾音消失)thedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment..suchas“name”Epenthesis(插音字)theinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundorthemiddleofaword.Compounding:isaprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsintoonelexicalunit.Suchassailboat,two-year-oldDerivation:referstotheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbyadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords.SuchasfinalizeAnacronymisawordcreatedbycombiningtheinitialsofanumberofwords.SuchasWTOBlendingisaprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofother英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.networds.Suchassmog(smoke+fog)Anabbreviationisashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform.SuchasTV(television)Clippingisakindofabbreviationofotherwiselongerwordsorphrases.Suchase-mail(electronicmail)Back-formationisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword.Suchasedit(editor)Coinagereferstotheinventionofanewword,oftenformedthebrand-nameortrade-markofaproduct.SuchaskodakSemanticchangereferstothechangeofmeaningofaword.Aslanguagechangesovertime,thenamingofawordmaydeviate(脱离)fromitsoriginaldenotation(指示)throughtheprocessofsemanticbroadeningornarrowing.,anotherissemanticshift.Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlieddenotation.Suchas“dog”inOldEnglishitrefersto“hunting”.“aunt”onlyreferfather’ssisterinOldEnglish.Semanticnarrowingisthereverseprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.Suchashundnowreferonlyaspecialdog.Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlossesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning.Suchas“silly”,a“silly”personwasahappypersoninOldEnglish,andanaivepersoninMiddleEnglish,buthasbecomeafoolishpersoninModernEnglish.Languagefamily:agroupofhistorically(orgenetically)relatedlanguagethathavedevelopedfromacommonancestrallanguage.Protolanguage:theoriginalformofalanguagefamilywhichhasceased(停止)toexist.Historicalandcomparativelinguistics:thestudyofongoingchangesthatlanguageshaveundergoneTherearefourlanguagefamiliesare:Indo-EuropeanFamily,Sino-TibetanFamily,theAustronesianFamily,andtheAfroasiaticFamily.Thecausesoflanguagechange:1.soundassimilation:referstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.2.Rulesimplificationandregularization:aretypeofspontaneousmorphologicalrulechangethatinvolvesexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.3.internalborrow:Theapplicationofarulefromonepartofthegrammartoanotherpartofthegrammarbyanalogytoitsearlieroperation.4.Elaboration5.sociologicaltriggers6.culturaltransmission7.childrean’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar:Sociolinguistics英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netSociolinguisticsisthesubdisciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontext.Socialgroupsreferstothespeakersinsociolinguisticstudies.Speechcommunityisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity,andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Speechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Socialectreferstoavarietyoflanguagebypeoplebelongingtoaparticularsocialclass.Registerreferstoafunctionalspeechorlanguagevarietythatinvolvesdegreeofformalitydependingonthespeechsituationconcerned.Standardlanguagereferstoavarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.Linguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeakdifferentnativelanguageordialects.Pidginisamixedorblendedlanguageusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Ithaslimitedvocabularyandreducedgrammaticalstructures.Diglossia(双言现象)referstoasociolinguisticsituationinwhichinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachservingaparticularsocialfunctionandusedforaparticularsituation.Code-switchingreferstoabilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagealternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionornation.Anethnicdialect(orethniclanguagevariety)isasocialdialectofalanguage,ofthencuttingacrossregionaldifferences.Itisspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolation,suchasracialdiscriminarionorsegregation.Domain(使用域)referstoaphenomenonthatmostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,thatis,afairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituations,forexampletheHomeDomain,EmploymentDoman…Linguistictattoo(禁忌语)referstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse,suchasobscene,profaneandswearwords….Euphemism(委婉语)isawordorexpressionthatisthoughttobemild,indirect,orlessoffensiveandsuedasapolitesubstituteforthesupposedlyharshandunpleasantwordorexpression.suchasgoaway–dieSpeechvarietyalsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoangdistinguisdableformofspeechusedbyaspeekerorgroupofspeakers.Thedistinctive英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.netcharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexicalphonological,morphological,syntanctic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind,withfocusontheprocessesoflanguageproduction,comprehensionandacquisition.Cerebralcortexistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrainwhichreceivesmessagefromallthesensoryorgansandwherehuamancognitiveabilitiesreside.Brainlateralizationreferstothelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinparticularhemisphereofthebrain.Linguisticlateralizationisthehemisphericspecializationordominanceforlanguage.Dichoticlistening(两耳分听)referstoaresearchtechniquewhichhasbeenusedtostudyhowthebraincontrolshearingandlangugage,withwhichsubjectswearearphonesandsimultaneouslyreceivedifferentsoundsintherightandleftear,andarethanaskedtorepeatwhattheyhearandfindthatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Thecriticalperiodisanearlyperiodofone’slifeextendingtotheageofpuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquirelanguagenaturallyandeffortlessly,aperiodthatcoincideswiththeperiodofbrainlateralizationforlanguagefunctions.TheSqpir-WhorfhypothesisisatheoryputforwardbytheAmericananthropologicallinguistisSapirandWhorf.Thishypothesisstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.Subvocalspeechisatermusedtothoughtwhenthoughtandlanguageareidenticalorclosedparalleltoeachother.LanguagecentersBroca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandtheangulargyrus.LanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisitionisconcernedwithlangugagedevelopmentinhumans.Referstothedevelopmentofthechildren’sacquisitionofhismothertongueorfirstlanguage.I.e.howhecomestounderstandandtospeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.Inputreferstothelanguagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.Behavioristlearningtheory,atheoryofPsychologysuggeststhatthelearner’sVerbalbehaviorisconditionedorreinforcedthroughassociationbetweenStimulusandresponsewhenappliedtofirstlanguageacquisition.Telegraphicspeechreferstotheearlyspeechofchildren.Itissocalledbecauseitlacksthesamesortsofwordswhichadultstypicallyleaveoutof英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!\n本资料来自英语自考网http://www.absee.nettelegram.suchasnonsubstantivewordsandinflectionalmorphemes.Languagetransferreferstothelearnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirknowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Transfercanbeeitherpositiveornegative.Interferencereferstotheuseofone’sfirstLanguagerulewhichlendstoanerrororinappropriateforminthetargetlanguage.ItisalsocalledNegativetransfer.Contrastiveanalysisreferstoacomparativeprocedureusetoestablishlinguisticdifferentsbetweentwolanguagesoastopredictlearningdifficultiescausedbyinterferencefromthelearner’sfirstlanguageandpreparethetypeofteachingmaterialsthatwillreducetheeffectsofinterference.ErroranalysisapproachshowsthatthesearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewayinwhichdifferentL2Learnersacquireanewlanguageandalargeproportionofdevelopmentaltypeoferrorsinlearner’sL2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.Interlanguagereferstotheapproximatelanguagesystemasecondlanguagelearnerconstractswhichrepresentshisorhertransitionalcompetenceinthetargetlanguage.Fossilizationreferstothecauseofthelearner’sinterlanguage.Thatisinsecondlanguagelearningtheincorrectlinguisticfeaturessuchastheaccentoragrammaticalpatternbecauseapermanentofthewayapersonspeaksorwritsinthetargetlanguage.Acculturationreferstotheprocessofadaptingtothecultureandvaluesystemofthesecondlanguagecommunity.Over-extensionreferstothefactthatChildrenover-extendearlywords,suchas“Daddy””Munny”,asaresulttheyarelikelytocallallmendaddyandallwomenmummy.Integrativemotivation(介入性学习动机)referstotheaimofasecondlanguagelearnerstointegratehimselforherselfofwhichthesecondlanguagecommunity.Instrumentalmotivation(工具性学习动机)referstothelearner’sdesiretolearnasecondlanguagebecauseitisausefulfunctionalinstrument,suchasgettingajob,passinganexaminationorreadingforinformation.英语自考网www.absee.net以优质资料及高效的访问速度，为大家提供最新自考信息，祝愿大家早日毕业!