语言学基本概念 25页

语言学基本概念汇编Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.Languageisveryessentialtohumanbeings.2.Inlanguagetherearemanythingsweshouldknow.3.Forfurtherunderstanding,weneedtostudylanguagescientifically.Languageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Arbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.Creativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.Displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.AsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:1.Referential:toconveymessageandinformation;2.Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;3.Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;4.Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;5.Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers;6.Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:1.Ideationalfunction:toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;2.Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;3.Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenaming\nofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Macrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.Sociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity.Computationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.Forexample,“Don’tsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;“Peopledon’tsayX.”isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.AccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomsky\nbelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.Chapter2SpeechSoundsandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:1.Articulatoryphonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2.Acousticphonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3.Auditoryphonetics–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.Speechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.andvowelsAconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.Thecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).ofarticulation1.Stop/plosive:Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.InEnglish,[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]arestops2.nasals:[m],[n],[?]Thesoftpalateislowered,allowingtheairstreamtopassthroughthenasalpassage.3.Fricative:Theobstructionispartialandtheairstreamissqueezedoutofanarrowpassage,resultinginfriction.InEnglish,[f],[v],[s],[z],[?],[?],[θ],[e],[h]arefricatives.4.(Median)approximant:Anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.InEnglishthisclassofsoundsincludes[???????].5.Lateral(approximant):Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbypartiallyblockingtheairstreamfromthelungs,usuallybythetongue,butlettingitescapeatoneorbothsidesoftheblockage.[?]istheonlylateralinEnglish.Otherconsonantalarticulationsincludetrill,taporflap,andaffricate.TheconsonantsofEnglish1.ReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestige\nvarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish”or“OxfordEnglish”becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.2.theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingway:[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[l]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximantThecriteriaofvoweldescription1.Thepartofthetonguethatisraised–front,center,orback.2.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.3.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelips–variousdegreesofliproundingorspreading.4.Thepositionofthesoftpalate–raisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.andphonetictranscriptionCoarticulation:Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.andnarrowtranscriptionsTheuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptioniscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.andallophonesMinimalpairsMinimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,aphonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.ThephonemetheoryPhone（音素):thesmallestperceptiblediscretesegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inthemouth)i)phoneticunitii)notnecessarilydistinctiveofmeaningiii)physicalasheardorproducediv)markedwith[]\nPhoneme（音位）：Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.i)phonologicalunitii)distinctiveofmeaningiii)abstract,notphysicaliv)markedwith//.Allophones(音位变体)Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones.Phonicvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme.i)complementarydistribution互补分布ii)freevariationiii)phonemiccontrast.Assimilation:Aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Regressiveassimilation:Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Progressiveassimilation:Ifaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,wecallitprogressiveassimilation.Devoicing:Aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.DevoicingofvoicedconsonantsoftenoccursinEnglishwhentheyareattheendofaword.andphonologicalrulesThechangesinassimilation,nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallphonologicalprocessesinwhichatargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Distinctivefeature:Aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofalanguagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.Binaryfeature:Apropertyofaphonemeorawordwhichcanbeusedtodescribethephonemeorword.Abinaryfeatureiseitherpresentorabsent.Binaryfeaturesarealsousedtodescribethesemanticpropertiesofwords.Suprasegmentalfeatures:Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.Syllable:Aunitinspeechwhichisoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword.Opensyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinavowel.Closedsyllable:Asyllablewhichendsinaconsonant.Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[?]isusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.IntonationandToneIntonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Chapter3FromMorphemetoPhrase\nmorphemeAmorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.boxes”hastwomorphemes:“box”and“es,”neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon’twanttosacrificeitsmeaning.Morphology（形态学）Thestudyofinternalstructuresandrulesofmorphemesbywhichwordsareformed.3.Whatisanallomorph?map–maps,mouse–mice,ox–oxen,tooth–teeth,etc.TypesofMorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorphemeFreemorphemereferstothosewhichmayoccuraloneorwhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.BoundmorphemereferstothosewhichcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastoneothermorphemeRoot,affixandstemRootistheformofawordonwhichitsotherformsaresaidtobebased`Walk'istherootof`walks',`walked',`walking'and`walker'affix词缀----letterorgroupoflettersaddedtothebeginningortheendofawordtochangeitsmeaningorthewayitisused;prefixorsuffixorinfix-lessin"hopeless"stem词干----thepartofawordthatstaysthesamewhendifferentendingsareaddedtoit,forexample'driv-'in'driving'Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix’s3.2Whatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting.Wordformation:Inflectionandwordformation1.InflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.2.WordformationWordformationreferstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation).(1)CompoundCompoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,suchasice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,simple-minded,wedding-ring,etc.(2)DerivationDerivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandsuffixes.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.1.Invention\nSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames.2.BlendingBlendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.3.Abbreviation/clippingAnewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords.4.AcronymAcronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.5.Back-formationBack-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.6.AnalogicalcreationTheprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.7.BorrowingEnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess.Chapter4FromWordtoText1.Syntacticrelations（句法关系）Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelations（横组合关系）observedbyF.deSaussure.TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelations（纵聚合关系）byHjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.\n2.GrammaticalconstructionanditsconstituentsGRAMMATICALCONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）orCONSTRUCTcanbeusedtorefertoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.Onthelevelofsyntax,wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalanditsinternalproperties.Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole,thatistosay,anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome.Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction’s“make-up”,withthetermssuchas“subject,predicate,object,determiner,noun”.Constituent（成分）isapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis(直接成分分析法)，theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents---wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereachedThesyntacticconstructionsanalysedareoftwomaintypes:endocentricandexocentricconstructions,dependingontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituents.ENDOCENTRICTypicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases(thethreesmallchildren),verbphrases(willhavebeenleaving),adjectivephrases(reallyverylate).EXOCENTRICconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroupEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:CoordinationANDsubordinationCoordination并列结构CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.Subordination从属结构Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.3.SyntacticFunction句法功能Thesyntacticfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.Classesandfunctionsdetermineeachother,butnotinanyone-to-onerelation.Aclassitemcanperformseveralfunctions.\nForinstance,anounoranominalphrasecanfunctionasthesubject,object,modi-fier,adverbialandcomplementofasentence.Afunctioncanalsobefulfilledbyseveralclasses.Forinstance,thesubjectofasentencecanberealizedbyanoun,pronoun,numeral,infinitive,etc.4.Category范畴Thetermcategoryreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voiceNumberisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,(单数，双数，复数)etc.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.Suchcontrastsas“masculine:feminine:neuter”,“animate:inanimate”,etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype.he:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoressThecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.Agreement(orconcord)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalso,becharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric（照应的）,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent（先行语）,5.Phrase,ClauseandSentencePHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy,positionedbetweenclauseandword.DistinctionbetweenWORDGROUPandPHRASE.Awordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.“Tothedoor”isstillacceptedasaprepositionalphrasewhichconsistsofaprepositionplusanominalgroup,andis,consequently,nolongerapreposition.Aconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence,isaCLAUSE.ClausecanalsobeclassifiedintoFINITEandNON-FINITEclauses,thelatterincludingthetraditionalinfinitivephrase,participialphrase,andgerundialphrase.Afiniteclause（限定性分句）hasafiniteverb.Afiniteverbhastense. Anon-finiteclause（非限定性分句）hasaverbwithouttense.Bloomfield(1935)definedthesentenceasone“notincludedbyvirtueofanygrammaticalconstructioninanylargerlinguisticform”.Sentencesmaybeclassifiedalongtheintersectingdimensionsofstructureandfunction.6.Recursiveness递归性Recursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanother\nconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butithasbecomeanumbrellatermsuchimportantlinguisticphenomenaascoordinationandsubordination,conjoining（连接）andembedding（嵌入）,hypotactic（从属关系）andparatactic（并列关系）Cohesionisaconcepttodowithdiscourseortextratherthanwithsyntax.Itreferstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,anddefinesitasatext.Cohesivenesscanberealizedbyemployingvariouscohesivedevices衔接手段:Conjunction连词Ellipsis省略Lexicalcollocation词汇搭配Lexicalrepetition词汇复现Reference指称Substitution,etc.替代Chapter5MeaningSemanticsSemanticsisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningNamingtheory(Plato)(命名论）Theconceptualistview（意念论）Contextualism(Bloomfield)（语境论）Behaviorism（行为主义论）NamingtheoryWordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.TheconceptualistviewDoyoulikeadog?OgdenandRichards:semantictriangleThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.SenseandreferenceSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Dog:ananimalwithfourlegsandatail,oftenkeptasapetortrainedforwork,forexamplehuntingorguardingbuildings.Thisisthesenseoftheword“dog”.Thisdoesnotrefertoanyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedinthedefinition.Iwasoncebittenbyadog.Thisisthereferenceoftheworddoghere.Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.Weshouldstudymeaningintermsofsenseratherthanreference.\nContextualismMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatio-temporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Forexample,“black”inblackhair,blackcoffee,blacksheep,blackhumordiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.BehaviorismBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.(Bloomfield,1933)SenserelationsSynonymySynonymyisthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.AntonymyAntonymyisthenameforoppositenessrelation.Therearethreesubtypes:gradable,complementaryandconverseantonymy.1.GradableantonymyGradableantonymyisthecommonesttypeofantonymy.Tgood/bad,long/short,big/small,etc.2.ComplementaryantonymyThemembersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachother.Thatis,theydivideupthewholeofasemanticfiledcompletely.Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionofthealive/dead,hit/miss,male/female,boy/girl,etc.3.ConverseantonymyConverseantonymsarealsocalledrelationalopposites.Thisisaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweenbuy/sell,parent/child,above/below,etc.HyponymyHyponymyinvolvesusinthenotionofmeaninginclusion.thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Hyponymy----Superordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.PolysemyPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaningHomonymy………Componentialanalysis\nComponentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Woman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Meaning&SyntacticStructureThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.Senserelationsbetweensentences(1)??XissynonymouswithY(同义）(2)??XisinconsistentwithY（对立）(3)??XentailsY（蕴涵）(4)??XpresupposesY（预设）(5)??Xisacontradiction（自相矛盾）(6)??Xissemanticallyanomalous（语义变异）XissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.XisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.XentailsYX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.XpresupposesYX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.¢Predicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).¢Predication----theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.¢Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.¢Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelation\nlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.¢Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:¢No-placepredicate:itisfine.¢One-placepredicate:heruns.¢Two-placepredicate:JohnlovesMary.¢Three-placepredicate:Igiveyouabook.Chapter61.WhatisCognition?Mentalprocesses,informationprocessing.Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.(p116):structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproach:languagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.Theconceptualapproach:howlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.(p116)3.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsisthestudyofPsychologicalaspectsoflanguage.Itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.(p117)4SixsubjectsofresearchLanguageacquisition(L1/L2)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognition(p117)Holophrasticstage(One-wordstage):Wordsareusuallyproducedinisolation.Thisonewordstagecanlastfromtwomonthstoayear.Children’sfirstwordsaresimilarallovertheworld.Abouthalfthewordsareforobjects(food,bodyparts,clothing,toys,animalsandpeople);actions(up,off,eat,go);routines(yes,no,want,bye,hi).Two-wordstage:around18mThree-word-utterancestageFluentgrammaticalconversationstageUsemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflectioninthebeginningbutgooduse(90%)bytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsofalllanguagesareacquiredbeforethechildturnsfour.Mentallexicon:westoreagreatdealofinformationaboutthepropertiesofwordsinourmentallexicon,andretrievethisinformationwhenweunderstandlanguage.Forexample,wemayusemorphologicalrulestodecomposeacomplexwordlikerewritablethefirstfewtimesweencounteritandafterseveralexposureswemaystoreandaccessitasaunitorword.\nItmeansthatfrequencyofexposuredeterminesourabilitytorecallstoredinstances.WordrecognitionCohorttheory(p122):Marslen-Wilson&Welsh(1978)Thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Thesecandidatescompetewithoneanotherforactivation.Pickupthecandle.(candy?Handle?Candle?)(p123)InteractivemodelFactorsinvolvedinwordrecognition:Frequencyeffect:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageintheLanguage.Recencyeffects:theeasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrenceinthediscourseorcontext.Cotext:Werecognizeawordmorereadilywhentheprecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.LexicalambiguityAllthemeaningsrelatedtothewordareaccessed.Onlyonemeaningisaccessedinitially.Minimalattachment(p125):the“structurallysimpler”--structuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.GardenpathsentencesThehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Themanwhohuntsducksoutonweekends.ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.Fatpeopleeataccumulates.SyntacticambiguityDifferentpossiblewaysinwhichwordscanbefitintophrases.Ambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.ComprehensionoftextResonancemodel:(p126)informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.DiscourseinterpretationSchemataanddrawinginferencesSchema:apre-existingknowledgestructureinmemorytypicallyinvolvingthenormalexpectedpatternsofthings.3.CognitiveLinguistics（p129）Cognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonhumanexperiencesoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.(p130)ThreemainapproachesTheExperientialViewTheProminenceViewTheAttentionalView\nConstrualConstrual(p130):theabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationindifferentways.1.Attention/salienceWeactivatethemostrelevantconceptsmorethanconceptsthatareirrelevanttowhatwearethinkingabout.Wedrovetheroad.(aline)Sheranacrosstheroad.(asurface)Theworkersdugthroughtheroad.(avolume)392.Judgment/Comparison,Figure/GroundWecannotattendtoallfacetsofasceneatthesametime.Wecannotpayattentiontoeverything.Instead,wefocusoneventsofparticularsalience.Figure-groundorganizationThegroundseemstobeplacedbehindthefigureextendinginthebackground.Thefigureisthusmoreprominent,orevenmoreinteresting,thantheground.Figure-groundreversalFigure-groundalsoseemstoapplytoourperceptionofmovingobjects.Inordertodistinguishbetweenstationaryanddynamicfigure-groundrelations,somecognitivelinguists(egRonaldLangacker)usethetermtrajectorforamovingfigureandlandmarkforthegroundofamovingfigure.Animage-schemaisa“skeletal”mentalrepresentationofarecurrentpatternofembodied(especiallyspatialorkinesthetic)experience.Theyarehighlyschematicrepresentationsofperceptuallygroundedexperience.Theyemergefromourembodiedinteractionswiththeworld.(p134)）GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980).MetaphorsWeLiveBy.UniversityofChicagoPress.ConceptualMetaphorTheoryMetaphorsareactuallycognitivetoolsthathelpusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheChapter7Language,Culture,andSociety1.LanguageandCultureWhatisculture?Broadlyspeaking,itmeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,worksofart,rituals,ceremoniesandlanguage.Anindividual’sattitudes,values,idealsandbeliefsaregreatlyinfluencedbytheculturehelives.Inanarrowsense,itreferstolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.Materialcultureisconcrete,substantialandobservable.Spiritualcultureisabstract,implicitandhidden.Generally,therelationofLanguagetoCultureisthatofparttowhole,forLanguageispartofCulture.Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinLanguage.Languageisanindispensablecarrierofculture.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis\nEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.Strongversion&weakversionStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;Weakversionisamodifiedtypeofitsoriginaltheory.Itadmitsthereisacorrelationbetweenlanguage,cultureandthought,buttheculturaldifferencesarerelative,notcategorical.ThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearningLearningaforeignlanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguage’sculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.2.LanguageandSocietyLanguageisnotalwaysusedtoexchangeinformationasisgenerallyassumed,butratheritissometimesusedtofulfillanimportantsocialfunction–tomaintainsocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Whateachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyone’ssocialbackground.Whenwespeakwecannotavoidgivingourlistenerscluesaboutouroriginandourbackground.Thesocialenvironmentcanalsobereflectedinlanguage,andcanoftenhaveaneffectonthestructureandthevocabulary.Forexample,asociety'skinshipsystemisgenerallyreflectedinitskinshipvocabulary.Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenLanguageandsociety,betweentheusesofLanguageandthethesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersofLanguagelive.Micro-studies:Tolookatsocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit,oraworm’s-eyeviewofLinuse.Macro-studies:TolookatsocietyasawholeandconsiderhowLfunctionsinitandhowitreflectsthesocialdifferences,abird’seyeviewofthelanguageusedinsociety.lSpeechvariety(languagevariety)referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.lLinguisticfeaturesofaspeechvarietycanbefoundatthelexical,thephonological,themorphological,orthesyntacticallevelofthelanguage.lInsociolinguisticthreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest:regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.Variationistperspective:Peoplewhoclaimtobeusersofthesamelanguagedonotspeakthelanguageinthesamemanner.Varietiesrelatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters.Regionaldialectsarelinguisticvarietiesusedbypeoplelivingindifferentregions.Regionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,rivers,orswamps.LanguageandGenderComparedwithmen,womentendtousesuchadverbs:horridly,abominably,immensely,\nexcessively,amazingly,so,most,etc.Theoveruseofthesewordsimplythattheusersaresentimental,shallowandnotobjectiveenough.Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.Halliday:Register(语域）Languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.ThetypeofLanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.lHallidaydistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister.lFieldofdiscourse:referstowhatisgoingon.Itisconcernedwiththepurposeandsubjectmatterofcommunication.Itdeterminesthevocabularytobeusedandthephonologicalandgrammaticalfeaturesofthelanguage.Technicalvsnon-technicallTenorofdiscourse:referstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituation.Itanswersthequestionof“towhom”thespeakeriscommunicating.Thisdeterminesthelevelofformalityandtheleveloftechnicalityofthelanguageweuse.lModeofdiscourse:referstothemeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.Fundamentaltothemodeofdiscourseisthedistinctionbetweenspeakingandwriting.Toknowmoreaboutagivensocietybyexaminingthelinguisticbehaviorofitsmembers.Monolingual:Speakersofasinglelanguagecontroldifferentvarietiesofthatlanguage.Bilingual:Peopledevelopsomeabilityinasecondlanguage.Monolingualspeechcommunitiesarerare;monolingualcountriesareevenrarer.Bilingualism——thetwolanguagesareincontact.Thiscontactmayleadtointerference.Pidgin,Creole,diglossiaPidgininvolvesthemixtureoftwoormoreLanguages.FrompidgintocreolesAsaresultofintermarriage,thepidginisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue.creoleisnotjustacontactlanguagewithlimitedsocialfunctions,butcandealwithmore.Diglossia:Twodistinctvarietiesofthesamelanguageareused,sidebyside,fortwodifferentsetsoffunctions.Chapter8languageinuse1.DefinitionofPragmaticsThestudyoflanguageinuse.Thestudyofmeaningincontext.Thestudyofspeakers’meaning/utterancemeaning&contextualmeaning.ContextualMeaning:meaningincontextThemeaningofthesentencedependsonwhothespeakeris,whotheheareris,whenandwhereitisused.ContextContext----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.suchasknowledgeaboutthe\nculturalbackground,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituation(time,place,manner,etc.),knowledgeabouttherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore,knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,etc..Pragmaticsvs.semanticsSemantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)speechacts:actionsperformedviautterancesAccordingtothistheory,weareperformingvariouskindsofactswhenwearespeaking.Austin’snewmodelofspeechactsAccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact(发话行为）illocutionaryact（行事行为）perlocutionaryact（取效行为）(literalmeaningofanutterance)Anillocutionaryact:anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.InsayingX,IwasdoingY.Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow”,Iwasmakingapromise.Aperlocutionaryact:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatheriscoldinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestforthehearertoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer’sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.SpeechactsNote:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Theperlocutionaryactinvolvesmanypsychologicalandsocialfactors,ofwhichwearestillinthedark.Inthissense,speechacttheoryisinfactatheoryoftheillocutionaryact.(p190)4.ConversationalImplicaturePeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988):OxfordphilosopherWilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967LogicandConversationin1975Grice’stheoryLogicandConversationisanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)\nTheCooperativePrinciple(CP)AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.TospecifytheCPfurther,Griceintroducedfourcategoriesofmaximsasfollowings:Quality,Quantity,Relation,MannerMaximofQuality:Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.MaximofRelation:Berelevant.MaximofManner:Beperspicuous(要清晰）.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.CPisoftenviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.ConversationalimplicatureViolationofthemaxims(Quality)1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Herunsasfastasadeer.Heismadeofiron.ViolationofMaximofquality----A:Wouldyouliketogotoseethemoviewithmetonight?----B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.I’mafraidIhavetoprepareforit.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.A:BeirutisinPeru,isn’tit?B:AndRomeisinRomania,Isuppose.>It’sridiculous.Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。Boysareboys.Wariswar.2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.>Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.\nViolationofthemaxims(Relation)Berelevant.A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag.B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear.Idon’twanttotalkaboutProf.Wang.Oryouhavecommittedasocialgaffe.Violationofthemaxims(Manner)1.AvoidobscurityofexpressionA:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.>Don’tgivethemchocolate.买一赠一Chapter9LanguageandLiterature1.Style:Stylereferstovariationinaperson’sspeechorwritingoraparticularperson’suseofspeechorwritingatalltimesortoawayofspeakingorwritingataparticularperiodoftime.2.Stylistics:AccordingtoH.G.Widdowson,stylisticsisthestudyofliterarydiscoursefromalinguisticorientation.Hetreatedliteratureasdiscourse,thusadoptingalinguisticapproach.Thisbringsliteratureandlinguisticscloser.oftheliterarylanguageForegroundingandgrammaticalformForegrounding:Foregroundreferstothepartofascenenearesttotheviewer,orfigurativelythemostnoticeableposition.Foregroundingmeanstoputsomethingorsomeoneinthemostessentialpartofthedescriptionornarration,otherthaninabackgroundposition.Inliterarytexts,thegrammaticalsystemofthelanguageisoftenexploited,experimentedwith,orinMukarovsky’swords,madeto“deviatefromother,moreeveryday,formsoflanguage,andasaresultcreatesinterestingnewpatternsinformandinmeaning.andfigurativelanguage1.Literallanguage:Thefirstmeaningforawordthatadictionarydefinitiongivesisusuallycalledliteralmeaning.2.Figurativelanguage:A.k.a.trope,whichreferstolanguageusedinafigurativewayforarhetoricalpurpose.Wecanusesomefiguresofspeechsuchassimile,metaphor,metonymy,synecdoche,etc.ofsoundpatterning1.Rhyme(endrhyme):Thelastwordofalinehasthesamefinalsoundsasthelastwordofanotherline,sometimesimmediatelyaboveorbelow,sometimesoneormorelinesaway(cVC).2.Alliteration:Theinitialconsonantsareidenticalinalliteration(Cvc).andmetricalpatterning1.Iamb:Aniambicfootcontainstwosyllables,anunstressedsyllablefollowedbyastressedone.2.Trochee:Atrochaicfootcontainstwosyllablesaswell,butinthiscase,thestressedsyllablecomesfirst,followedbyanunstressedsyllable.3.Anapest:Ananapesticfootconsistsofthreesyllables;twounstressedsyllablesarefollowedbyastressedone.ofmeterandsound\n1.Couplets:Coupletsaretwolinesofverse,usuallyconnectedbyarhyme.2.Quatrains:Stanzasoffourlines,knownasquatrains,areverycommoninEnglishpoetry.3.Blankverse:Blankverseconsistsoflinesiniambicpentameterwhichdonotrhyme.Chapter11LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeachingSecondLanguageAcquisitionSecondLanguageAcquisition----formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.secondlanguage&foreignlanguageAforeignlanguageisalanguagewhichistaughtasaschoolsubjectbutwhichisnotusedasamediumofinstructioninschoolsnorasalanguageofcommunicationwithinacommunityAsacompromisebetweenthe“purelyform-focusedapproaches”andthe“purelymeaning-focused”approaches,arecentmovementcalledfocusonformseemstotakeamorebalancedviewontheroleofgrammarinlanguagelearning.(p251)FocusonFormAlthoughlanguagelearningshouldgenerallybemeaning-focusedandcommunication-oriented,itisstillnecessaryandbeneficialtofocusonformoccasionally.Focusonformoftenconsistsofanoccasionalshiftofattentiontolinguisticcodefeatures—bytheteacherand/oroneormorestudents—triggeredbyperceivedproblemswithcomprehensionorproduction.(p252)Languagelearningcantakeplacewhenthelearnerhasenoughaccesstoinputinthetargetlanguage.Thisinputmaycomeinwrittenorspokenform.Inthecaseofspokeninput,itmayoccurinthecontextofinteractionorinthecontextofnon-reciprocaldiscourse.AuthenticinputComprehensibleinput(Krashen):i+1Inputhypothesis:learnersacquirelanguageasaresultofcomprehendinginputaddressedtothem,butitshouldfollowthe“i+1”principle,thatis,thelanguagethatlearnersareexposedtoshouldbejustfarenoughbeyondtheircurrentcompetencesothattheycanunderstandmostofitbutstillbechallengedtomakeprogress.Inputshouldneitherbesofarbeyondtheirreachthattheyareoverwhelmed,norsoclosetotheircurrentstagethattheyarenotchallengedatall.PremodifiedinputInteractivelymodifiedinput:tendstodoabetterjob.—outputThetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.Itisoftenunderstoodasalanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.Interlanguageisadynamiclanguagesystem,whichisconstantlymovingfromthedepartureleveltothenative-likelevel.Canbedoneintwoways:investigatingthepsychological,biologicalorneurologicalmechanismsinvolvedintheproductionofinterlanguage;\ninvestigatingthelinguisticfeaturesofinterlanguage.Thestudyoftherolesthatthenativelanguageplaysisknownastheresearchoflanguagetransfer.L1knowledgeandskillscanbetransferredtoL2.ConstructivismLanguage(oranyknowledge)issociallyconstructed.Learnerslearnlanguagebycooperating,negotiatingandperformingallkindsoftasks.Inotherwords,theyconstructlanguageincertainsocialandculturalcontexts.2.LinguisticsandLanguageTeachingLinguisticstheoriesinfluenceourgeneralorientationinapproachestolanguageteaching.Linguisticknowledgehelpsteacherstobetterexplainthespecificlanguageitemstheyteach.Focusesoncompletespokenandwrittentextsandonthesocialandculturalcontextsinwhichsuchlanguageoperates.Itaimsatdevelopingdiscoursecompetence,similartothewell-knownconceptofcommunicativecompetence.CommunicativecompetenceDellHymesWhatalearnersknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationsforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.Includesknowledgeofthegrammarandvocabulary,knowledgeofrulesofspeaking,knowledgeofhowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypesofspeechactsandsocialconventions,andknowledgeofhowtouselanguageappropriately.CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)andTask-basedLanguageTeaching(TBLT)arethebestknownexamplesofsuchatheory.IntheCLTorTBLTclassroom,studentsareexpectedtolearnbyperformingtasks.Task-based(p256)Twobroadtypesoftasks:real-worldtasksandpedagogicaltasks.Areal-worldtaskisveryclosetosomethingwedoindailylifeorwork.Pedagogicaltasksarethoseactivitiesthatstudentsdointheclassroombutthatmaynottakeplaceinreallife.(informationgap)NoamChomskyAnativespeakerpossessesakindoflinguisticcompetence.Thechildisbornwithknowledgeofsomelinguisticuniversals.Whileacquiringhismothertongue,hecompareshisinnatelanguagesystemwiththatofhisnativelanguageandmodifieshisgrammar.(p257)3.SyllabusDesignAbridgebetweenlanguageteachingtheoryandlanguageteachingpractice.Translatestheoreticalunderstandingoflanguageteachingandsetsupanoperableframeworkforlanguageteaching.Themostimportantpartofsyllabusdesignisselectingandsequencinglanguageitems.SyllabusandcurriculumAsyllabusisaspecificationofwhattakesplaceintheclassroom,whichusuallycontainstheaimsandcontentsofteachingandsometimescontainssuggestionsofmethodology.Acurriculumisafarbroaderconcept.Itprovides(1)generalstatementsabouttherationaleaboutlanguage,languagelearningandlanguageteaching,(2)detailedspecificationofaims,objectivesandtargetslearningpurposeand(3)implementationofaprogram.Insomesense,asyllabusispartofacurriculum.Syllabusisoftenusedtorefertosthsimilartoalanguageteachingapproach,whereascurriculumreferstoaspecificdocumentofalanguageprogramdevelopedforaparticular\ncountryorregion.4.ContrastiveAnalysisAwayofcomparingL1andL2todeterminepotentialerrorsforthepurposeofisolatingwhatneedstobelearnedandwhatnot.Itsgoalistopredictwhatareaswillbeeasytolearnandwhatwillbedifficult.Associatedinitsearlydayswithbehaviorismandstructuralism.(p270)LanguageisahabitandLLinvolvesestablishmentofanewsetofhabits.L1interfereswithL2.ErrorsinL2canbeaccountedforbydifferencesbetweenL1andL2.TransferoccursfromL2toL2,sosimilaritiescanbeignored.Therefore,NeedforcarefulanalysisofsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenL1andL2.Teachersshouldfocusonareasofnegativetransfer.5.ErrorAnalysisS.PitCorderManyerrorsmadebyL2learnerswerecausedbyfactorsotherthanL1interference.Errorsarenotjusttobeseenassomethingtobeeradicated.Error:learner’slackofknowledge/competenceMistake:learner’sfailuretoperformtheircompetence(p272)Interlingualerrors(transfererrors):misuseofanitembecauseofL1influence.AcquisitionandlearningAcquisitionisaprocesssimilartothenewwaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itissubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnersarehardlyawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusingthelanguagetocommunicate.Peoplerefertoitasimplicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning.Learningreferstoconsciouseffortstolearnthesecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.ThecriticalperiodhypothesisEricLenneberg,abiologist,arguedthattheLAD(languageacquisitiondevice),likeotherbiologicalfunctions,workssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime-aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition-whichisreferredtoastheCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)Itreferstoaperiodinone’slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasilyandswiftly.TherearetwoversionsoftheCPH.Thestrongonesuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakoneholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.Chapter12TheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguistics–FerdinanddeSaussure◇“fatherofmodernlinguistics”◇“amasterofadisciplinewhichhemademodern.”◇CourseinGeneralLinguistics(1916),◇Thelinguisticunitisasign.Thelinguisticsignunites,notasignandaname,buta\nconceptandasoundimage.◇Hecalledtheconceptsignifiedandthesoundimagesignifier.Thelinguisticssignhastwocharacteristics.First,therelationshipbetweenthesignifierandthesignifiedisarbitrary.Secondly,thelinguisticsignischaracterizedbythelinearnatureofthesignifier.◇Adistinctionbetweenlangueandparole.Thetaskofalinguististostudylangue,sinceitisacoherentandanalyzableobject.Itisthisdistinctionthatleadstothedistinctionofphoneticsandphonology.◇DistinctionbetweendiachronicandsynchronicstudiesThePragueSchoolThePragueSchoolhasthreepointsofspecialimportance:(1)Itstressesthatthesynchronicstudyoflanguageisfullyjustifiedasitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialforinvestigation.(2)Itemphasizesthesystemiccharacteroflanguage,arguingthatnoelementofanylanguagecanbesatisfactoryanalyzedorevaluatedifviewedinisolation.Inotherwords,elementsareheldtobeinfunctionalcontrastoropposition.(3)Itlooksonlanguageasatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.1.FunctionalSentencePerspective(FSP):Itisatheoryoflinguisticanalysiswhichreferstoananalysisofutterances(ortexts)intermsoftheinformationtheycontain.Theprincipleisthattheroleofeachutterancepartisevaluatedforitssemanticcontributiontothewhole.2.Theme:Thepointofdepartureofasentenceisequallypresenttothespeakerandtothehearer–itistheirrallyingpoint,thegroundonwhichtheymeet.Thisiscalledthetheme.3.Rheme:Thegoalofdiscourseofasentencepresentstheveryinformationthatistobeimpartedtothehearer.Thisiscalledtherheme.TheLondonSchoolTheLondonSchoolhasatraditionoflayingstressonthefunctionsoflanguageandattachinggreatimportancetocontextsofsituationandthesystemaspectoflanguage.Itisthesefeaturesthathavemadethisschoolofthoughtknownassystemiclinguisticsandfunctionallinguistics.ItisanimportantandadmirablepartoftheLondonSchooltraditiontobelievethatdifferenttypesoflinguisticdescriptionmaybeappropriatefordifferentpurposes.1.LanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)Chomskybelievesthatlanguageissomewhatinnate,andthatchildrenarebornwithwhathecallsaLanguageAcquisitionDevice,whichisauniquekindofknowledgethatfitsthemforlanguagelearning.Hearguesthechildcomesintotheworldwithspecificinnateendowment,notonlywithgeneraltendenciesorpotentialities,butalsowithknowledgeofthenatureoflanguage.Accordingtothisview,childrenarebornwithknowledgeofthebasicgrammaticalrelationsandcategories,andthisknowledgeisuniversal.Therelationsandcategoriesexistinallhumanlanguagesandallhumaninfantsarebornwithknowledgeofthem.AccordingtoChomsky,thereareaspectsoflinguisticorganizationthatarebasictothehumanbrainandthatmakeitpossibleforchildrentoacquirelinguisticcompetenceinallitscomplexitywithlittleinstructionfromfamilyorfriends.HearguesthatLADprobablyconsistsofthreeelements:ahypothesis-maker,linguistic\nuniversal,andanevaluationprocedure.DeepandsurfacestructuresThesurfacesstructureisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.jJaneiseasytoplease.(S)jItiseasyforsbtopleaseJane.(D)jJaneiseagertoplease.(S)jJaneiseagertopleasesb.(D)jStructurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.