语言学课后习题答案 54页

.-Chapter1Introduction1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)linguistics:thescientificorsystematicstudyoflanguage.(2)language:asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(3)arbitrariness:theabsenceofsimilaritybetweentheformofalinguisticsignandwhatitrelatestoinreality,e.g.theworddogdoesnotlooklikeadog.(4)duality:thewaymeaninglesselementsoflanguageatonelevel(soundsandletters)combinetoformmeaningfulunits(words)atanotherlevel.(5)competence:knowledgeofthegrammarofalanguageasaformalabstractionanddistinctfromthebehaviorofactuallanguageuse,i.e.performance.(6)performance:Chomsky’stermforactuallanguagebehaviorasdistinctfromtheknowledgethatunderliesit,orcompetence.(7)stylistics:thestudyofhowliteraryeffectscanberelatedtolinguisticfeatures.(8)phaticcommunion:Languageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontactbetweenthespeakerandthehearer.-.word.zl\n.-(9)functionalism:thestudyoftheformsoflanguageinreferencetotheirsocialfunctionincommunication.(10)formalism:thestudyoftheabstractformsoflanguageandtheirinternalrelations.(11)synchroniclinguistics:thestudyoflanguageandspeechastheyareusedatagivenmomentandnotintermsofhowtheyhaveevolvedovertime.(12)diachroniclinguistics:thestudyoflinguisticchangeovertimeincontrasttolookingatlanguageasitisusedatagivenmoment.2.No,languageishuman-specific.Humanlanguagehassevendesignfeatures,includingarbitrariness,duality,productivity,interchangeability,displacement,specializationandculturaltransmission.Thesefeaturesarefoundutterlylackingindogs’orpigs’noisesandthussethumanlanguageapartfromanimalcrysystems.3.Arbitrarinessreferstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.Forexample,forthesameanimaldog,inEnglishwecallit/d0g/,inChineseas“gou〞,but“yilu〞inJapanese;itbarkswowwowinEnglishbutwangwanginChinese.Ofcourse,onomatopoeticwordssuchas“quack-quack〞and“bang〞areexceptions,butwordslikethesearerelativelyfewcomparedwiththetotalnumberofwordsinalanguage.4.Ahumanbabydoesnotspeakanylanguageatbirth.Whatlanguagethebabyisgoingtospeakisdeterminedbythecultureheisborninto.AChinese-.word.zl\n.-babybornandbroughtupinLondonbyanEnglishfamilywillspeakEnglish,whileanEnglishchildbroughtupinBeijingbyaChineseauntwillspeakChinese.Thatistosay,languagecannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.Itisculturallytransmitted.5.Firstly,linguisticsdescribeslanguagesanddoesnotlaydownrulesofcorrectnesswhiletraditionalgrammaremphasizescorrectness.Secondly,linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,whiletraditionalgrammaremphasizesthepriorityofthewrittenlanguage.Thirdly,traditionalgrammarisbasedonLatinandittriestoimposetheLatincategoriesandstructuresonotherlanguages,whilelinguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmerits.6.Adescriptiveapproachattemptstotellwhatisinthelanguagewhiletheprescriptiveapproachtellspeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguage.Mostmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive,whereastraditionalgrammarsareprescriptive.7.Synchroniclinguisticsstudieslanguageatoneparticulartimewhilediachroniclinguisticsstudieslanguagedevelopmentsthroughtime.Synchroniclinguisticsfocusesonthestateoflanguageatanypointinhistorywhilediachroniclinguisticsfocusesonthedifferencesintwoormorethantwostatesoflanguageoverdecadesorcenturies.8.No,humanlanguagehasthedesignfeatureofspecialization.Itreferstothefactthatmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.Forexample,amothercantellastorytoherchildwhileslicingupacake.However,wolvescanonlyrespondtoastimulusandistotallyinvolved-.word.zl\n.-physicallyinthecommunicationprocess.Thus,awolfcannothavealanguagesimilartoman’s,eventhoughitcouldexpressathousanddifferentemotions.Besides,theaspectofproductivityalsodistinguisheshumanlanguagefromwolf’spostures.-.word.zl\n.-Chapter2TheSoundsofLanguage1.Defineeachofthefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)articulator:thetongue,lips,andvelum,whichchangetheshapeofthevocaltracttoproducedifferentspeechsounds.(2)assimilation:aphonologicalprocesswherebyasoundbecomesphoneticallysimilar(oridentical)toaneighboringsound,e.g.avowelbecomes[+nasal]whenfollowedbya[+nasal]consonant.(3)consonant:aspeechsoundproducedbypartialorcompleteclosureofpartofthevocaltract,thusobstructingtheairflowandcreatingaudiblefriction.Consonantsaredescribedintermsofvoicing,placeofarticulation,andmannerofarticulation.(4)elision:theleavingoutofasoundorsoundsinspeech.(5)intonation:thevariationinpitchandstresswhichgivesbeatandrhythmtothetunethevoiceplaysinordinaryspeech.(6)phoneme:theabstractelementofasound,identifiedasbeingdistinctiveinaparticularlanguage.(7)phonetics:thestudyoflinguisticspeechsounds,howtheyareproduced,howtheyareperceived,andtheirphysicalproperties.(8)phonology:thestudyoftheabstractsystemsunderlyingthesoundsoflanguage.(9)stress:theprominencegiventocertainsoundsinspeech.-.word.zl\n.-(10)voicing:thevibrationinthelarynxcausedbyairfromthelungspassingthroughthevocalcordswhentheyarepartlyclosed;speechsoundsaresaidtobeeithervoicedorvoiceless.(11)voiceless:Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairstreamfromthelungsisnotobstructedatthespacebetweenvocalcordsandpassesfreely.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoicelesssounds.(12)vowel:aspeechsoundproducedwithoutsignificantconstrictionoftheairflowingthroughtheoralcavity.2.Minimalpairtestorsubstitutiontest.Minimalpairtestorsubstitutiontestistoseewhethersubstitutingonesoundfor4anotherresultsinadifferentword.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsrepresentdifferentphonemes.Forexample,astotheEnglishwordbear,ifwesubstitutepforb,wegetthewordpear,thetwoaredifferentwords.Then/b/and/p/representdifferentphonemes.Otherexamplesarechunk/junk,ban/bin,bet/beat,fine/vine,side/site,etc.3.Takethewordbigforexample,inthewordbig/big/,/b/istheonset,/i/isthenucleusand/g/isthecoda.Thedifferencebetweenopensyllablesandclosedsyllablesiswhetherthewordshavecodas.Iftherearecodas,theyareclosedsyllables,suchaspig,hatandat;ifnot,theyareopensyllables,suchasdo,I,teaandkey.4.(1)stop,consonant-.word.zl\n.-(2)back,rounded,vowel5.(1)voiceless/voiced(2)bilabial/labiodental(3)close/semi-open(4)stop/nasal(5)alveolar/palatal(6)alveolar/dental(1)kit/git,bucker/bugger,bag/back(2)mark/nark,smack/snack,sum/sun(3)best/vest,ober/over,lib/live(4)bore/more,abate/amate,mob/mom(5)pat/fat,apt/aft(AmE),harp(BrE)/half7.(1)Thestressesareplacedonthesecondsyllableexceptfor“promise〞.Wemayeasilyconcludethattheverbsusuallyarestressedonthesecondsyllable.(2)Syllablerepresentationsofthewords:collide[k2#laid]elect[i#lekt]consider[k2n#sid2]-.word.zl\n.-Chapter3Morphology1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)morphology:thestudyofthestructureofwords.5(2)morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesmeaningorservesagrammaticalfunction.(3)freemorpheme:amorphemethatcanstandaloneasaword.(4)boundmorpheme:amorphemethatcannotstandaloneasaword,e.g.ment(asinestablishment),and-er(asinpainter).(5)morph:thesmallestmeaningfulphoneticsegmentsofanutteranceonthelevelofparole.(6)allomorph:aphoneticforminwhichamorphemeisrealized,e.g.-s,-es,andenareallallomorphs(inwriting)ofthepluralmorpheme.(7)derivation:theformationofnewwordsbyaddingaffixestootherwordsormorphemesinmorphologyandwordformation.(8)clipping:theprocessbywhichpartsofawordofmorethanonesyllablehavebeencutoff,andreducedtoashorterform.(9)acronym:wordswhicharecomposedofthefirstletterofaseriesofwordsandarepronouncedassinglewords.Examples:NATO,radarandyuppy.(10)initialism:Somenewwordsarecomposedofthefirstlettersofaseriesofwordsandpronouncedbysayingeachletterinthem.Suchwords-.word.zl\n.-arecalledinitialism.(11)blending:Asinglenewwordcanbeformedbycombiningtwoseparateforms.Typically,blendingisfinishedbytakingonlythebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofanotherword.Forexample,brunchisformedbytheshortenedformsofbreakfastandlunch.(12)root:themorphemethatremainswhenallaffixesarestrippedfromacomplexword,e.g.systemfromun-+system+atic+ally.(13)stem:thebasetowhichoneormoreaffixesareattachedtocreateamorecomplexformthatmaybeanotherstemoraword.Forexample,bookisthestemofbookish.(14)prefix:Affixescanbejoinedtothebeginningoftherootorstem,inwhichcasetheyarecalledprefixes.(15)suffix:Affixescanbejoinedtotheendoftherootorstem,inwhichcasetheyarecalledsuffixes.2.(3),(5),(7)3.(1)simple:flytreesuite(2)boundmorphemerootfly/flyreusere-usespiteful-fulspitepreplanpre-plan-.word.zl\n.-desks-sdesktriumphed-edtriumphsuite/suiteoptionality-alityoptionuntieun-tiedelightde-lightfastest-estfastprettier-ierprettytree/treejustly-lyjustdeformde-formmistreatmis-treatdislikedis-likepayment-mentpaydisobeydis-obeyprematurepre-mature4.(1)ColumnI:ablaut(vowelmodification)ColumnII:suppletionColumnIII:stressmodification(2)TheprocessintheColumnIisfinishedbychangingthevowelofeachword,whileinColumnII,theprocessisfinishedbychangingvowelandconsonantofeachword.-.word.zl\n.-(3)ColumnI:awake/awokebear/borearise/aroseblow/blewbite/bithide/hidlie/layknow/knewfoot/feetgoose/geesetooth/teethlouse/liceColumnII:bad/worseare/weremany/moreColumnIII:‘combine/’bine‘compress/’press7‘conduct/con’duct‘insert/in’sert‘insult/in’sult‘intern/in’tern5.(1)Omitted.(2)Otherexamples:‘rerun(n.)–re’run(v.)‘contrast(n.)–con’trast(v.)‘convert(n.)–con’vert(v.)‘desert(n.)–de’sert(v.)‘export(n.)–ex’port(v.)‘increase(n.)–in’crease(v.)‘conduct(n.)–con’duct(v.)‘object(n.)–ob’ject(v.)‘content(n.)–con’tent(v.)‘protest(n.)–pro’test(v.)‘insult(n.)–in’sult(v.)‘produce(n.)–pro’duce(v.)Whenawordbelongstodifferentwordclasses,thestressofthewordwillbesometimesplacedondifferentsyllables.Whenallthewordsabovearestressedonthefirstsyllables,theyarenouns,butiftheyhavethesecondsyllablesstressed,thewordsbecomeverbs.6.(1)Itmeans“theinhabitantof〞.(2)Itmeans“thepersonwhodoes〞.-.word.zl\n.-(3)Themorphologicalruleworkinghereis“n.+-er––n.〞,andthelastphonemeofthenoun,whichthesuffix-erisaddedto,shouldbeaconsonant.(4)Therulein(3)doesn’tworkintheworddiscovererbecausethelastphonemeofdiscovererisavowel/2/.7.(1)inflection(2)derivation(3)inflection(4)inflection(5)derivation-.word.zl\n.-Chapter4Syntax1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)syntax:thetermusedtorefertothestructureofsentencesandtothestudyofsentencestructure.(2)wordclass:agroupofwordswhicharesimilarinfunction;wordswhicharegroupedintowordclassesaccordingtohowtheycombinewithotherwords,howtheychangetheirforms,etc.(3)prescriptiveapproach:Thisviewregardsgrammarasasetofrulesforthe8“proper〞useofalanguage,that’stosay,ittriestolaydownrulestotellpeoplehowtousealanguage.(4)descriptiveapproach:theapproachoflinguisticstudies,withwhichlinguistscollectsamplesofthelanguagetheyareinterestedinandattempttodescribetheregularstructuresofthelanguageastheyareused,notaccordingtosomeviewofhowtheyshouldbeused.(5)ICanalysis:theapproachtodividethesentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.Forexample,theimmediateconstituentsof“Themanboughtacar〞arethemanandboughtacar.Theimmediateconstituentsofthemanaretheandman,andsoonuntilnofurthercutscanbemade.Theultimateconstituentsof“Themanboughtacar〞atthewordlevelarethe,man,bought,a,andcar.-.word.zl\n.-(6)structuralanalysis:atypeofdescriptiveapproachtostudythedistributionoflinguisticformsinalanguagethroughsuchmethodsastheuseof“testframes〞.(7)immediateconstituent:Linguisticunitscanbedividedintosmallconstituents,whichcanbefurtheranalyzedintosmallerconstituents.Thisprocesscontinuesuntilnofurtherdivisionsarepossible.Thefirstdivisionorunitsareknownasimmediateconstituents.(8)ultimateconstituent:Linguisticunitscanbedividedintosmallconstituents,whichcanbefurtheranalyzedintosmallerconstituents.Thisprocesscontinuesuntilnofurtherdivisionsarepossible.Thefinaldivisionorunitsareknownasultimateconstituents.(9)constituentstructuralgrammar:Itreferstoagrammarwhichanalyzessentencesusingonlytheideaofconstituency,whichrevealsahierarchyofstructurallevels.(10)transformationalgrammar:atypeofgrammarwhichattemptstodefineanddescribebyasetofrulesorprinciplesallthegrammaticalsentences(withoutungrammaticalones)ofalanguage.(11)ideationalfunction:theuseoflanguageasameansofgivingstructuretoourexperienceoftherealorimaginaryworld.(12)interpersonalfunction:theuseoflanguageformaintainingsocialrolesandinteractingwithothers.(13)textualfunction:tocreatewrittenorspokentextswhichcoherewithin-.word.zl\n.-themselvesandwhichfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareused.2.Yes.Asweknow,morphologyisthestudyoftheinternalstructure,formsand9classesofwords,whilesyntaxfocusesonthestructureandorderingofcomponentswithinasentence.Themajordistinctionbetweenmorphologyandsyntaxisthattheformerisconcernedwiththeinternalcompositionofaword,whilethelatterisconcernedwiththecombinationofwords.3.(2)Insteadofusingtheform“suggestsomebodytodosomething〞,weusuallyuse“suggest+that-clause〞or“suggestdoing〞,herewe’dbettersubstitute“advise〞for“suggest〞(4)Theword“request〞isatransitiveverbwhichshouldtakeanobjectdirectly,sotheword“for〞shouldbeomitted.(6)Theword“donate〞cannotbefollowedbydoubleobjectsas“donatesomebodysomething〞.Insteadwealwaysuse“donatesomethingtosomebody〞.(10)Thesubjectoftheverb“write〞isusuallyahuman;an“article〞cannotwriteitself.Inthiscasethepassiveconstructionisnormallyused:Thearticlewasverywellwriten.(11)Usuallywedon’tuse“beboredofsomething/somebody〞,but“beboredwithsomething/somebody〞whichmeanslosinginterestinsomebody/something.(13)Here“myself〞isareflexivepronoun,whichcan’tbeusedassubject,and-.word.zl\n.-itshouldbereplacedby“I〞.(14)Theword“surprise〞isusuallyusedasatransitiveverb,sotheexpression“…surpriseforyou〞isungrammatical,anditcanbereplacedby“surprisesomebody(withsomething)〞or“Iwassurprisedbyyourgettingmarried.〞(15)Theword“sleep〞isusuallyusedasanintransitiveverb,whichcan’ttakeanobject.Thecasesof“sleep〞beingusedasatransitiveverbaresemanticallylimited,asin“tosleepagoodsleep〞or“theroomcansleep3people〞.4.It’sungrammatical,because“us〞istheobjectivecasewhichcan’tserveasthesubject,while“she〞isthesubjectivecasewhichcan’tserveastheobject.Thesentenceshouldbe“WevisitheronSundays〞.Thepersonalpronouns“you〞and“it〞havethesameformwhetherusedasthesubjectorobject.5.(1)NP:AGuns“N〞Rosesconcert,anarena,some2500fans,afull-fledgedriot,AGuns“N〞Rosesconcertatanarena,AGuns“N〞RosesconcertatanarenanearST.Louis,Thetrouble,venuesecurity,acamera,thefront,thestage,thefrontofthestage.PP:atanarena,atanarenanearST.Louis,nearST.Louis,indisaster,nearthefront,ofthestage,nearthefrontofthestage.VP:stagedafull-fledgedriot,askedvenuesecurity,confiscateacamera.(2)N:Guns,Roses,concert,arena,ST.Louis,disaster,fans,riot,trouble,Axl10Rose,venue,security,camera,front,stage.Prep:at,near,in,of.V:end,-.word.zl\n.-stage,start,ask,confiscate,see.6.(1)Youmustn’tendasentencewithapreposition.Youmustn’tsplitinfinitives7.(i)(ii)8.(1)a.TerryloveshiswifeandIlovehiswife,too.b.IlovemywifeaswellasTerryloveshiswife.(2)a.It’syesterdaythattheysaidshewouldgo.b.Shewouldgoyesterdayastheysaid.(3)a.Thegovernorisastreetfighterwhoisdirty.b.Thegovernorisafighterinadirtystreet.(4)a.Thedesignhassquaresandcircles,bothofwhicharebig.b.Thedesignhasbigsquares,anditalsohassomecircles.(Thesizesofthecirclesarenotmentioned.)-.word.zl\n.-Chapter5Semantics1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)semantics:thestudyoflinguisticmeaning.(2)truth-conditionalsemantics:anapproachthatknowingthemeaningofthesentenceisthesameasknowingtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse,andknowingthemeaningofawordorexpressionisknowingthepartthatitplaysinthetruthorfalsehoodofthesentencecontainingit.(3)namingtheory:theviewthatthemeaningofanexpressioniswhatitrefersto,ornames.(4)behavioristtheory:theviewthatthemeaningofalinguisticformisdefinedasobservablebehaviorswhichisanapproachdrawingonpsychology.(5)usetheory:thesemantictheoryaccordingtowhichthemeaningofanexpressionisdeterminedbyitsuseincommunicationandmoregenerally,insocialinteraction.(6)sense:theinherentpartofanexpression’smeaning,togetherwiththecontext,determinesitsreferent.Forexample,knowingthesenseofanounphrasesuchasthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2004allowsonetodeterminethatGeorgeW.Bushisthereferent.(7)reference:(insemantics)therelationshipbetweenwordsandthe-.word.zl\n.-things,actions,eventsandqualitiestheystandfor.AnexampleinEnglishistherelationshipbetweenthewordtreeandtheobject“tree〞(referent)intherealworld.(8)conceptualmeaning:Itmeansthemeaningofwordsmaybediscussedintermsofwhattheydenoteorreferto,alsocalleddenotativeorcognitivemeaning.Itistheessentialandinextricablepartofwhatlanguageisandiswidelyregardedasthecentralfactorinverbalcommunication.Forinstance,theconceptualmeaningof“he〞inEnglishisanymalepersonormaleanimal.(9)connotativemeaning:Itisthecommunicativemeaningthatawordoracombinationofwordshasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overitspurelyconceptualmeaning.Forexample,theconnotativemeaningof“woman〞isemotional,frail,inconstant,irrational,etc.(10)semanticfield:theorganizationofrelatedwordsandexpressionsintoasystemwhichshowstheirrelationshiptooneanother.Forexample,kinshiptermssuchasfather,mother,brother,sister,uncle,auntbelongtoasemanticfieldwhoserelevantfeaturesincludegeneration,sex,membershipofthefather’sormother’ssideoffamily.(11)lexicalgap:theabsenceofawordinaparticularplaceinasemanticfieldofalanguage.Forinstance,inEnglishwehavebrotherversussister,sonversusdaughter,butnoseparatelexemesfor“male〞and“female〞cousin.-.word.zl\n.-(12)componentialanalysis:(insemantics)anapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalyzesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,themeaningoftheEnglishwordboymaybeshownas[+human][+male][-adult].(13)semanticfeature:thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword.Themeaningofwordmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticcomponentsorfeatures.Forexample,thefeature[+male]ispartofthemeaningoffather,andsoisthefeature[+adult],butotherfeaturesareneededtomakeupthewholemeaningoffather.Often,semanticfeaturesareestablishedbycontrastandcanbestatedintermsof[+]and[-],e.g.womanhasthesemanticfeatures[+human],[-male]and[+adult].(14)synonym:thesenserelationsofequivalenceofmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.small/littleanddead/deceased.(15)antonym:thesenserelationofvariouskindsofopposingmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.big/small,alive/deadandgood/bad.(16)hyponymy:thesenserelationbetweentermsinahierarchy,whereamoreparticularterm(thehyponym)isincludedinthemoregeneralone(thesuperordinate):XisaY,e.g.abeechisatree,atreeisaplant.(17)meronym:thesenserelationbetweenbodyanditspartswhicharenotonlysectionsofthebodybutdefinedintermsofspecificfunctions.Forexample,theheadisthepartofthebodywhichcarriesthemostimportantsenseorgans,i.e.eyes,ears,noseandtongue.-.word.zl\n.-(18)semanticrole:thewayinwhichthereferentofanounphraseisinvolvedinthesituationdescribedorrepresentedbytheclause,forexampleasagent,patient,orcause.(19)entailment:therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofone(thesecond)isinferredfromthetruthoftheother,e.g.CordayassassinatedMaratandMaratisdead;ifthefirstistrue,thesecondmustbetrue.(20)presupposition:implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken〞isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!〞2.(1)Hewaitedbythebank.a.Hewaitedbythefinancialinstitutionwhichpeoplecankeeptheirmoneyinorborrowfrom.b.Hewaitedbythebankoftheriver.(2)Ishereallythatkind?a.Ishereallythattypeofperson?b.Ishereallythatkind-hearted?(3)Weboughtherdogbiscuits.a.Weboughtdogbiscuitsforher.b.Weboughtbiscuitsforherdog.(4)Hesawthatgasolinecanexplode.a.Hesawthatgasolinecontainerexplode.-.word.zl\n.-b.Hesawthatgasolinemayexplode.(5)Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.a.Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxesintotal.b.Eachofthefiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.(6)Hesawherdrawingpencils.a.Hesawherpencilsfordrawing.b.Hesawherdrawingthepictureofpencils.3.(2)(4)(5)(8)areantonyms;(1)(3)(6)(7)aresynonyms.4.charity:kindness,sympathy,church,helpfuliron:strong,brave,hard,determinedmole:traitor,betrayal,spysnow:pure,virgin,cleanstreet:homeless,livinghard,pitiable5.(1)a.hoardb.scribblec.barn,methodd.olfactory(2)a.acquireb.tellc.wayd.smell(3)a.buy,win,steal.b.talk,tellc.road,way,pathd.smellThesewordsarelessmarkedintheirsetsbecausetheyaremoreusualandtendtobeusedmorefrequently.Theyconsistofonlyonemorphemeandareeasiertolearnandrememberthanothers.Theyarealsooftenbroaderinmeaningandcannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield.6.homophones:sea-see,break-brake;polysemies:sea,break,prayer,mature,-.word.zl\n.-trace,househomonyms:ear.7.Inasemanticfield,notalllexicalitemsnecessarilyhavethesamestatus.Thelessmarkedmembersofthesamesemanticfield(1)areusuallyeasiertolearnandrememberthanmoremarkedmembers;(2)consistofonlyonemorphemeincontrasttomoremarkedmembers;(3)cannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield;(4)tendtobeusedmorefrequentlythanmoremarkedterms;(5)broaderinmeaningthanmoremarkedmembers;(6)arenottheresultofthemetaphoricalusageofthenameofanotherobjectorconcept,butmoremarkedare.8.(1)a.bachelor,man,son,paperboy,pope,chiefb.bull,rooster,drake,ram.The(a)and(b)wordsaremale.The(a)wordsarehuman.The(b)wordsareanimals.(2)a.ask,tell,say,talk,converseb.shout,whisper,mutter,drawl,hollerThe(a)and(b)wordsarerealizedbysounds.The(a)wordsarenormalvoicequality.The(b)wordsareproducedbymodifyingone’snormalvoicequality.(3)a.walk,run,skip,jump,hop,swimb.fly,skate,ski,ride,cycle,canoe,hang-glide-.word.zl\n.-The(a)and(b)wordsaresports(movement).The(a)wordsaresportswithoutinstruments.The(b)wordsaresportswithinstruments.-.word.zl\n.-Chapter6Pragmatics1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)pragmatics:abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinuse.(2)deixis:themarkingoftheorientationorpositionofentitiesandsituationswithrespecttocertainpointsofreferencesuchastheplace(here/there)andtime(now/then)ofutterance.(3)reference:(insemantics)therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,events,andqualitiestheystandfor.(4)anaphora:aprocesswhereawordorphrase(anaphor)refersbacktoanotherwordorphrasewhichwasusedearlierinatextorconversation.(5)presupposition:implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken〞isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!〞(6)SpeechActTheory:ThetheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings〞,toperformacts.Insaying“Sorry〞,youareperforminganactofapology.(7)indirectspeechact:anutterancewhoseliteralmeaning(location)andintendedmeaning(illocution)aredifferent.Forexample,Canyoupassthesalt?isliterallyayes/noquestionbutisusuallyutteredasa-.word.zl\n.-requestorpolitedirectiveforaction.(8)theCooperativePrinciple:aprincipleproposedbythephilosopherPaulGricewherebythoseinvolvedincommunicationassumethatbothpartieswillnormallyseektocooperatewitheachothertoestablishagreedmeaning.Itiscomposedof4maxims:quality,quantity,relationandmanner.(9)thePolitenessPrinciple:politenessisregardedbymostinterlocutorsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes,suchassavingface,establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation.Thisprinciplerequiresspeakersto“minimizetheexpressionofimpolitebeliefs〞.Itiscomposedof6maxims:MaximsofTact,Generosity,Approbation,Modesty,AgreementandSympathy.(10)conversationalimplicature:theuseofconversationalmaximsintheCooperativePrincipletoproduceextrameaningduringconversation.2.Deicticexpressions:I,now,you,that,here,tomorrow.3.Anaphoricexpressions:she,him,it.4.(1)Heboughtthebeer.(2)Youhaveawatch.(3)Weboughtacar.5.Directacts:(1)/(5);Indirectacts:(2)/(3)/(4)6.(a)TheMaximofQuality:(1)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;(2)Do-.word.zl\n.-notsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.(b)TheMaximofQuantity:(1)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange);(2)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(c)TheMaximofRelation:Berelevant.(d)TheMaximofManner:Beperspicuous(1)Avoidobscurityofexpression;(2)Avoidambiguity;(3)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity);(4)Beorderly.7.ThespeakerisparticularlycarefulaboutthemaximofAgreementinPP.Theresponsebeginswith“well〞ratherthan“no〞inordertominimizedisagreementbetweenthespeakerandhearer.8.Itisanindirectspeechact.CarolinvitesLaratoaparty,butLarawantstodeclinetheinvitation.Tobepolite,shedoesn’tchooseadirectrefusal,insteadshesays“I’vegotanexamtomorrow〞asareasonableexcusetodeclinetheinvitation.Inthisway,sheminimizestheexpressionofimpolitebeliefs,thustheutteranceconformstoPP-.word.zl\n.-Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)discourse:ageneraltermforexamplesoflanguageuse,i.e.languagepro-ducedastheresultofanactofcommunication.Itreferstothelargerunitsoflanguagesuchasparagraphs,conversationsandinterviews.(2)discourseanalysis:thestudyofhowsentencesinwrittenandspokenlanguageformlargermeaningunitssuchasparagraphs,conversationsandinterviews.(3)giveninformation:theinformationthattheaddresserbelievesisknowntotheaddressee.(4)newinformation:theinformationthattheaddresserbelievesisnotknowntotheaddressee.(5)topic:themaincenterofattentioninasentence.(6)cohesion:thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofatext.Thismaybetherelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesordifferentpartsofasentence.(7)coherence:therelationshipthatlinksthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesinatext.(8)discoursemarker:thetechnicaltermforalltheitemsthatareusedtohelpconstructdiscourse,suchassignifyingthebeginningorendingofaparagraphoraturninconversation.Theyarecommonlyused-.word.zl\n.-intheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence,suchaswell,Imean,now,then,first,second,finally.(9)adjacencypair:asetoftwoconsecutive,orderedturnsthat“gotogether〞inaconversation,suchassequencesofquestion/answer,greeting/greeting,invitation/acceptance,criticism/denial.(10)preferencestructure:intheconversationstherecanbeseveralsecondpartsrelatedtoonefirstpart,buttheyarenotofequalstatus.Thestructurallikelihoodiscalledpreference,andthislikelystructureisthepreferencestructurethatdividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Theformeristhestructurallyexpectedandthelatterunexpected.Inansweringthequestion“Haveyougotalight?〞,thereply“Hereyouare〞ispreferredand“Sorry,no,Idon’tsmoke〞isdispreferred.(11presequence:theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecialpotentialactions,suchasgreetingsbeforeformalconversations.“Whatareyoudoingtonight?〞canbeusedasapresequenceifitisfollowedby“Ifnothingspecial,comeoverandhavedinnerwithusplease.〞(12)criticaldiscourseanalysis:theanalysisoflanguageusedirectedat,andcommittedto,discoveringtheconcealedideologicalbias,injustice,inequalityinthepowerrelationsamongspeakersandhearers.2.Inthestudyofdiscourse,cohesionreferstothegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentpartsofatext.Thismaybethe-.word.zl\n.-relationshipbetweendifferentsentencesordifferentpartsofasentence.Itconcernsthequestionofhowsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscoursebydifferentkindsofovertdevices.Suchcohesivedevicesincludereference,substitution,ellipses,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.3.one→thelook-out4.them(line4)→plantandanimalspecies(line3)that(line7)→“Everyecosystemeverywherecan’tbepreservedintact.〞it(line7)→“Everyecosystemeverywherecan’tbepreservedintact.〞it(1stone,line8)→howcanitbemadeconsistentwiththeearlierobjective?it(2ndone,line8)→todeprivesomepeopleinsomepartsoftheworldofapieceoftheirecosystembutnotothers.5.Itisnotacoherentdiscourse.AlthoughithasconnectionwordssuchasaFord––acarandblack––Black,whichlooklikecohesivedevices,theyrefertoentirelydifferentthings.Thereisatotallackofinternalrelationamongthesentences.Atextcan’tbeonlybasedonsuperficialconnectionsbetweenthewordstopursuecoherence;theremustbesomerelationshipthatlinksthemeaningsofthesentencesinatext,too.Thistextisnotinlinewithourrealexperienceofthewaytheworldis.Thus,wecan’tmakesenseofitdirectlyunlesswearelaborioustocreatemeaningfulconnectionswhicharenotactuallyexpressedbythewordsandsentences.Soit’snotacoherentdiscourse.6.Coherenceistherelationshipthatlinksthemeaningsofutterancesina-.word.zl\n.-discourseorofthesentencesinatext.Thisextractiscoherent.Allthesentences(questionsinfact)areorganizedaroundthetopic“interview〞,andtheyarearrangedfromthegeneraltothemorespecificinalogicalordersothatthetextiseasytofollow.-.word.zl\n.-Chapter8Sociolinguistics1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)sociolinguistics:thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,thatis,howsocialfactorsinfluencethestructureanduseoflanguage.(2)standardlanguage:thevarietyofalanguagewhichhasthehigheststatusinacommunityornationandwhichisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.(3)dialect:alanguagevarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialgroup;dialectscanbecharacteristicofregional,social,temporal,occupationalorgendergroups.(4)register:alanguagevarietyassociatedwithaparticularsituationofuse,e.g.babytalkandlegallanguage.(5)pidgin:avarietyoflanguagethatisnotanativelanguageofanyone,butislearnedincontactsituations.(6)creole:alanguagethatbeginsasapidginandeventuallybecomesthefirstlanguageofaspeechcommunitythroughitsbeinglearnedbychildren.(7)languageplanning:planning,usuallybyagovernmentorgovernmentagency,concerningchoiceofnationalorofficiallanguage(s),waysofspreadingtheuseofalanguage,spellingreforms,theadditionofnewwords-.word.zl\n.-tothelanguage,andotherlanguageproblems.(8)diglossia:asituationwhentwodistinctvarietiesofthesamelanguageareused,sidebyside,fortwodifferentsetsoffunctions.(9)bilingualism:theuseofatleasttwolanguageseitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.(10)code-switching:themovementbackandforthbetweentwolanguagesordialectswithinthesamesentenceordiscourse.(11)taboo:awordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythepolitesocietyfromgeneraluse.(12)euphemism:awordorphrasethatreplacesataboowordorisusedtoavoidreferencetocertainactsorsubjects,e.g.“powderroom〞for“toilet〞.2.Idiolectsarevarietiesofalanguageusedbyindividualspeakers,withpeculiaritiesofpronunciation,grammarandvocabulary.3.Apresidentwhodidnothaveanaccentmayrefertoapresidentwhospeaksthestandardlanguage.Thestandardlanguageisaparticularvarietyofalanguagethatisofficiallygivenastatushigherthananyother,andthereforeadominantorprestigiousvariety.Thestandardlanguageisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguageandisgenerallyusedingovernmentdocuments,education,broadcastingandprinting.Agoodpresidentisexpectedtospeakthe-.word.zl\n.-prestigiousvarietyofhislanguage.4.Languageplanningisusuallydonebyagovernmentorgovernmentagencywhichconcernsthechoiceofnationalorofficiallanguage(s),waysofspreadingtheuseofthelanguage(s),spellreforms,theadditionofnewwordstothelanguage,andotherlanguageproblems.Inordertocarryitouteffectively,theofficialattemptmayconcentrateoneitherthestatusofalanguagewithregardtosomeotherlanguageorvarietyoritsinternalconditionwithaviewtochangingit.Languageplanningusuallyinvolvestwoaspects:statusplanningandcorpusplanning.Statusplanningchangesthefunctionofalanguageoravarietyofalanguageandtherightofthosewhouseit.Andcorpusplanningseekstodevelopavarietyoflanguageoralanguage,usuallytostandardizeit,thatis,toprovideitwiththemeansforservingmostlanguagefunctionsinsociety.Governmentsmaytakebothsidesintoconsideration.5.Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.PidginarosefromablendingofseverallanguagessuchasChinesedialectsandEnglish.Typicallypidginshavealimitedvocabularyandamuchreducedgrammaticalstructurecharacterizedbythelossofinflections,genderandcase.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohave-.word.zl\n.-becomeacreole.Thestructureoftheoriginalpidginisexpandedtoenableittofulfillitsnewfunctions.Thevocabularyisvastlyenriched,andnewsyntactic-semanticconceptsdeveloped.NotableexamplesofcreolearetheEnglish-basedcreoleofHaiti.6.Therearemanyeuphemismsfortoilet,suchasWC,powderroom,Men’sroom,Ladies’room,Gentlemen,bathroom,restroomandsoon.Inmanycultures,peopleavoidreferringtothisplaceby“toilet〞or“lavatory〞becausetheyareunpleasanttotheear.Theuseofeuphemismsreflectssocialattitudesorsocialcustoms.Wechoosethewordsorexpressionsofeuphemismbecausetheyaremorepoliteorpleasanttousewithoutembarrassingothers.7.Therearetwopossiblereasons.Onereasonisthatwomenareusuallymorestatus-consciousthanmenandtheyareawareoftheirlowerstatusinsocietyandasaresult,theymayusemorestandardspeechformsintheirattempttoclaimequalityorevenachieveahighersocialstatus.Theotherreasonmightbeattrib-utedtotheeducation.Womenareeducatedtobehave“likealady〞whentheyarelittlegirls,andsucheducationmayinfluencetheirspeechaswell.(Theanswersarequiteopen)8.a—Sb—Fc—Ld—Ke—Qf—Tg—Ah—Pi—Nj—Gk—El—Cm—Hn—Ro—D-.word.zl\n.-p—Iq—Br—Js—Mt—O-.word.zl\n.-Chapter9Psycholinguistics1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)psycholinguistics:thestudyoftherelationbetweenlanguageandmind:thementalstructuresandprocesseswhichareinvolvedintheacquisition,comprehensionandproductionoflanguage.(2)languageproduction:theprocessinvolvedincreatingandexpressingmeaningthroughlanguage,suchasthefoursuccessivestagesprovidedbyLevelt(1989):conceptualization,formulation,articulationandself-regulation.(3)languagecomprehension:Fromapsycholinguisticpointofview,westoreagreatdealofinformationaboutthepropertiesofthelanguage,andretrievethisinformationwhenweunderstandlanguage.Besides,languagecomprehensioncanbetreatedinfourlevels:sound,word,sentenceandtextcomprehensions.(4)Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:Itreferstotheviewthatthelanguagesystemcouldinfluenceorevendetermineone’sthought,andaparticularlanguageimposesparticularideasofnatureorbeliefsofone’sculture.(5)linguisticdeterminism:One’slanguagestructuredetermineshiscognitivestructure.Thatis,learningalanguagemaychangethewayapersonthinksorperceivestheobjectiveworld.(6)linguisticrelativity:Asone’slanguageinfluencesone’scognitive-.word.zl\n.-system,speakersofdifferentlanguagesperceivetheworlddifferently.2.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallyinvestigatesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitiesassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Mostproblemsinpsycholinguisticsarecomparativelymoreconcrete,involvingthestudyoflanguageacquisitionespeciallyinchildrenandlinguisticperformancesuchasproducingandcomprehendingutterancesorsentencesamongadults.However,theoreticallinguisticsismoreobjective.Itusuallyinvestigatestheexistingphenomenaaboutlanguagesanditsinvestigationsareusuallycarriedoutinthebranchesofmicrolinguistics:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntaxandsemantics.Psycholinguisticsisaninterdisciplinarystudyoflanguageandpsychology,withstructurallinguisticsandcognitivepsychologyasitsrootswhiletheoreticallinguisticssolelyfocusesonaspectsoflanguage.3.(1)Thecorrectformis“Theyswamacrossthelake〞,whichiscausedbyexchange.(2)Thecorrectformis“Thespywasboundandgagged〞,whichiscausedbyexchange.(3)Thecorrectformis“Iwillseeyouinthepark〞,whichoriginatesfromsubstitution.4.Theslip-of-the-tonguephenomenondescribedabovecanbeexplainedbytheparalleldistributedprocessing(PDP)approachinword-.word.zl\n.-comprehension.ThePDPapproachholdsthatpeopleuseseveralseparateandparallelprocessesatthesametimetounderstandspokenorwrittenlanguage.Intheslip-of-the-tonguephenomenon,peoplehavealreadyconceptualizedhis/heridea(thought),butcannotfindaproperwordtoexpresstheidea.Thisshowsthatthoughtprecedeslanguage.Accordingtolinguisticdeterminism,languageshapesone’sthought.Ifthereisn’tlanguage,thereshouldbenothought.Thus,thisphenomenongoesagainstlinguisticdeterminismandshowsthatthoughtcanexistwithorwithoutlanguage.5.Thefactmentionedherefliesatthefaceoflinguisticdeterminismwhichsaysthatone’slanguagestructuredeterminesone’scognitivestructure.That’stosay,aparticularlanguagecannotshapeone’sworldview.Languagechangesalongsocialchanges.Andsocialchangescanleadtothechangesofpeople’sview.Atthesametime,one’sworldviewcanaffectaparticularlanguage.Forexample,Xiaojiewasusedtorefertothedaughterofrichandimportantfamiliesbefore1949.Then,since1949,greatchangeshavetakenplaceinChina.TheworldviewofChinesepeoplehaschangedradicallybutthelanguagehaschangedlittle.DuringtheCulturalRevolution,Xiaojiebecameverymuchculturallyloaded—youngwomennotbelongingto‘therevolutionaryrank’andpeoplenottobepoliticallytrusted.After1979,itgraduallybecamepopularagain,andnowithastakenonaderogatorymeaning(hooker).Asitismentioned-.word.zl\n.-above,itissocialchangesthatshapeone’sworldview,anditiscognitivestructurethataffectslanguage.-.word.zl\n.-Chapter10CognitiveLinguistics1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)cognitivelinguistics:anewapproachtothestudyoflanguageandmind.Accordingtothisapproach,languageandlanguageusearebasedonourbodilyexperienceandthewayweconceptualizeit.(2)categorization:thementalprocessofclassification.(3)prototype:whatmembersofaparticularcommunitythinkofasthebestexampleofalexicalcategory,e.g.forsomeEnglishspeakers“cabbage〞(ratherthan,say,“carrot〞)mightbetheprototypicalvegetable.(4)category:theproductsofcategorization.(5)prototypetheory:atheoryofhumancategorizationthatwaspositedbyEleanorRosch.Followingthistheory,naturalcategoriesareorganizedaccordingtoprototypeswhichareconsideredasthemosttypicalorrepresentativeofthecategory.Arobinorsparrowisregardedasaprototypeofthecategoryof“bird〞.Peopledecidewhetheranentitybelongstoacategorybycomparingthatentitywithaprototype.(6)metaphor:anextensionofaword’susebeyonditsprimarymeaningtoincludereferentsthatbearsomesimilaritytotheword’sprimaryreferent,asin“eyeofaneedle〞,or“creamoftheagegroup〞.(7)metonymy:alsocalledconceptual/cognitivemetonymyinCognitiveLinguistics.Itreferstoaconceptualoperationinwhichoneentity,the-.word.zl\n.-vehicle,canbeemployedinordertoidentifyanotherentity,thetarget,withwhichitisassociated,suchastheuseof“Hemingway〞for“Hemingway’sworks〞and“WhiteHouse〞for“governmentoftheUSA〞.(8)iconicity:afeatureofalanguagewhichmeansthatthestructureoflanguagereflectsinsomewaythestructureofexperience,thatis,thestructureoftheworld,includingtheperspectiveimposedontheworldbythespeaker.Caesar’shistoricwords“Veni,vidi,vici(Icame,Isaw,Iconquered)〞isagoodcasetoprovetheiconicityoforder(thesimilaritybetweentemporaleventsandthelineararrangementofelementsinalinguisticconstruction).(9)grammaticalization:theshiftofanindependentwordtothestatusofagrammaticalelement.AfamousexampleinEnglishisthetransitionofthelexicalverb“go〞intoanauxiliaryusedtoexpressthefuturetense.2.Sometipsforthetests:accordingtotheprototypetheory,prototypesarethebestexamplesofacategoryandnaturalcategoriesareorganizedaroundprototypes.Therefore,namesofcategoryprototypestendtocometomindbeforethoseofperipheralexamples,butmanyfactors(suchasculture,individualexperienceandcontext)mayinfluencethechoiceofprototypesofcategories.3.IntheEnglishprepositionlist,thespatialprepositions,suchasin,on,at,-.word.zl\n.-mightbethecommonestprepositionsingrammarbooks.Thereasonisthatspatialprepositionsareclosesttoourbodilyexperience,thustheymaybehighestinfrequencyofuse.4.(1)Themarriageisratherfragilewithoutenoughattentionandpatience.Theirweddingissplendid,whiletheirmarriageisratherfragile.(2)Theirmarriageisontherocks.Theyhavewalkedmoresmoothlysincetheyhadachild.(3)Theyloveeachothersomuchthatnothingcanseparatethemapart.Themoreobjectionthereis,thetightertheyaretoeachother.5.(1)Hiswifeisalovelybird.Thesourcedomainis“(alovely)bird〞andthetargetdomainis“hiswife〞.Thisexpressionusesthefeaturesofabirdtodescribethewoman,whichinvitesustoconceptualizethatshemustbelovely,smallandmild.(2)Sheisasheepinfrontofhishusband,whilealioninhercareer.Thesourcedomainis“sheep/lion〞andthetargetdomainis“she〞.Theword“sheep〞suggeststhatthewomanisgentle,mildandobedientasawife,whiletheword“lion〞createstheimpressionthatsheisambitious,energeticandinfluentialinherwork.(3)Mymotherwasatigerwhenwewereindanger.Thesourcedomainis“tiger〞andthetargetdomainis“mymother〞.Theword“Tiger〞conveystheideathat“mymother〞isbrave,intrepid,strongandfearless.-.word.zl\n.-6.Definitionsofthesewordsindictionarieshelpusalottoconceptualizethem,mostofwhicharedescriptionsofthecauses,processesandpropertiesoftheseemotions.Wetake“anger,loveandfear〞forexample:(1)anger:thestrongfeelingyouhavewhensomethinghappenedyouthinkisbadandunfair(fromOxfordDictionary);astrongfeelingofwantingtohurtorcriticizesomeonebecausetheyhavedonesomethingbadtoyouorbeenunkindtoyou(fromLongmanDictionary).(2)love:tohaveastrongfeelingofaffectionforsomeone,combinedwithsexualattraction(fromLongmanDictionary);astrongfeelingofdeepaffectionforsomebody/something,especiallyamemberofyourfamilyorafriend,orforsomebodyyouaresexuallyattractedto(fromOxfordDictionary).(3)fear:thebadfeelingthatyouhavewhenyouareindanger,whensomethingbadmighthappen,oraparticularthingfrightensyou(fromOxfordDictionary);thefeelingyougetwhenyouareafraidorworriedthatsomethingbadisgoingtohappen(fromLongmanDictionary).Inthesedefinitions,aconceptualmetonymyisextensivelyused,thatis,THEBODILYSYMPTOMSOFANEMOTIONSTANDFORTHEEMOTION(partforwhole).Bodilysymptomsarehelpfulfordescriptionoftheconceptofanemotionsincegenerallytheyarepeculiartoaparticularemotion.-.word.zl\n.-Chapter11LanguageAcquisition1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)firstlanguageacquisition:thelearninganddevelopmentofaperson’snativelanguage.(2)behavioristapproach:Theapproachviewslanguageasbehaviorandbelievesthatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.(3)innatenessapproach:Thisapproachholdsthattheabilitytoacquireahumanlanguageispartofthebiologicallyinnateequipmentofthehumanbeing,andthataninfantisbornwiththisabilityjustasitisbornwithtwoarms,twolegs,andabeatingheart.(4)secondlanguageacquisition:theacquisitionofanotherlanguageorlanguagesafterthefirstlanguageisonthewayorcompleted.(5)contrastiveanalysis:amethodofanalyzinglanguagesforinstructionalpurposeswherebyanativelanguageandtargetlanguagearecomparedwithaviewtoestablishingpointsofdifferencelikelytocausedifficultiesforlearners.(6)erroranalysis:thestudyandtheanalysisoftheerrorsmadebysecondandforeignlanguagelearnersinordertoidentifycausesoferrorsorcommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning.(7)languageaptitude:thenaturalabilitytolearnalanguage,notincluding-.word.zl\n.-intelligence,motivation,interest,etc.(8)fielddependence:alearningstyleinwhichalearnertendstolookatthewholewhileoverlookingthemanypartsitcontains.Thelearnerhasdifficultyinstudyingaparticularitemwhenitisembeddedwithinafieldofotheritems.(9)fieldindependence:alearningstyleinwhichalearnerisabletoidentifyorfocusonparticularitemsandisnotdistractedbyotheritemsinthebackgroundorcontext.(10)learningstrategy:Itreferstotheparticularapproachesortechniquesthatlearnersusetotrytolearnasecondlanguage.2.Omitted.3.Omitted.4.Thisiscalled“overgeneralization〞insecondlanguagelearning.Ifsecondlanguagelearnersproduceformssuchasgoed,sheepsandcoulds,theymayknowsomeregularrulesofEnglishbutapplytheminthewrongplace.Heretheymistakenlycopythegeneralrulesofformingthepastformswith“ed〞,pluralswith“s〞andthirdpersonsingularswith“s〞.Thiskindoferrorsiscausedlargelyduetothenonnativespeaker’sincompleteknowledgeoftherulesofthetargetlanguage.Forexample,anEnglishlearnermayproducesentencelike*“HespeakedEnglish〞,oruse*mansinsteadofmenforthepluralofman.5.MandarinChinesewillinterferewithourEnglishstudiesinthe-.word.zl\n.-followingways:ThecommonestwayistheinterferenceofMandarinChinesegrammar.SomeEnglishlearnersmayproducesentencelike“HecomesfromChina,Bejing〞followingthewordorderofMandarinChineseinsteadofthecorrectEnglishwordorder“HecomesfromBeijing,China〞,orproducesentencelike“YesterdayIwenttotown〞insteadof“Iwenttotownyesterday〞.Theinterferencealsoshowsupinpronunciation.ManyspeechsoundsinEnglishdonotappearinChinese,suchas/!/,/8/.Thusitisdifficultforustopronouncethemcorrectly.Moreinterferencecanalsobefoundinsemanticsandpragmatics.6.(1)Thechoiceoftheword“hinder〞hereisnotappropriate.Thiskindoferrorisintralingual.Itoriginatesfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage.Inthissituationwemaysay“Pleasedon’tdisturbme.〞(2)Theanswertothisquestionisincorrect.Thecorrectanswershouldbe“No,certainlynot.〞Thiskindoferrorisinterlingual.ItoriginatesfromthenegativetransferofChinese.(3)Thecorrectsentenceshouldbe“Duringthemeetingwetalkabout/discusstheresearchproject.〞Thiskindoferrorresultsfromcross-association,onekindofintralingualerrors.Meaningsofthetwowords(talkanddiscuss)arealike,buttheirusageisdifferent.Theirsimilarityleadstoconfusion.(4)Thecorrectsentencestructureshouldbe“Shecatchescoldeasily.〞Thiskindoferroriscalledinterlingualerrorwhichisproducedaccordingtotheword-.word.zl\n.-orderofChinese(“他容易感冒〞).(5)Thecorrectanswershouldbe“Thelightcanimpressthefilmandinthiswayfixtheimageofthefilm.〞Thiskindoferrorisintralingualerror.Itoriginatesfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage.(6)Thecorrectformshouldbe“Thesceneryistoobeautifultodescribe.〞Thisisintralingualerrorwhichiscausedbytheinfluenceofonetargetlanguageitemuponanother.7.Ifsomelearners’interlanguageissaidtohave“fossilized〞,theyhavedevelopedafairlyfixedrepertoireofL2forms,containingmanyfeatureswhichdonotprogressanyfurther.Aspectsofpronunciation,vocabularyusage,andgrammarmaybecomefossilizedinsecondorforeignlanguagelearning.However,aninterlanguageisnotdesignedtofossilize.Itwillnaturallydevelopandbecomeamoreeffectivemeansofcommunication,givenappropriateconditions.8.Itistruethatsomepeoplearemorelikelytofossilizethanothers.Itisbelievedthatcertainpersonalitytraitsareimportantpredictorsofsuccessinsecondlanguagelearning,suchasintroversionversusextroversion.Extrovertsaregenerallymoresociableandgregarious.IftheyarelearningintheL2environment,extrovertswillbemoreactivelyinvolvedinthelanguagethantheirintrovertclassmates.Theywillbemoreresponsivetotheinputtheyget,bekeenertotryproducingtheirownL2utterances,sotheyhavemoreopportunitiesto-.word.zl\n.-buildupandtestthelanguagestructures,makingthemlesslikelytofossilize.Inlanguagelearningenvironmentsthetendencyforfossilizationmightbereversed.-.word.zl\n.-Chapter12AppliedLinguistics1.Definethefollowingtermsbriefly.(1)appliedlinguistics:thestudyoflanguageandlinguisticsinrelationtopracticalissues,e.g.speechtherapy,languageteaching,testing,andtranslation.Moreoftenthannotnowadays,itisusedinthenarrowsense,andreferstolanguageteachinginparticular.(2)grammar-translationmethod:amethodofforeignorsecondlanguageteachingwhichmakesuseoftranslationandgrammarstudyasthemainteachingandlearningactivities.(3)audiolingualmethod:theteachingofasecondlanguagethroughimitation,repetition,andreinforcement.Itemphasizestheteachingofspeakingandlisteningbeforereadingandwritingandtheuseofmothertongueintheclassroomisnotallowed.(4)communicativelanguageteaching:anapproachtoforeignorsecondlanguageteachingwhichemphasizesthatthegoaloflanguagelearningistoachievecommunicativecompetence.(5)testing:theuseoftests,orthestudyofthetheoryandpracticeoftheiruse,development,evaluation,etc.(6)achievementtest:atestwhichmeasureshowmuchofalanguagesomeonehaslearnedwithreferencetoaparticularcourseofstudyorprogramofinstruction.-.word.zl\n.-(7)validity:(intesting)thedegreetowhichatestmeasureswhatitissupposedtomeasure,orcanbeusedsuccessfullyforthepurposesforwhichitisintended.Anumberofdifferentstatisticalprocedurescanbeappliedtoatesttoestimateitsvalidity.Suchproceduresgenerallyseektodeterminewhatthetestmeasures,andhowwellitdoesso.(8)reliability:(intesting)ameasureofthedegreetowhichatestgivesconsistentresults;atestissaidtobereliableifitgivesthesameresultswhenitisgivenondifferentoccasionsorwhenitistakenbydifferentpeople.(9)proficiencytest:atestwhichmeasureshowmuchofalanguagesomeonehaslearnedwithoutconsideringthesyllabus,durationandmanneroflearning.(10)subjectivetest:atestwhichisscoredaccordingtothepersonaljudgmentofthemarker,suchasessaywritingortranslation.(11)objectivetest:atestthatcanbemarkedwithouttheuseoftheexaminer’spersonaljudgment.(12)languageaptitudetest:atestwhichmeasuresaperson’saptitudeforsecondorforeignlanguagelearninganditcanbeusedtoidentifythoselearnerswhoaremostlikelytosucceed.(13)diagnostictest:atestwhichisdesignedtoshowwhatskillsorknowledgealearnerknowsanddoesn’tknow.Forexample,adiagnosticpronunciationtestmaybeusedtomeasurethelearner’s-.word.zl\n.-pronunciationofEnglishsounds.Itwouldshowwhichsoundsastudentisandisnotabletopronounce.Diagnostictestsmaybeusedtofindouthowmuchalearnerknowsortomeasurehowsuccessfulaninstructionprogramhasbeen.(14)backwasheffect:TestsstronglyaffectwhatactuallyoccursintheclassroomandtheeffectoftestsonclassroomL2teachingandlearningisknownasthebackwasheffect.2.Theadvantagesofgrammar-translationmethod:(1)Asthegrammarsdescribedinthismethodcontainverydetaileddescriptionsofthecorrectconstructionofphrasesandsentencesofalanguage,accuracyisstressedandimproved.(2)Students’abilitytoreadandwriteisencouragedandimprovedsincethemethodfocusesonthewrittenwork.(3)Thismethodislessdemandingthansomeotherapproachesforateacherwhoseoralproficiencymaynotbeadequate.(4)ThismethodispopularwithpeoplewhowouldliketostudyEnglishindependently,especiallytheadultlearnerswhowanttolearngrammarrulesandusethemtoapproachnewmaterialsbythemselves.Thedisadvantagesofgrammar-translationmethod:(1)Itemphasizeslanguageatthesentencelevelregardlessofcontext,sotheorganizationoflanguageabovethesentencelevelisnotsocarefullystudied.-.word.zl\n.-(2)Asthefocusisonwrittenwork,oralfluencyandspontaneityisnotsowelldevelopedandcommoneverydaylanguageisnottaughtenough.(3)Thebasictechniquesinthismethodarerotelearningoftherulesandvocabulary,andgrammarrulesaretaughtdeductivelyasgeneralstatementstobeappliedinparticularexercisesintranslation,sothelearnersmayfinditboringtolearn.(4)Withtheemphasisongrammar,studentstypicallyknowalotaboutthelanguagebutareunabletoactuallyuseit.Asaresult,theiruseofthenewlanguageoftentendstobeliteralorunnatural.3.Changesrequiredwouldinclude:(1)Changeinteacher’srole.Theteachercannolongerbethesourceofknowledgeandtruthaboutthelanguage.Theteacher’srolehasmoretodowithinitiatingactivities.(2)Changeinlearner’srole.Thelearnercannolongerbepassive.Thelearnermustactivelyparticipateintheactivities.(3)Changeofmaterials.Theseshould,asfaraspossible,preservethefeaturesofauthenticinstancesoflanguageuse.(4)Changeoftechniques.Theseshouldemphasizethetasks(notdrills)tobeperformedandidentifytheskillsbeingpracticed.(5)Changeinattitude.Iftheabovearetobeachievedthenweareinvolvedinchangingourattitudestowardsteachingandlearningingeneral.-.word.zl\n.-4.Achievementtestsarebasedonaparticularlanguagesyllabus,orpartofasyl-labus,orchaptersinatextboo教育之通病是教用脑的人不用手，不教用手的人用脑，所以一无所能。教育革命的对策是手脑联盟，结果是手与脑的力量都可以大到不可思议。-.word.zl