英语语言学教案 96页

英语语言学教安Date：Lecture1Chapter1IntroductionI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:   1. Whatlinguisticsis?   2. Thescopeoflinguistics   3. SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsII.Procedures1.Gettoknoweachother.(5’)2.Introducethecourse,thetextbookaswellasthereferencebooks.(10’)3.Requirementsandevaluationofthecourse.(5’)4.NewContents:(70”)1.1 Whatlinguisticsis(20’)1.1.1DefinitionLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Ittriestoanswerthebasicquestions“Whatislanguage?”．“Howdoeslanguagework?”，and“Whatrulestherearethatgovernthestructureoflanguage?’’Itprobesintovariousproblemsrelatedtolanguagesuchas“Whatdoalllanguageshaveincommon?”．“Whatrangeofvariationisfotmdamonglanguages?”，“Whatmakeslanguagechange?”．“Towhatextentaresocialclassdifferencesreflectedinlanguage?”，‘‘Howdoesachildacquirehismothertongue?”,andmanyothers．1.1.2. Thescopeoflinguistics(25’)1.GeneralLinguistics普通语言学ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts，theories．descriptions，modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy，incontrasttothosebranchesofstudywhichrelatelinguisticstotheresearchofotherareas．2.Phonetics语音学Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics．3.Phonology音位学Phonologystudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveyincaninginconmmnication．4.Morphology形态学Thesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationarerepresentedbysymbols，i．e．morphemes．Morphologystudiesthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords．5.Syntax句法Syntaxstudiestheruleshowthecombinationofwordstoformgranmlaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguages．6.Semantics语义学Buttheultimateobjectiveoflanguageisnotjusttocreategrammaticallywell-formedsentences．Inmostgeneraltermslanguageisusedtoconveymeaning．Semanticsstudiesthemeaning．7.Pragmatics语用学Languagecommunicationdoesnotoccurinavacuum；italwaysoccursinacontext．WhentheStUdyofmeaningisconducted，notinisolation，butinthecontextoflanguageuse.Pragmaticsstudiesthecontextof\nlanguageuse． 8.Interdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticstudy1)Scociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguisticsstudiesthesociologicalaspectsoflanguage.2)Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguisticsdrawsfromlinguisticsandpsychologyandfocusesuponthecomprehensionandproductionoflanguage.3)AppliedLinguistics应用语言学AppliedLinguistics(AL)providesthetheoreticalanddescriptivefoundationsfortheinvestigationandsolutionoflanguage-relatedproblems,especiallythoseoflanguageeducation(first-language,second-languageandforeign-languageteachingandlearning),butalsoproblemsoftranslationandinterpretation,lexicography,forensiclinguisticsand(perhaps)clinicallinguistics.1.1. 3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics(23’)1.prescriptivevs.descriptivePrescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviourinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.    2. synchronicvs.diachronicLanguageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.3.speechvs.writingSpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday’sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.Thustheirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.III.Homework(2’)   1.Qs1-6(P13(oral)   2.GatherinformationaboutSaussureandChomsky   3. PreviewtherestofChapter1.IV.Self-evaluationabouttheclass:Date:Lecture2\nChapter1Introduction(Continued)I.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:   1. Otherimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics   2. Thedefinitionoflanguage3. Somefunctionsoflanguage4.Somedesignfeaturesoflanguage5.SometheoriesastotheoriginoflanguageII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’):1.Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?Themajorbranchesoflinguisticsarephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax，semantics，Pragmatics,Sociolinguistics,Psycholinguistics,andAppliedLinguistics.Phoneticsstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.Phonologystudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.Morphologystudiesthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.Thenthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Syntaxstudiestheserules.Semanticsstudiesthemeaningwhichlanguageisusedtoconvey.Pragmaticsstudieshowpeoplecomprehendandproduceacommunicativeactorspeechactinaconcretespeechsituationwhichisusuallyaconversation.Sociolinguisticsstudiesthesociologicalaspectsoflanguage.Sociolinguistsattempttoisolatethelinguisticfeaturesusedinparticularsituationsthatmarkthevarioussocialrelationshipsamongtheparticipantsandthesignificantelementsofthesituation.Psycholinguisticsdrawsfromlinguisticsandpsychologyandfocusesuponthecomprehensionandproductionoflanguage.AppliedLinguisticsprovidesthetheoreticalanddescriptivefoundationsfortheinvestigationandsolutionoflanguage-relatedproblems,especiallythoseoflanguageeducation(first-language,second-languageandforeign-languageteachingandlearning),butalsoproblemsoftranslationandinterpretation,lexicography,forensiclinguisticsand(perhaps)clinicallinguistics.3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?Firstly,modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Itisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsofalanguageinitscurrentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhuman\nlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday’sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.6.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby,andparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.SimilartoSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleisthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance,whichwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.B.NewContents(75’):1.2Whatislanguage?1.2.1 Definitionoflanguage(15'):    1. ThedefinitionModernlinguistshaveproposedvariousdefinitionsoflanguage,someofthemarequotedbelow:“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”(Sapir,1921)Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”(Hall,1968)“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”(Chomsky,1957)  2. HowtounderstandthedefinitionEachofthesedefinitionshasitsownspecialemphasis,andisnottotallyfreefromlimitations.However,therearesomeimportantcharacteristicsofhumanlanguagelinguistshaveagreedon;theseareembracedinthefollowinggenerallyaccepteddefinition:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Shortasitis,thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Thisexplainswhy“iblk”isnotapossiblesoundcombinationinEnglish,andalsowhy“Beenhewoundedhas“isnotagrammaticallyacceptablesentenceinEnglish.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor,forinstance,betweentheword“pen”andthethingwewritewith.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.Thisalsoexplainsthesymbolicnatureoflanguage:wordsarejustsymbols;theyareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideas,etc.by\nconvention.ThisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellillustratedbyafamousquotationfromShakespeare’splay“RomeoandJuliet”:“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Allevidencepointstothefactthatwritingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenformsandthattheyareonlyattemptstocapturesoundsandmeaningonpaper.Thefactthatchildrenacquirespokenlanguagebeforetheycanreadorwritealsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.1.2.2Designfeaturesoflanguage(15’):    1. Arbitrariness任意性Asmentionedearlier,languageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.     2. Productivity能产性Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Theycansendmessageswhichnooneelsehaseversentbefore.Muchofwhatwesayandhearwearesayingorhearingforthefirsttime.3.Duality双重性Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.4.Displacement取代性Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5.Culturaltransmission文化转换Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguagethedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible.1.2.3Functionsoflanguage1．Thedescriptivefunction，alsoreferredtodifferentlyasthecognitive，orreferential，orpropositionalfunction，isassumedtobetheprimaryfunctionoflanguage．Itisthefunctiontoconveyfictualinformation，whichcanbeassertedordenied，andinsomecasesevenverified，e．g，“TheSichuanearthquakeisthemostseriousoneChinahaseverSUfiered．”2．Theexpressivefunction，alsocalledtheemotiveorattitudinalfunction，suppliesinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings，preferences，prejudices，andvalues，e．g．“IwillnevergocampingwiththeSimpsonsagain．”\n3．Thesocialfunction，alsoreferredtoastheinterpersonaltunction，servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople，e．g．“HowcanIhelpyou．Sir?’’4．RomanJakobson’ssixelementsofaspeechevent：1）Addresser---EmotiveTheaddresserexpresseshisattitudetothetopicorsituationofcommumcation，e．g．“Ihatewhatevertheyareplanningforme!,”2）Addressee—ConativeTheaddresseraimstoinfluencetheaddressee’scourseofactionorwaysofthinking，e．g．“Whynotgoandseeanotherdoctor?”3）Context——ReferentialTheaddresserconveysamessageorinformation,e.g.“AsfarasIknow,theearth’sresourcesarebeingastonishinglywasted.”4）Message—PoeticTheaddresseruseslanguageforthesolepurposeofdisplayingthebeautyoflanguageitself，e．g．poetry．5）Contact—Phatic(交流感情的；应酬的)communionTheaddressertriestoestablishormaintaingoodinterpersonalrelationshipswiththeaddressee，e.g.“Hi!Howareyouthismorning?”6）Code---MetalinguisticTheaddresseruseslanguagetomakeclearthemeaningoflanguageitself，e．g．“Letmetellyouwhattheword‘anorexia’means．”5.M．A．K．Halliday’sfunctionsofchildlanguage:Theideationalfunctionistoorganizethespeakerorwriter’sexpenenceoftherealorimaginaryworld．Itcorrespondscloselytothediscriptivefunctiondiscussedabove,butitisbroaderbecauseitalsoincludestheexpressionofthespeaker’sattitude,evaluation,hisfeelingsandemotions．Theinterpersonalfunctionistoindicate，establish．ormaintainsocialrelationshipsbetweenpeople．Itexpressesthespeaker’sro1einthespeechsituatlon，hispersonalcommitmentandassessmentofthesocialrelationshipbetweentheaddresseeandhimself．ThetextualfunctionistOorganizewrittenorspokenrextsinsuchamannerthattheyarecoherentwithinthemselvesandfittheparticularsituationmwhichtheyareused．Revisionexercises:1.Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?Themajorbranchesoflinguisticsarephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntaxandsemantics.Phoneticsstudiesthesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.Phonologystudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.Thesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationwhicharerepresentedbysymbols,i.e.morphemes.Morphologystudiesthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.Thenthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Syntaxstudiestheserules.Semanticsstudiesthemeaningwhichlanguageisusedto\nconvey.3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Itisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsofalanguageinitscurrentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday’sworldtherearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.6.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby,andparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.SimilartoSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleisthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance,whichwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.WhileSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Agood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguageshouldincludedthemainfeaturesoflanguage:First,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor,forinstance,betweentheword“pen”andthethingwewritewith.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.8.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?\nAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.1.Languageisarbitrarywhichmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.2.Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.3.Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Thentheunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit.4.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5.Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Incontrast,animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted,i.e.,animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.Vocabulary：conductv.(oftenpassive)todosth.inanorganizedwaygeneralizationn.普遍化validityn.真实性dialectuala.oftheartormethodofarguingaccordingtocertainrulesofquestion&answer辩证的complementv.tocombinewellwithsth.,oftensth.Thathasdifferentquality;toaddanotherthingtosth.complementationn.standvi~in:todosomeoneelse’sjobtemporarilywhiletheyarenotavailabletodoit.muddlev.toputthingsintodisorderscopen.thelimitsofasubjectoractivityentityn.sth.thathasasingleseparate&independentexistence实体normn.(pl.)waysofbehavingthatareregardedasusualorgenerallyacceptable准则；规范instinctn.Aninbornpatternofbehaviorthatischaracteristicofaspeciesandisoftenaresponsetospecificenvironmentalstimuli:本能instinctivea.voluntarya.Arisingfromoractingonone'sownfreewill.arbitrarya.Determinedbychance,whim,orimpulse,andnotbynecessity,reason,orprinciple:任意的，武断的\nintrinsica.Oforrelatingtotheessentialnatureofathing;inherent.本质的：属于或关于事物的本质特征的；固有的designv.toformulateaplanfor;devise计划：为制定一个计划；设计n.Thepurposefulorinventivearrangementofpartsordetails设计方案：有目的，有意图的细节安排onomatopoeica.拟声的,声喻的onomatopoeian.Theformationoruseofwordssuchasbuzzormurmurthatimitatethesoundsassociatedwiththeobjectsoractionstheyreferto象声词：词的构成或用法，例如buzz或nurmur模仿事物或行动的声音sophisticateda.Havingacquiredworldlyknowledgeorrefinement;lackingnaturalsimplicityornaiveté.老于世故的：具备世故的知识或精细的；缺乏自然的单纯或天真幼稚的;Verycomplexorcomplicated非常复杂精密或尖瑞的gibbonn.Anyofseveralsmall,arborealapesofthegenusHylobatesofsoutheastAsiaandtheEastIndies,havingaslenderbody,longarms,andnotail长臂猿：一种体小、生活于树林中的长臂猿属类人猿，产自东南亚和东印度群岛的，有瘦长的身躯、长臂且没有尾巴repertoiren.Thestockofsongs,plays,operas,readings,orotherpiecesthataplayerorcompanyispreparedtoperform全部剧目：某一个演员或剧团随时准备表演的全部歌曲、戏剧、歌剧、读物或其它作品III.Homework(2’)    1.P.13,Q9(written)2.P.13,Qs6-8 (oral)3.Preview:Chapter2Phonology:2.1&2.2.IV.Self-evaluation:Date：Lecture3Chapter2Phonology\nI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:   1. Thephonicmediumoflanguage   2. Thebranchesofphonetics   3. Organsofspeech   4. Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds   5. ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’):7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Agood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguageshouldincludedthemainfeaturesoflanguage:First,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor,forinstance,betweentheword“pen”andthethingwewritewith.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.8.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.1）Languageisarbitrarywhichmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.2）Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.3）LanguageisDualitywhichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselvesbutcanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Thentheunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.4）ThefeatherofDisplacement.Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5）ThefeatherofCulturaltransmission.Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Incontrast,animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted,i.e.,animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.9.Whatarethemajorfunctionsoflanguage?Thinkofyourownexamplesforillustration.\nB.NewContents（80’）: 2.1 Theconceptofphonicmediumoflanguage(10’)Languageisfirstperceivedthroughitssounds.Thusthestudyofsoundsisofgreatimportanceinlinguistics.Naturally,linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedonlywiththosesoundsthatareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.Thesesoundsarelimitedinnumber.Thislimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage;andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.Languageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds----soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.1)Thephonicmediumoflanguagereferstothelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunication.2)Speechsoundsreferstotheindividualsoundswithinthephonicmediumoflanguage.2.2Phonetics2.2.1Whatisphonetics?1)Definition:Phoneticsisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview.First,itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview,i.e.,howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Then,itlooksatthesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,i.e.,howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.Lastly,itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.Thesethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabelledarticulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,andacousticphoneticsrespectively.   2)Threebranchesofphonetics(10’):       a. articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)       b. acousticphonetics(声学语音学)       c. auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学)2.2.2 Organsofspeech(15’)Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:thepharyngealcavity—thethroat,theoralcavity—themouth,andthenasalcavity—thenose.       Thediagramofspeechorgans\n1.lips2.Teeth3.Teethridge(alveolar)4.Hardpalate5.Softpalate(velum)6.Uvula7.Tipoftongue8.Bladeoftongue舌面9.Backoftongue10.Vocalcords11.Pharyngealcavity12.Nasalcavity1) Thepharyngealcavity（咽腔）Aircomingfromthelungsandthroughthewindpipepassesthroughtheglottis,apartofthelarynx,whichisabonystructureattheendofthewindpipe.Thisisthefirstpointwheresoundmodificationmightoccur.Lyingacrosstheglottisarethevocalcords.Thesetwothintissuescanbeheldtightlytogethertocutoffthestreamofair,aswhenoneis‘holdinghisbreath’.Theycanberelaxedandfoldedbackateachsidetoletairflowthroughfreelyandsilentlyasinnormalbreathing.Thentheymayalsobeheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthematdifferentspeedswhenforcingitspassagethroughthem.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”,whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Suchconsonantsarevoiced.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarevoiceless.2)TheoralcavityThegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundintheoralcavity.Thespeechorganslocatedinthiscavityarethetongue,theuvula,thesoftpalate(thevelum),thehardpalate,theteethridge(thealveolus),theteethandthelips.3)ThenasalcavityThenasalcavityisconnectedwiththeoralcavity.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth,thevelum,canbedrawnbacktoclosethepassagesothatallairexitingfromthelungscanonlygothroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthisconditionarenotnasalized,suchasthevowelsandmostconsonantsinEnglish.Then,thepassagecanalsobeleftopentoallowair(orpartofit)toexitthroughthenose.Inthiscase,thesoundspronouncedarenasalized,such\nasthethreenasalconsonantsinEnglish[m],[n],and[N].Generally,thepassageisdefinitelyopenorclosed.Butinsomestylesofspeakingorinsomedialects,partialopeningmaybeobserved,andtheresultisspeechwithanasalcolouringor“twang”.2.2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds—broadandnarrowtranscriptions1.IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet):Astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.Thepresentonemainlyderivesfromonedevelopedinthe1902bytheBritishphonetician,DanielJones(1881-1967),revisedin1993,corrected(updated)in1996.2.Diacritics（发音符号/辨音符）:thesetofsymbolsinIPA,whichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutfinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemaypossiblydo.(diacritics：区别音符，一个添加到一个字母上的标志，如façade上所加的变音符号或résumé,上表示发高音的记号，表示一个特殊的发音或用于区别与图示相同的词).Leaf[li:f],feel[fi:ł];pit[phit],spit[spit]3.Broadtranscription（宽式音标）：Abroadtranscriptionisonethatonlytakesaccountofthesounddifferencesthatareimportanttodistinguishwordsfromeachotherinalanguage.Abroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundswithletter-symbolsonly./_/4.Narrowtranscription（严式音标）:Anarrowtranscriptionattemptstorepresentmoreorlessaccuratelythewayinwhichaparticularspeakerpronounceshiswords.Anarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundswithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.[_]5.Theaspiratedandunaspirated:Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[phit]andspitistranscribedas[spit].2.2.4 ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds(43)AninitialclassificationwilldividethespeechsoundsinEnglishintotwobroadcategories:vowelsandconsonants.Twodefinitionsofvowelsasageneralphoneticcategoryarequotedbelow:“Vowelsaremodificationsofthevoice-soundthatinvolvenoclosure,friction,orcontactofthetongueorlips.(Bloomfield)Avowelisdefinedasavoicedsoundinformingwhichtheairissuesinacontinuousstreamthroughthepharynxandmouth,therebeingnoaudiblefriction.”(Jones)Thetwodefinitionspointtooneimportantfeatureofvowels,i.e.inproducingavoweltheairstreamcoiningfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionwhatsoever.Thismarkstheessentialdifferencebetweenvowelsandconsonants.Intheproductionofthelattercategoryitisobstructedinonewayoranother.2.2.4.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationand\ntheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops:Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.TheEnglishstopsfallintothreepairs:[P],[b],[t],[d],and[k],[ɡ].fricatives:Whentheobstructionispartialandtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemouthsoastocausedefinitelocalfrictionatthepoint,thespeechsoundthusproducedisafricative.ThefricativesinEnglishare[f][v][s][z][W][T][F][V][h].affricates:Whentheobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlywiththefrictionresultingfrompartialobstruction(asinfricatives),thesoundsthusproducedareaffricates.InEnglishtherearetwoaffricates[tF]and[dV].liquids:Whentheairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongue(thetiporthesides)andtheroofofthemouth,thesoundsthusproducedarecalledliquids.TheEnglishliquidsare[l]and[r].[l]iscalledalateralsoundbecauseintheproductionofitthesurfaceofthetongue,insteadofbeingmoreorlessflat,ismadeslightlyconvexandcausesstoppageinthecentreoftheroofofthemouthwhileallowingairtopassatthesides.Intheproductionoftheotherliquid[r],thetipofthetongueiscurledbackandtheairpassesoverit.Itisalsocalled“retroflex”.nasals:Whenthenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalateatthebackofthemouthandairisallowedtopassthroughit,thesoundsthusproducedarecallednasals.TherearethreenasalsinEnglish[m][n]and[N].glides:Glides,sometimescalled“semivowels”,arearathermarginalcategory.TheEnglishglidesare[j]and[w],bothvoiced.Theyareformedinthesamemannerasthevowels[u]and[i],withanarrowerpassagebetweenthelipsorbetweenthetongueandthehardpalatetocausesomeslightnoisefromthelocalobstruction.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:bilabial:Intheproductionofthesesounds,theupperandthelowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstruction.TheEnglishbilabialsare[p][b][m][w].labiodental:Intheproductionofthesesounds,thelowerlipisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth,thuscreatingtheobstruction.ThelabiodentalsoundsinEnglishare[f]and[v].dental:Theobstructioniscreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandtheupperteeth.TherearetwodentalsoundsinEnglish;theyare[W]and[T].alveolar:Thetipofthetongueisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth-ridgetocreatetheobstruction.Thealveolarsoundsare[t][d][s][z][n][l][r].palatal:Theobstructionisbetweenthebackofthetongueandthehardpalate.Thepalatalsoundsare[F][V][tF][dV][j].velar:Thebackofthetongueisbroughtintocontactwiththevelum,orthesoftpalate.ThesoundsthusproducedinEnglishare[k][g]and[N].glottal:Thevocalcordsarebroughtmomentarilytogethertocreatetheobstruction.ThereisonlyoneglottalsoundinEnglish,i.e.[h].Thetwoclassificationsarecombinedinthetablebelow,withthehelpofwhichwecanadequatelydescribeaconsonant,oridentifyaconsonantwhengivenitsphoneticfeatures:(P.20)2.2.4.2ClassificationofEnglishvowelsAsintheproductionofvowelstheairstreammeetswithnoobstruction,theycannotbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorplaceofarticulationasconsonants.Othercriteriahavetobefoundfortheirclassification.Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionofthetongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.\nVowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Thevowelsintofourgroups:Closevowelsare[i:][I][u:]and[J];Semi-closevowelsare[e]and[3:]’Semi-openvowelsare[E]and[C:]’Openvowelsare[A][B][Q][R]and[B:].Rounded:Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassificationofvowelsistheshapeofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[a:],arerounded.Itshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedlips.Monophthongs:Sofarwehavebeenclassifyingtheindividualvowels,alsoknownasmonophthongs.InEnglishtherearealsoanumberofdiphthongs,whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.Thediphthongsinclude[ei][au][Eu][uE][Ri][iE][eE][uE].(P.20-22)III.Homework(2’)1.Dotherevisionexercises1-6.2.Previewtherestofthechapter.IV.Self-evaluation:Date:Lecture4Chapter2Phonology(Continued)I.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:   1. Thedifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics   2. Theconceptsofphone,phoneme,allophone,phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair   3. Somerulesinphonology   4. SomesuprasegmentalfeaturesII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’):   1.InwhatwayscanEnglishconsonantsbeclassified?   2.InwhatwayscanEnglishvowelsbeclassified?A.NewContents(75’)2.3Phonology:2.3.1PhonologyandPhonetics(10’)Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage—thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.   1)Phonologyphoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.\n      2)DifferencesbetweenPhonologyandPhonetics   2)Phone,Phoneme,andAllophone(15’):Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.2.3.2Phone,phoneme,andallophone   1)Phone音素Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Butaphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedon’t.   2)Phoneme音位Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Althoughphonemesaretheminimalsegmentsoflanguagesystems,theyarenottheirminimalelements.Aphonemeisfurtheranalyzablebecauseitconsistsofasetofsimultaneousdistinctivefeatures.Itisjustbecauseofitsdistinctivefeaturesthataphonemeiscapableofdistinguishingmeaning.   3)Allophone音位变体Then,howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandomorhaphazard;itisrule-governed.Oneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindouttheserules.Therulethatgovernsthedistributionofclear[1]anddark[ł]isanexample.2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair(20’)     1)PhonemiccontrastItcanbeeasilyobservedthatphoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast,e.g./p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit].     2)ComplementarydistributionIftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments.Forinstance,theclear[l]alwaysoccursbeforeavowelwhilethedark[ł]alwaysoccursbetweenavowelandaconsonant,orattheendofaword.Sotheallohphonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.     3)MinimalpairAbasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.SoinEnglish,pillandbillareaminimalpair,andsoarepillandtill,tillandkill,killanddill,anddillandgill.     4)MinimalsetAccordingly,wecanconcludethat/p//b//t//d//k/arephonemesinEnglish.Thenallthesesoundcombinationstogetherconstituteaminimalset;theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonant.Thisalsoappliestothevowels.Thepronunciationsofthefollowingwordsareidenticalexceptforthevowel:beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.Sotheyformaminimalset,fromwhichwecanconcludethatallthesevowels:/i://I//e//A//u://Q//ei//ai//Eu/arephonemesinEnglish.2.3.4Somerulesinphonology(15’) 2.3.4.1Sequentialrules\nThepatterningofsoundsinaparticularlanguageisgovernedbyrules.Thephonologicalsystemdetermineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.Supposeyouaregivenfourcards,eachofwhichhasadifferentphonemeinEnglishprintedonit:/k//b//l//I/ 2.3.4.2AssimilationruleTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy”tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage. 2.3.4.3DeletionruleAnotherphonologicalruleisthedeletionrule.Ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign—signature,resign—resignation,phlegm—phlegmatic,paradigm—paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded. 2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures(18’)Sofarwehavebeendealingwiththephonemes—soundsegmentsthatdistinguishmeaning.Butdistinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.  2.3.5.1StressDependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Thenounhasthestressonthefirstsyllableandthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable.  2.3.5.2ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegmentalfeature.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguages.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Ourmothertongue,Chinese,isatypicaltonelanguage.Ithasfourtones.Thefirsttoneislevel(阴平),thesecondrise(阳平),thethirdfall-rise(上声),andthefourthfall(去声).Theroleofthetonecanbewellillustratedbypronouncingthesamesoundcombinationsuchas“ma”inthefourdifferenttones:ma(妈)ma(麻)ma(马)ma(骂)  2.3.5.3IntonationWhenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,the\nrisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.Revisionexercises:1.Whatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?Thetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunicationarespeechandwriting.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwritingbecausethewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?Voicingisaqualityofspeechsoundsresultfromthevibrationofthevocal.Aircomingfromthelungsandthroughthewindpipepassesthroughtheglottis.Thisisthefirstpointwheresoundmodificationmightoccur.Lyingacrosstheglottisarethevocalcords.Thesetwothintissuescanbeheldtightlytogethertocutoffthestreamofair,aswhenoneis‘holdinghisbreath’.Theycanberelaxedandfoldedbackateachsidetoletairflowthroughfreelyandsilentlyasinnormalbreathing.Thentheymayalsobeheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthematdifferentspeedswhenforcingitspassagethroughthem.VoicingisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Suchconsonantsarevoiced.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarevoiceless.3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscriptionistheonewithletter-symbolsonly.Theisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesteachingtextbooks.Thenarrowtranscriptionistheoneneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesound[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helW].Asamatteroffact,thesound[1]inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdifferslightly.The[1]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[l]asin“leaf”.Itiscalleddark[ł]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[~]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombination[helW]thesound[1]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[W],itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[l],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[﹁]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helW].Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised“h”isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[phit]andspitistranscribedas[spit].4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops,fricatives,affricatives,liquids,nasals,glides;Intermsofplaceofarticulation,theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar,glottal.5.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?Thefirstcriteriaisthepositionofthetongueinthemouth,asfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Afrontvowelisoneintheproductionof\nwhichthefrontpartofthetonguemaintainsthehighestposition;theEnglishfrontvowelsinclude[i:][Ι][e][A][B].Ifitisthecentralpartofthetonguethatisheldhighest,thevowelsthusproducedarecalledcentralvowels.ThecentralvowelsinEnglishare[3:][E]and[Q].Thenifweraisethebackofthetonguehigherthantherestofit,weproducethebackvowels:[u:][u][R:][and[a:].Thesecondoneistheopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Theclosevowelsare[i:][I][u:]and[J];thesemi-closevowelsare[e]and[3:],thesemi-openvowelsare[E]and[C:]andtheopenvowelsare[A][B][Q][R]and[B:].6.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:1)voicedpalatalaffricate:[dV]2)voicelesslabiodentalfricative:[f]3)voicedalveolarstop:[d]4)front,close,short:[I]5)back,semi-open,long:[R:]6)voicelessbilabialstop:[p]Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:1)[d]voicedalveolar2)[1]voicedalveolarliquid3)[tF]voicelessaffricatepalatal4)[w]voicedbilabialglide5)[u]back,close,short6)[A]front,open,short7.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,[1]and[ł],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage—thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Aphoneticianismoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween[1]and[ł],[ph]and[p]becausehestudiesthedifference.Butaphonologistregardthetwoversionsofthesamesoundasbasicentity.Fromthephonologicalpointofview,thesetwosoundsarefundamentallythesame,sincetheyhaveoneandthesamefunctionincommunication,indistinguishingbetweenwordsandmeaningsdespitetheirdifferenceinpronunciation.Aphonologisthasfoundthatthevariousversionsofthe[l]sounddonotoccuratrandominEnglish;theirdistributionfollowsanicelycomplementarypattern:weuseclear[1]beforeavowel,suchasloaf,anddark[ł]attheendofawordafteravowelorbeforeaconsonant,suchastell,quilt.Thisisanimportantphonologicalconclusion.Butphonologyisconcernedwiththesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage,sotheconclusionswereachaboutthephonologyofonelanguageisveryoftenlanguagespecificandshouldnotbeappliedtoanotherlanguagewithoutdiscretion.Whatistrueinonelanguagemaynotbetrueinanotherlanguage.8.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Butaphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;\nsomedo,somedon’t.Forexample,[s]and[t]do,as[si:m]and[ti:m]aretwowordswithtotallydifferentmeanings,and[th]and[t]don’t,as[stRp]and[sthRp]meanthesametoaspeakerofEnglish.Again,weshouldremindourselvesthatwhatdoesnotdistinguishmeaninginonelanguagemayprobablydoinanotherlanguage.Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,whenwepronouncethetwowordspeakandspeak,weareawarethatthesound[p]ispronounceddifferently.Inthewordpeak,the[p]soundispronouncedwithastrongpuffofairstream;butthesamestopsoundispronouncedslightlydifferentlyinthewordspeak,thepuffofairiswithheldalittle.The[p]soundinpeakiscalledanaspirated[p],andthe[p]soundinspeakisanunaspirated[p].Therelationbetweenaspirated[p]andunaspirated[ph]correspondstothatbetweenclear[1]anddark[ł]:thereisaslightdifferenceinthewaytheyarepronounced,butsuchadifferencedoesnotgiverisetodifferenceinmeaning.So/p/isaphonemeintheEnglishsoundsystem,anditcanberealizeddifferentlyasaspiratedorunaspiratedindifferentcontexts.Conventionallyphonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets,andphonemesinslashes.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/1/inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[ł],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.Then,howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandomorhaphazard;itisrule-governed.Oneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindouttheserules.Therulethatgovernsthedistributionofclear[1]anddark[ł]isanexample.Althoughphonemesaretheminimalsegmentsoflanguagesystems,theyarenottheirminimalelements.Aphonemeisfurtheranalyzablebecauseitconsistsofasetofsimultaneousdistinctivefeatures.Itisjustbecauseofitsdistinctivefeaturesthataphonemeiscapableofdistinguishingmeaning.AnativespeakerofEnglishcantellbyintuitionthatthefollowingsoundcombinationsallcarrydifferentmeanings:[mAn],[pAn],[bAn],[tAn1,[rAn],[kAn],[TAn].Thisisbecausetheyallcontainadifferentphoneme.Thefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures.9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.Thepatterningofsoundsinaparticularlanguageisgovernedbyrules.Thephonologicalsystemdetermineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.Thisindicatesthattherearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Theserulesarecalledsequentialrules.Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy”tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.VowelsinEnglisharenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,the[i:]soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].Thedeletionruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Forexample,inthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.10.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?Distinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.\nVocabulary：orthographica.Oforrelatingtoorthography.正字法的：属于或有关正字法的;Spelledcorrectly.正确拼写的orthographyn.Theartorstudyofcorrectspellingaccordingtoestablishedusage正字法：根据已建立的用法改正拼写的艺术和研究;Theaspectoflanguagestudyconcernedwithlettersandtheirsequencesinwords拼字法：关于字母及其在词中顺序的那一部分言研究;*Amethodofrepresentingthesoundsoflanguageoralanguagebylettersanddiacritics;spelling表音法：用书写符号或印刷符号表现某一语言的读音的方法phonicadj.（Linguistics）Of,relatingto,orhavingthenatureofsound,especiallyspeechsounds.articulatorn.发音清晰的人，发音器官spectrographn.Aspectroscopeequippedtophotographorotherwiserecordspectra.光谱仪：用来拍摄或记录光谱或声谱的分光镜larynxn.Thepartoftherespiratorytractbetweenthepharynxandthetrachea,havingwallsofcartilageandmuscleandcontainingthevocalcordsenvelopedinfoldsofmucousmembrane.喉：位于咽与气管之间的呼吸道的一部分，管壁由软骨与肌肉组成，内有由粘液状的膜构成的褶页所保护的声带glottisn.Theopeningbetweenthevocalcordsattheupperpartofthelarynx.声门：喉上部声带间的空隙tautaStrained;tense紧张的：紧张的；绷紧的uvulan.Asmall,conical,fleshymassoftissuesuspendedfromthecenterofthesoftpalate小舌，悬雍垂：悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块twangv.Tospeakinastronglynasaltoneofvoice带鼻音说话或发音;Tocausetomakeasharp,vibratingsound使发出拨弦声：使发出尖锐的颤音diacritica.Amark,suchasthecedillaoffaçadeortheacuteaccentsofrésumé,addedtoalettertoindicateaspecialphoneticvalueordistinguishwordsthatareotherwisegraphicallyidentical区别音符：一个添加到一个字母上的标志，如façade上所加的变音符号或ré-sumé,上表示发高音的记号，表示一个特殊的发音或用于区别与图示相同的词\ntranscribev.(Linguistics)Torepresent(speechsounds)byphoneticsymbols记下…的音标：用音标表示（用语音）翻译或转译convexa.Havingasurfaceorboundarythatcurvesorbulgesoutward,astheexteriorofasphere凸起的：具有向外弯曲或凸出的表面或边界的，如球体的外表面stoppagen.Theactofstoppingortheconditionofbeingstopped;ahalt停止：停止的动作或被停止的状态；中止retroflexa.(Linguistics)Pronouncedwiththetipofthetongueturnedbackagainsttheroofofthemouth.卷舌音的：将舌尖向后卷抵住口中硬腭而发音的n.（Linguistics）Asoundpronouncedwiththetongueinretroflexposition,asthesound(r)insomevarietiesofEnglish.卷舌音：舌尖处于卷舌音状态时发出的声音，如英语的一些变种音(r)laxn.Pronouncedwiththemusclesofthetongueandjawrelativelyrelaxed,asthevowel“e”inlet松弛元音的：舌头和下颚肌肉比较放松时发出的，如元音e在let中的发音intervenev.Tocome,appear,orliebetweentwothings插进：来到、出现于或位于两个物体之间;Tooccurasanextraneousorunplannedcircumstance干扰：作为一无关的或计划外的情形发生physiologicala.Oforrelatingtophysiology生理学的，与生理学有关的;Beinginaccordwithorcharacteristicofthenormalfunctioningofalivingorganism.生理的，生理机能的，生理上正常的：根据有生命的有机体正常功能的，或具有此特征的sloppya.Markedbyalackofneatnessororder;untidy:邋遢的：以缺少整洁或秩序为特征的；不整洁的alveolara.(Linguistics)Formedwiththetipofthetonguetouchingorneartheinnerridgeofthegumsoftheupperfrontteeth,astheEnglisht,d,ands.齿龈音的，齿槽音的：用舌尖接触或靠近上前牙龈内侧边缘而形成的发音，如英语语音t,d,和sn.Analveolarsound齿槽音，齿龈音pervertv.Toputtoawrongorimproperuse;misuse.SeeSynonymsatcorrupt滥用，误用：使错误或不恰当地使用；误用参见corrupt;Tointerpretincorrectly;misconstrueordistort:\n误解，误会，歪曲pitchn.AcousticsThedistinctivequalityofasound,dependentprimarilyonthefrequencyofthesoundwavesproducedbyitssource.【声学】音质：声音的特性，主要依据从音源发出的声波的频率;MusicTherelativepositionofatonewithinarangeofmusicalsounds,asdeterminedbythisquality音乐】音高：在一定音乐声中，某一音调相应的位置，由音高决定;MusicAnyofvariousstandardsforthisqualityassociatingeachtonewithaparticularfrequency【音乐】音调：一种音高标准，将每一音调与其特定的频率相连III.Homework(2’)   1.Review   2.P.31:7-10(oral)   3.PrepareChapter3IV.Self-evaluation:Date:Lecture5Chapter3 MorphologyI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:1.Morphemes2.Openclassandclosedclass3.Morphemes4.Wordstructures5.Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes6.Morphemerulesofwordformation7.Derivation8.Compounds       II.ProceduresA.Review(10’)   1.HowareEnglishconsonantsclassified?   2.HowareEnglishVowelsclassified?B.NewContents(77’)3.1IntroductionMorphologyreferstothepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructurewhichishowwordsareformedinEnglishandwhatspeakersofEnglishknowaboutwordformation，themorphologyoftheirlanguage．3.2OpenclassandclosedclassInEnglish，nouns，verbs，adjectivesandadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofvocabulary．They\narethecontentwordsofalanguage，whicharesometimescalledopenclasswords，sincenewwordscanbeaddedtotheseclassesregularly．Conjunctions，prepositions，articlesandpronounsconsistofthe“graamnatical”or“functional”words．Thenumberofsuchwordsissmallandstablesincefewnewwordsareadded，thereforesuchwordshavebeenreferredtoasclosedclasswords．3.3Morphemes---theminimalunitsofmeaning1.Thewordasthesmallestfreeform:Linguistsdefinethewordasthesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage．Afreeformissimplyanelementthatdoesnothavetooccurinafixedpositionwithrespecttoitsneighboringelements；inmanycases，itcanevenappearinisolation．   2.morpheme:Likesyllablesandsentences，wordshaveaninternalstructurewhichconsistsofsmallerunitsorganizedinaparticularway．Themostimportantcomponentofawordstructureisthemorpheme---thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction．Itisimportanttonotethatamorphemeisneitherameaningnorastretchofsound，butameaningandastretchofsoundjoinedtogether．Alsomorphemesareusuallyarbitrary：thereisnonaturalconnectionbetweentheirsoundandtheirmeaning．3.morph(语素):Whenpeoplewishtodistinguishthesoundofamorphemefromtheentiremorpheme，theymayusethetermmorph．Forexample，theEnglishpluralandpossessivemorphemesmaybesaidtoshareasinglemorph，thesuffix／-s／.(语素是最小的有意义的语法单位，是最小的语音、语义结合体。)4.afreemorpheme:Amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitself.5.aboundmorpheme:amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotherone.6.Allomorphs:Thevariantformsofamorphemearccalleditsallomorphs．3.4AnalyzingwordstructuresRootsandaffixes:Therootconstitutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentofitsmeaning．Rootstypicallybelongtoalexicalcategory，suchasnouns(N)，verbs(V)，adjectives(A)，orprepositions(P)．Affixesdonotbelongtoalexicalcategoryandarealwaysboundmorphemes．\nFigure3．1Theinternalstructureofthewordteacher(Afstandsforaflfix)N／＼VAfteacher3.5Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes1.Derivationalmorphemesareconjoinedtoothermorphemes(orwords)，newwordsarederived，orformed．2.aminimalunit:amorphemecanbedefinedasaminimalunitofmeaning．3.aninfinitivemarker:to4.inflectionalmorphemes:thereareboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkersandsignifysuchconceptsastense，number，caseandsoon．3.6Morphologicalrulesofwordformation1.morphologicalrules:Thewayswordsareformedarecalledmorphologicalrules．Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords．2.productivemorphologicalrules:Someofthemorpbologicalrulescanbeusedquitefreelytoformnewwords．3.7DerivationDerivationisanaffixationalprocessthatformsawordwithameaningand／orcategorydistinctfromthatofitsbases．3.8CompoundsIntheprevioussectionswehavediscussedhowderivationalandfreemorphemescombinetoproducenewwords．Anotherwaytoformnewwords，orcompoundwords，tobemoreexact，isbystringingwordstogether.Revisionexercises:1．Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachmorphemeandthenext：a．mi+cro+filme．tele+communicat+ion\nb．be+draggle+df．fore+fatherc．announce+mentg．psy+chophysicsd.pre+digest+ionh．mechan+ist2．Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes，givetheirmeaningandspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffferdto．Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach．Model:-orSuffix：-ormeaning：thepersonorthingperformingtheactionstemtype：addedtoverbsexamples：actor，“onewhoactsinstageplays，motionpictures，etc．”translator，“onewhotranslates”3．Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes，givetheirmeaning，andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybeprefixedto．Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach．Model：-apreffix：a-meaning：“without；not”stemtype：addedtoadjectivesexamples：asymmetric,“lackingsymmetry”asexual，“withoutsexorsexorgans”4．Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme．Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning．Suemovesinhigh—societycirclesinLondon．AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar．TheclubhasmovedtoFriday，Febmary22nd．Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth．5．Determinewhetherthewordsineachofthefollowinggroupsarerelatedtoone\nanotherbyprocessesofinflectionorderivation．a)go,goes,going,goneb)discover,discovery，discoverer,discoverable，discoverabilityc)inventor，inventor’sinyentors，inventors’d)democracy，democrat，democratic，democratizel6.ThefollowingsentencescontainbothderivationalandinflectionalaffLxes．UnderlineallofthederivationalaffixesandcircletheinflectionalaffLxes．a)Thefarmer’scawescaped．b)Itwasraining．c)Thosesocksareinexpensived)Jimneedsthenewercopy．e)Thestmngestrowercontinued．f}Shequicklyclosedthebook．g)Thealphabetizationwentwell．Forfurtherreading:Bauer，L.EnglishWord-frmation．NewYork：CambridgeUniversiWPress，1983Spencer，A．MorphologicalTheory．Cambridge，MA：Blackwell，1991．0’Grady，W．eta1．ContemporaryLinguistics(4thE)．Bedford／St．Martin’S，2001．morph语言学中的语素,语素是最小的有意义的语法单位，是最小的语音、语义结合体。allomorph语言学中的音素变体Morph:thephoneticrealizationofamorpheme.Allomorph:thephoneticvariantofamorphemeinaparticularlanguage.Threefeatures:A.allallomorphsshouldhavecommonmeaning;B.allallomorphshouldbeincomplementarydistribution;C.allomorphswhichsharethecommonmeaningshouldoccurinparallelformation.III.Homework(2’)     1.Reviewthewholechapter&dotheRevisionExercisesonPs40-41.     2.PrepareChapter5 IV.Self-evaluation:\nDate：Lecture6Chapter4SyntaxI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:1.Whatissyntax?2.Categoriesa.World-levelcategoriesb.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures3.Phrasestructurerule4.PhraseelementsII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(10’)Q1. What’sthedifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?   Q2.Definethefollowingterms:         a.phoneme         b.allophone         c.minimalpairB.NewContents(80’)4.1Whatissyntax?(10’)Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.InthischapterweareconcernedwiththecompositionofsentencesbyintroducingsomeofthemostcommoncategoriesofwordsinEnglishaswellassomesimplerulesthatgoverntheorganizationofthesecategoriesintolargerstructuralunits.4.2Categories(范畴)4.2.1Word-levelcategoriesCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.1.Syntacticcategories（句法范畴）Afundamentalfactaboutwordsinallhumanlanguagesisthattheycanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledsyntacticcategories.2.World-levelcategoriesThemostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories.Intraditionalgrammaronlyabouteightcategories(calledpartsofspeech：noun,pronoun,verb,adjective,adverb;article,prepositionandinterjection)arerecognized,butallcurrenttheoriesofgrammarhavefounditnecessarytoincreasethisnumberbytheadditionofsuchnon-traditionalcategoriesasdeterminer(Det),degreewords(Deg)andqualifier(Qual).Thereisasyetnocompleteconsensus(一致)astopreciselywhichlexicalcategoriesshouldberecognized,thoughthedivergence(趋异)ofviewsisnotdramatic.Herewordlevelcategoriesaredividedintotwokinds:majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesplayaveryimportantroleinsentenceformation.Theydifferfromminorlexicalcategoriesinthattheyareoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt.MajorlexicalcategoriesareNoun,Verb,Adjective,andPreposition.Theyareexemplifiedbelow.Table4—1ExamplesofsomelexicalcategoriesMajorlexicalcategoriesExamples\nNoun(N)book,boy,love,sheepVerb(V)run,read,playAdjective(A)happy,tall,clearPreposition(P)about,over,onMinorlexicalcategoriesExamplesDeterminer(Det)the,a,this,thoseDegreeword(Deg)quite,very,more,soQualifier(Qual)often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary(Aux)must,should,can,mightConjunction(Con)and,but,or3.Meaning,inflectionanddistribution.Todetermineaword’scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning.Forexample,nounstypicallydenoteentitiessuchashumanbeingslikeJohn,Maryandobjectslikepenandbook.Verbs,characteristicallydesignateaction,sensationsandstates.Thesecondcriteriontodetermineaword’scategoryisinflection.Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.Thelastandmorereliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.Thatiswhattypeofelementscancooccurwithacertainword.Forexample,nounscantypicallyappearwithadeterminerlikethegirlandacard,verbswithanauxiliarysuchasshouldstayandwillgo,andadjectiveswithadegreewordsuchasverycoolandtoobright.4.2.2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures(30’)Syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.Ifthewordaroundwhichthephraseisbuiltisanoun,thenthephraseisanounphrase.Ifthewordisaverb,thenthephraseisaverbphraseandsoon.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,themostcommonlyrecognizedanddiscussedphrasalcategoriesarenounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP)andprepositionalphrase(PP).Phrasescanconsistofjustoneword,butmoreoftentheycontainotherelementsaswell,e.g.[NPtheprettygirl][VPoftendream][APverypessimistic][PPmainlyabout]Whetherformedofoneormorethanoneword,theyconsistoftwolevels,phraselevelandwordlevelasexemplifiedbelow,NPVPAPPP—phraselevelNVAP—wordlevelPhrasesthatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontainthefollowingelements:head,specifierandcomplement.Thewordroundwhichaphraseisformedistermedhead.Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.4.3PhrasestructureruleAcertainwordcanonlyconcurwithcertainotherwords.Theremustbecertaingrammaticalmechanismthatensurestheappropriatepositionsthatspecifiers,heads,andcomplements\noccupyinphrasestructure.Suchspecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.ThephrasestructuralruleforNP,VP,AP,andPPcanbewrittenasfollows:NP(Det)N(PP)…VP(Qual)V(NP)…AP(Deg)A(PP)…PP(Deg)P(NP)…4.3.1XPruleWecanfindveryobviousstructuralsimilaritiesamongtheaboverules.Inallfourphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftofheadwhilethecomplementisattachedtotheright.Thesesimilaritiescanbesummarizedwiththehelpofthetemplatebelow,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.Figure4---1XPSpecifierXComplementHeadTheXPrule:XP---specifierXcomplement4.3.2CoordinationruleSofarwehavebeenconcentratingonphrasesthatconsistofspecifiers,heads,andcomplements.Englishcontainsothertypesofstructuresaswell.Forexample,somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasandoror.Suchphrasesarecalledcoordinatestructuresandthisphenomenonisknownascoordination.Coordinationexhibitsfourimportantproperties.First,thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.Second,acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.Third,coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.Fourth,thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.Thecoordinationrulecanbeformulatedasbelow:XX*ConXInthisrulethesymbolXstandsfor‘acategoryatanystructurallevel’,indicatingthateitheranXoranXPcanbecoordinated.Theasterisk(*)indicatesthatoneormorecategoriescanoccurtotheleftoftheCon(=conjunction).4.4PhraseelementsAsshownearlier,aphrasecancontainspecifiersandcomplementsbesidesthehead.Inthissection,wearegoingtointroduceeachofthemandrevisetheXPruletoaccommodatethemorecomplexphrasestructures.4.4.1SpecifiersSpecifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.Semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.InEnglishspecifiersoccurattheleftboundaryoftheirrespectivephrases.Thesyntacticcategoryofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead.IftheheadsareNs,thespecifiersaredeterminers.IftheheadsareVs,thespecifiersarequalifiersandiftheheadsareAsorPs,thenthespecifiersaredegreewords.\nTable4–2ExamplesofphrasesconsistingofaheadandspecifierspecifierheadExamplesdeterminerNthetree,thisbook,nowaterqualifierValwaysfail,oftendrinkDegreewordAquitegood,veryinterestingPalmostin,quiteabove4.4.2ComplementsAswehaveseen,complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.TheyareattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.Forexample,(4—1)astoryaboutasentimentalgirlTheinformationaboutaword’scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsubcategorization.Subcategorizationinformationtogetherwiththephrasestructurerulesensuresthatlexicalitemsappearintheappropriatetypesoftreestructures.Acertainlexicalitemrequiresacertaintypeofcomplement.Forexample,verbslikeappearcanoccurwithoutanycomplement,cutcanoccurwithanNPcomplementandsomeheadsinEnglishsuchasputcantakemorethanonecomplement.Therefore,wecanreviseourearlierXPruleasfollows,usingasasteriskafterthecomplementtoindicatethatoneormoreoftheseelementsispermitted.TheXPRule(revised)XP(Specifier)X(Complement*)Thisrulealsocapturesthesimplebutimportantfactthatcomplements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.InEnglish,sometimesasentence-likeconstructionfunctionsasacomplementsuchastheonebelow.(4—2)MissHebertbelievesthatshewillwin.Theitalicizedpartintheabovesentenceisthecomplementoftheverbbelieve.Itisasentenceitselfbutnotanindependentonesinceitisintroducedbyaconjunctionandfunctionsasaphrase.Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizers(shortenedasCs).Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizeriscalledacomplementclause.Thusthewholeitalicizedpartintheabovesentenceiscalledacomplementphrase(shortenedasCP)andtheconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.ThereisnolimitonthenumberofembeddedclausesthatcanoccurinasentencesinceeachcomplementcancontainaverbthatitselfpermitsacomplementCP.Ofcourse,notallverbscantakeaCPcomplement.WordsthatcantakeCParenotverbsalone;As,NsandPscanalltakeCP.Theyareexemplifiedinthefollowingtable.Table4—3ExamplesofsomeAs,Ns,andPspermittingCPcomplementsItemsHeadsExamplesAdjectivesafraid,certain,awareIwasafraidthatnobodywouldbelieveme.Nounsfact,claim,beliefShecan’tbelievethefactthatshewouldfailintheexam.\nPrepositionsover,aboutTheyarguedoverwhethershehadcometoclass.4.4.3ModifiersStillanotherkindofelementwehavenottoucheduponsofarismodifiers,whichspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.Althoughalllexicalcategoriescanhavemodifiers,wewillfocushereonthetypesofcategoriesthatcanmodifyNsandVs.ThemostcommonmodifiersofNsareadjectivephrasesandthoseofverbsareadverbphrasesandprepositionalphraseswhichdescribemannerandtime.ModifiersinEnglishvaryintermsoftheirpositionwithrespecttothehead.Theycanbesummarizedbelow.Table4—3ModifierpositioninEnglishModifierPositionExampleAPprecedestheheadaverycarefulgirlPPfollowstheheadopenwithcareAdvPprecedesorfollowstheheadreadcarefully;carefullyreadTomakemodifiersfitintophrasestructure,wecanexpandouroriginalXPruleintothefollowingsothatitallowsthevariousoptions.TheExpandedXPrule:XP(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)Thisruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforetheheadorafterit.Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthatoccursaftertheheadwillnormallyoccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.III.Homework:(2’)1.Reviewpp42-512.DothereviewexercisesQQ1-4.3.PreviewtherestofthechapterIV.Self-evaluation:Date:Lecture7Chapter4Syntax（Continued）I.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:1.TheSrule2.Transformations1)Auxiliarymovement2)Doinsertion3)Deepstructureandsurfacestructure4)Whmovement5)Moveαandconstraintsontransformations\nII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’)1.What’ssyntax?   2.Definethefollowingterms:         a.Word-levelcategories         b.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures         c.XPruled.X-Theorye.Coordinationrulef.Specifiersg.Complementsh.ModifiersB.NewContents（75’）:4.5Sentences(TheSrule)Sentencesaretraditionallytakentobetheproductoftherulebelow,TheSrule:SNPVPwhichcombinesanNP(oftencalledthesubject)withaVPtoyieldasentencesuchastheonebelow.Figure4—2SNPVPNPDetNVDctNIboyfoundtheevidence.Sentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Theytakeanabstractcategoryinflection(屈折变化)(dubbed被称为‘Infl’)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.Likeotherphrases,InfltakesanNP(thesubject)asitsspecifierandaVPcategoryasitscomplement.Accordingtothisidea,sentenceshavethesameinternalstructureasotherphrasesandareconsistentwiththeXPruleoutlinedearlier.Thus,thereisnoneedforthespecialSrule.ThestructureofScanbedepicted(描述)asbelow.Figure4—3InflP(=S)NPVPlnfISentencehead—Inflpositioncanbetakenbyanabstractcategoryencodedinaverbwhichindicatesthesentence’stenseoranauxiliaryasshownbelow.Figure4--4lnfIrealizedbyatenselabellnflP(=S)\nNPVPlnflNPDetNVDetNPstAboyfoundthebookFigure4--5lnflpositionrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP(=S)NPVPNPlnfIDetNVDetNwillAboyfindthebook4.6Transformations4.6.1AuxiliarymovementInversion:MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.Figure4—6CPCSNPVPDetNInfIVThetrainwillarriveSo,theinversiontransformationcanbereformulatedasfollows.Inversion(revised):\nMoveInfltoC.Figure4—7*Theteacherwonders[CPif-shouldhisstudent________stay].Figure4—8CPCSNPVPInflDetNInflVwillthetrainearriveFromtheabovetreediagram,wecanseethattheauxiliarymovesfromtheheadInflpositioninInflPintotheheadCpositioninCP.Suchtypeofinversionoperationinvolvingthemovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninonephraseintotheheadpositioninanotherisalsoknownasheadmovement.4.6.2Doinsertion(4---3)Birdsfly.Linguistscircumvents(规避)thisproblembyaddingthespecialauxiliaryverbdo.Sowecanformulateaninsertionruleasfollows.DoinsertionInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.Figure4—9CPCSNPInflVPNPstVBirdsflyFigure4—10CPCSNPInflVPNV\nbirdsdoflyFigure4—11CPCSNPInflVPInflNVDobirdsefly4.6.3Deepstructureandsurfacestructuresuggeststhattherearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(orD-structure).Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).ThedeepstructureforthequestionWillthetrainarrive?Isgivenbellow.Figure4—13SNPVPDetNInflVthetrainwillarriveThesurfacestructureforthequestionpatternformedbyapplyingtheinversiontransformationisgivenbelow.Figure4—14Willthetrain_________arrive?Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthecanbedepictedbelow.TheXPRuleDEEPSTRUCTURETransformationsSURFACESTRUCTURE4.6.4WhMovementInEnglishanotherkindofquestionsbeginningwithawh-wordarecalledwhquestionssuch\nastheonesbelow.(4—4)Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?(4—5)Whatcanyoutalkabout?Howdothesesentencescomeabout?Whatistheirdeepstructure?Toanswerthequestion,ithadbettertounderstandtheroletheboldwordsbeforetheauxiliaryplay.Itseemsobviousthattheboldword(s)ineachsentencefunction(s)asthecomplementoftheverborprepositionattheendofthesentence.Onepieceofevidenceleadingtothisconclusionisthefactthatwithouttheboldwordsthesentencesaresomewhatincomplete.Thusthedeepstructuresoftheabovesentencesare(4—6)youcanspeakwhatlanguage(4—7)youcantalkaboutwhatToconvertthesedeepstructuresintothecorrespondingsurfacestructures,weneedatransformationthatwillmovethewhphrasefromitspositionindeepstructuretoapositionatthebeginningofthesentence.ThistransformationiscalledWhMovementwhichcanbeformulatedbelow.WhMovementMovethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.ByapplyingWhMovementandinversiontothedeepstructure,wecanformthedesiredquestionstructure.Figure4—14Whatlanguagescanyouspeak______?InversionWhMovementFigure4—15Whatcanyou_________talkabout_______?InversionWhMovementWethereforereformulatetheWhMovementtransformationasfollows.WhMovement(revised):MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(4—8)Whowonthegame?Inthissentence,thewhwordoriginatesinthesubjectposition.Thus,whenitmovestothespecifierpositionwithintheCP,theactualorderofthewordsinthesentencedoesnotchange.Thismovementcanbeshownbelow.Figure4—17CPCS\nNPNPInflVPPstNPNVNWhoewonthegameFigure4—17Thedeepstructureofthesentence.CPCSVPNPNPCPAdvpSCVPNPNPNInflAdvVDetNNVNShehasfinallyfoundthemansheloveswhoAftertheapplicationoftheWhMovementrule,thewhphrasehasmovedtothespecifierpositionwithintheCP.Thesurfacestructureofthesentencecanbedepictedbelow.Figure4—19CPCSVPNPNPCPSAdvPNPCVPNPInflNPNInflAdvVDetNNNVNShehasfinallyfoundthemanwhomsheloveseAsimilaranalysisisapplicabletoothertypesofrelativeclausestructuresinwhichthewhwordoriginatesinthesubjectpositionasthesentencebelow.\n(4—9)Shehasfinallyfoundthemanwholovesher.Thedeepstructureforthesentencecorrespondstothestructurebelow.Figure4—19Shehasfinallyfoundtheman[CP[Inflwholovesher]].Likeotherwhwords,whosubsequentlymovestothespecifierpositionwithinCPeventhoughtheactualwordorderofthewordsinthesentencedoesnotchangeasaresultofthismovement,asisshownbelow.Figure4—20Shehasfinallyfoundtheman[CPwho[lnflP_______lovesher]].4.6.5MoveαandconstraintsontransformationsJustasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules—theXPrule,sothereisageneralruleforallthemovementrules.ThisgeneralruleisreferredtoasMoveα,where‘alpha’isacovertermforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.a)InversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.Figure4—22[CP[InflPGeoffreyshouldknow[CPthatthetrainmightbelate]]].[Deepstructure]Figure4—23[CPshould[InflPGeoffrey____know[CPwhetherthetrainmightbelate]]].[Surfacestructure]Figure4—24*[CPMight[InflPGeoffreyshouldknow[CPwhetherthetrain___belate]]].[Surfacestructure]b)Noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.Figure4—25Thelittlegirlwilltellus[astoryorajoke].Figure4—26Whatwillthelittlegirltellus[astoryor______]?Inthischapterwehavefirstintroducedwordcategoriesandphrasecategories.Thenwehavefocusedonsomeofthefundamentalmechanismsemployedintheanalysisofsentenceformation.Theseincludephrasestructurerulesthatdeterminethearchitectureofasentence’sdeepstructure,subcategorizationinformationthatensuresamatchbetweenheadsandthecomplementswithwhichtheyappearinsyntacticstructure,andtransformationsthatcanmodifydeepstructureinvariouswaystoproduceasurfacestructure.Takentogether,theymakeupanimportantpartofouroveralllinguisticcompetencewhichenablesustocombinewordsintosentencesinendlesslynovelways.RevisionExercises:1．Whatissyntax?\nSyntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2．Whatisphrasestructurerule?Theremustbecertaingrammaticalmechanismthatensurestheappropriatepositionsthatspecifiers,heads,andcomplementsoccupyinphrasestructure.Suchspecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.3．Whatiscategory?Howtodetermineawordscategory?Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Todetermineaword’scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning.Forexample,nounstypicallydenoteentitiessuchashumanbeingslikeJohn,Maryandobjectslikepenandbook.Verbs,characteristicallydesignateaction,sensationsandstates.4．Whatiscoordinatestructureandwhatpropertiesdoesithave?Englishphrasesconsistofspecifiers,heads,andcomplements.Englishcontainsothertypesofstructuresaswell.Forexample,somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasandoror.Suchphrasesarecalledcoordinatestructuresandthisphenomenonisknownascoordination.Coordinationexhibitsfourimportantproperties.First,thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.Second,acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.Third,coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.Fourth,thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.5．Whatelementsdoesaphrasecontainandwhatroledoeseachelementplay?Phrasesthatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontainthefollowingelements:head,specifierandcomplement.Thewordroundwhichaphraseisformedistermedhead.Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.Specifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.Semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.6．Whatisdeepstructureandwhatissurfacestructure?Therearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(orD-structure).Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).7．1ndicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences．a)Theoldladygotoffthebnscarefully．the(Det),old(A),lady(N),get(V),off(Qual),the(Det),carefully(Qual)b)Tilecarsuddenlycrashedontotheriverbank．the(Det),car(N),suddenly(Qual),crashed(V),onto(P),the(Det),river(N),bank(N)\nc)Theblindingsnowstormmightdelaytheopeningoftheschools．d)Thisclothfeelsquitesoft．8．Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead，acomplement，andinsomecasesaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeachphrase．a)richinmineralsAPAPPPNrichinmineralsb)oftenreaddetectivestoriesVPQualVPVNPAdjNOftenreaddetectivestoriesc)theargumentagainsttheproposalsd)alreadyabovethewindow9．Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes．Foreachsentence,firstidentifythemodifier(s)，thendrawthetreestructures．a)Acrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution．SNPVPNP\nDetNPVNPPPPNPAdjNDetNAPNAcrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution．b)Ahugemoonhungintheblacksky．c)Themallexaminedhiscarcarefullyyesterday．d)Awoodenhutnearthelakecallapsedinthestorm．10．Thefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories．Drawatreestructureforeachofthesentences．a)Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants．bJHelenputonherclothesandwentout．c)Maryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatistics．11．Thefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionascomplementsofaverb，anadjective，aprepositionoranoun．Drawatreestructureforeachsentence．a)Youknowthatlhatewar．b)GerrybelievesthefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexam．c)ChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Royce．d)Thechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadwings．12．Eachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause．Drawthedeepstructureandthesilrfacestrtlcttlrefnreach0frhesesentences．a)Theessaythathewrotewasexcellent．b)Herbertboughtahousethatsheloved．c)Thegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinlinguistics13.Tilederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvetheinversiontransformation．Givethedeepstructureandthesurfacestructureofeachsentence\na)Wouldyoucometomorrow?b)WhatdidHelenbringtotheparty?C)Whobrokethewindow1.Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.a)Theoldladysuddenlyleft.the(Det),old(A),lady(N),suddenly(Qual),left(V)b)Thecarstoppedattheendoftheroad.the(Det),car(N),stopped(V),at(P),the(Det),end(N),of(P),the(Det),road(N)c)Thesnowmighthaveblockedtheroad.the(Det),snow(N),might(Aux),have(Aux),blocked(V),the(Det),road(N)d)Heneverappearsquitemature.he(Pr),never(Deg),appears(V),quite((Deg),mature(A)2.Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.a)fullofpeopleAPAPPPNFullofpeopleXPXComplementHeadFullofpeopleb)astoryaboutasentimentalgirlNPDetNPPPNPDetANastoryaboutasentimentalgirlXP(phraselevel)X-SpecifierX(head)complement\nAstoryaboutasentimentalgirlc)oftenreaddetectivestoriesVPQualVPVNPAdjNOftenreaddetectivestoriesXPX-SpecifierX(head)complementOftenreaddetectivestoriesd)theargumentagainsttheproposalsNPNPPPDetNPNPDetNTheargumentagainsttheproposalsXPX-SpecifierX(head)ComplementTheargumentagainsttheproposalse)movetowardsthewindowVPVPPPNPDetN\nMovetowardsthewindowXPX(head)ComplementMovetowardsthewindow3.Drawphrasestructuretreesforeachofthefollowingsentences.a)Thejetlanded.SNPVPInflDetNVPastThejetlandedb)Mariebecameveryill.SNPVPInflPastNVAdjPDegAdjMarybecameveryillc)Whatwillyoutalkabout?CPCSNPNPInflVPNInflNFutVPPPNWhatwillyouetalkabouted)Theapplemighthittheman.SNPVPInfl\nDetNVNPDetNTheapplemighthitthemane)Heoftenreadsdetectivestories.SNPVPInflQualVPPresentVNPAdj.NHeoftenreadsdetectivestories4.Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes.Foreachsentence,firstidentifythemodifier(s),thendrawthetreestructures.a)Afrightenedpassengerlandedthecrippledairplane.Modifiers:frightened;crippledSNPInflVPDetNPpastVNPAdjNDetNPAdjNAfrightenedpassengerlandedthecrippledairplaneb)Ahugemoonhungintheblacksky.Modifiers：huge;blackSNPInflVPDetNPPastVPPAdjNPNP\nDetNPAdjNAhugemoonhungintheblackskyc)Anunusualeventoccurredbeforethemeeting.Modifiers:unusualSNPInflVPDetNPPastVPPAdjNPNPDetNAnunusualeventoccurredbeforethemeetingd)Aquaintoldhouseappearedonthegrassyhill.Modifiers:quaint;old;grassySNPInflVPDetNPVPPPastNPPNPAdjAdjNDetNPAdjNAquaintoldhouseappearedonthegrassyhill5.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories.Drawatreestructureforeachofthesentences.a)Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants.SNPAuxVPNVNPDetNPAdjN*ConNNN\nJimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpantsb)Helenputonherclothesandwentout.SNPVPNVP*ConVPVPPVAdvPNPModNHelenputonherclothsandwentout.c)Maryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatistics.SNPVPNVAdjP*ConAdjPAdjPPAdjPPPNPNMaryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatisticsd)Thedetectivewentoutandthemysteriousmancamein.S*ConSSSNPVPNPVPDetNVAdvDetNPVAdvAdjNThedetectivewentoutandthemysteriousmancameine)Crusoeknowsthatspringwillcomeandthesnowwillmelt.SNPVPNVS*ConSSS\nNPVPNPVPNAuxVDetNAuxVCrusoeknowsthatspringwillcomeandthesnowwillmelt6.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionascomplementsofaverb,anadjective,aprepositionoranoun.Drawatreestructureforeachsentence.a)YouknowthatIhatewar.CPCSNPVPCPSCNPVPVNPNVNNYouknowthatIhatewarb)HesaidthatTomaskedwhethertheclasswasover.CPCSNPVPCPCSNPVPCPCSNPVPNVNNVDetNVAdvHesaidthatTomaskedwhethertheclasswasoverc)Gerrycan’tbelievethefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexam.CPCSVPNP\nNPCPSCNPInflVPVNPDetNPNInflVDetNNVDetAdjNGerrycan’tbelievethefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexamd)ChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Royce.CPCSNPVPNVAdjCPSVPCNPInflDetNVNPNNPDetNChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Roycee)Thechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadwings.CPCSVP\nNPPPVPCPCSVPNPInflVNPDetNNNThechildrenarduedoverwhetherbatshadwings7.Eachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause.Drawthedeepstructureandthesurfacestructuretreesforeachofthesesentences.a)Theessaythathewrotewastoolong.CPCSNPCPCSNPVPInflVPVAdjPDetNNNVNAdvAdjTheessaythathewroteewastoolongb)Thedogthathekeepsbites.CPCSNPCPDetNCS\nNPVPVNPNNVPVThedogthathekeepsebitesc)Herbertfoundthemansheloved.CPCSNPVPNVNPDetNCPCSNPVPInflNPNVNHerbertfoundthemaneshelovedwhod)Thegirlwhomheoftenquarrelswithmajorsinlinguistics.CPCSNPCPCSNPVP\nAdvVPVPPVPPNVPPPNPDetNPronNNThegirlwhomheoftenquarrelswithemajorsinlinguistics8.Thederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvetheinversiontransformation.Givethedeepstructureandthesurfacestructureofeachofthesesentences.a)Wouldyoucometomorrow?CPCSNPInflVPAuxNAuxVAdvWouldyouecometomorrowb)Canyoupassmethenewspaper?CPCSNPVPAuxInflNVNPNPAuxNDetNPCanyouepassmethenewspaper\nc)Shouldthestudentreporttheincident?CPCSNPAuxVPNPAuxDetNVDetNShouldthestudentereporttheincidentsd)Whatdidyoueatforlunch?CPCSNPNPInflVPVNPNPPNAuxNAuxPNWhatdidyoueeateforlunche)Whoshouldthisbereportedto?CPCSNPNPInflVPAuxVPPPNNAuxVPNPNWhoshouldthisebereportedtoe\nf)WhatwasHelenbringingtotheparty?CPCSNPNPInflVPAuxVPPNPPNPNNAuxNDetNWhatwasHelenebringingtoethepartyPartsofspeech(ZhangDaozhen)Nouns,Adjectives,Numerals,Pronouns,Verbs,Adverbs,Articles,Prepositions,Conjunctions,InterjectionsWord-levelcategories(ZhangZhengbang)NounsDeterminers:the;my,your,etc.;John’s,theoldman’s,etc.;some,any,no,all,other,such,what(ever),which(ever),whose,etc.PronounsVerbsAuxiliaries:Primaryauxiliaries:do,havebeModalauxiliaries:may,can,must,oughtto,will,shall,need,dare,usedtoAdjectivesAdverbsPrepositionsVocabularyaffixv.GrammarToaddasanaffix加词缀n.Somethingthatisattached,joined,oradded;anappendageoraddition.附加物;(Linguistics)Awordelement,suchasaprefixorsuffix,thatcanonlyoccurattachedtoabase,stem,orroot.词缀consensusn.Anopinionorpositionreachedbyagroupasawholeorbymajoritywill大多数意见;Thevoters'consensuswasthatthemeasureshouldbeadopted.大多数选民的意见是采取这个措施;Generalagreementoraccord:大致上的同意或一致resortv.Tohaverecourse诉诸，依靠：进行求助;Togocustomarilyorfrequently;repair.\n常去：习惯或频繁地去；常去divergencen.Thedegreebywhichthingsdiverge.分歧：事情分叉（叉开）的程度exemplifyv.Toillustratebyexample举例说明;Toserveasanexampleof作为…例子template/templetn.Apatternorgauge,suchasathinmetalplatewithacutpattern,usedasaguideinmakingsomethingaccurately,asinwoodworking.样板tediousa.Tiresomebyreasonoflength,slowness,ordullness;boring.SeeSynonymsatboring单调乏味的：由于时间长、缓慢或呆滞而令人厌倦的；令人厌烦的参见boringaccommodatev.Toprovidefor;supplywith提供；供应;Toholdcomfortablywithoutcrowding.SeeSynonymsatcontain容纳，提供空间;Tomakesuitable;adapt.SeeSynonymsatadapt使适应；使符合参见adapt;Toallowfor;consider允许；考虑inflectionn.Apatternofformingparadigms,suchasnouninflectionorverbinflection词形变化的规则：形成词形变化的种类，如名词屈折变化、动词屈折变化matrixn.Asituationorsurroundingsubstancewithinwhichsomethingelseoriginates,develops,oriscontained母体，发源地：可产生、发展或包含其它物的地点或环境dubv.Tohonorwithanewtitleordescription授予…新称号，把…称为;Togiveanametofacetiouslyorplayfully;nickname起绰号：取一个诙谐或好玩的名字；给…起绰号depictv.Torepresentinwords;describe.描述：用文字表示insersionn.Theactorprocessofinserting.插入;Somethinginserted,asanornamentalstripoflaceorembroideryinsertedbetweenpiecesoffabric.嵌饰的东西overta.Openandobservable;nothidden,concealed,orsecret:公开的，明白的circumventv.Tosurround(anenemy,forexample);encloseorentrap.围住（例如敌人）；包围或诱陷;Togoaround;bypass绕行；避开bolda.Fearlessanddaring;courageous勇敢的，无畏的；敢作敢为的;Undulyforwardandbrazeninmanner莽撞的;Clearanddistincttotheeye;conspicuous醒目的：清晰的；易见的;(Printing)Boldface.(印刷术)黑体的，粗体的.III.Homework:(2’)\n1.Reviewpp51-632.DothereviewexercisesQQ4-8.3.PreviewtherestofthechapterIV.Self-evaluation:Date:Lecture8Chapter5Semantics(5.1-3)I.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:1.WhatisSemantics?2.Fourviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning;3.Lexicalmeaning.II.Procedures5.1WhatisSemantics?(10’)Semanticsisgenerallyconsideredtobethestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.Thephilosophersareinterestedinunderstandingtherelationsbetweenlinguisticexpressionsandwhattheyrefertointherealworld,andinevaluatingthetruthvalueoflinguisticexpressions.Thepsychologistsfocustheirinterestonunderstandingtheworkingsofthehumanmindthroughlanguage.Thisiswhyitisnotsurprisingtofindtenbooksallbearingthetitle“Semantics”buttalkingaboutdifferentthings.Inourdiscussion,wewilllimitourselvestothestudyofmeaningfromalinguisticpointofview.5.2Fourviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning(43’)5.2.1ThenamingtheoryThelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Weak-pointsofNamingTheories:1)Thistheoryseemstoapplyonlytonouns.2)Evenwithnouns,therewillbeproblems,becausemanynounssuchasunicorn(麒麟),fairy,ghost,heavenrelatetocreaturesorthingsthatdonotexist.5.2.2TheconceptualistviewThistheoryholdsthatwordsandthingsarerelatedthroughthemediation(调解、传递)ofconceptsofthemind.ThiscanbebestillustratedbytheSemiotic(记号语言的)TriangleadvancedbyOgdenandRichards.ThoughtorReferenceConceptSymbolReferent\nAccordingtothistheory,thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolandreferent(betweenlanguageandtheworld).Thelinkisviathoughtorreference,theconceptsofourminds.Weekpoints:Thistheoryraisesanewproblem.Forexample,whatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandconcept?Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthelinkissimplyapsychologicalone---whenwethinkofaname,wethinkofaconcept.Theproblemisthatpeopledon’tactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmind’seyeeverytimetheyutteraword.5.2.3ContextualismDuringtheperiodroughlyfrom1930to1960,linguistsgavepre-eminencetotheempiricalorobservationalaspectinthestudyofmeaning.Thistendencymanifesteditselfinanattempttobasemeaningoncontext.Thistheoryholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context---elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.Firth,theleadingBritishlinguistoftheperiodheldtheviewthat“Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.”Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.5.2.4BehaviorismAccordingtoBloomfield,themeaningofalinguisticformshouldbeviewedas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersit,andtheresponsewhichitcallsforthinthehearer.”BloomfieldarguedthatmeaningconsistsintherelationbetweenspeechandthepracticaleventsSandRthatprecedeandfollowit.5.3Lexicalmeaning5.3.1Senseandreference(意义和所指语义）Senseandreferencearetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Note:Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.5.3.2Majorsenserelations5.3.2.1SynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:1)Dialectalsynonyms（方言同义词—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects:Thesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.Itisnotdifficulttofindexamplesofsayingthesamethingbyusingdifferentwordsinthetwodialects:BritishEnglishAmericanEnglishautumn\nfallliftelevatorluggagebaggagelorrytruckpetrolgasolineflatapartment2)Stylisticsynonyms---synonymsdifferinginstyleWordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.Herearesomeexamples:•oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparent•start,begin,commence•kid,child,offspring•kickthebucket,popoff,die,passaway,decease3)SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningThesearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.Forexample,thetwowords“collaborator”and“accomplice”aresynonymousinthattheysharethemeaningof“apersonwhohelpsanother”,buttheydifferinthatacollaboratorhelpsanotherindoingsomethinggood,whileanaccomplicehelpsanotherinacriminalact.4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配同义词）Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.Forexample,whenwewanttosaythatsomeonehasdonesomethingwrongorevencriminal,wecanuse“accuse”,“charge”,“rebuke”,buttheyarefollowedbydifferentprepositionsaccuse...of,chargewith,rebuke...for.Anotherexampleisthewordweusetodescribefoodthathasgonebadandisnotfitforeating.Differentadjectivesareusedfordifferentkindsoffood,e.g.rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbaconorbatter,sourmilk.5)SemanticallydifferentsynonymsThesearesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.Forexample,thewowords“amaze”and“astound”areverycloseinmeaningtotheword“surprise”,buthaveverysubtledifferences.While“amaze”suggestsconfusionandbewilderment,“astound”suggestsdifficultyinbelieving.5.3.2.2Polysemy(多义现象)Whiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatcallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Table:(1)apieceoffurniture(2)allthepeopleseatedatatable(3)thefoodthatisputonatable(4)athinflatpieceofstone,metal,wood,etc.(5)orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.(6)partofamachine---toolonwhichtheworkisputtobeoperatedon(7)alevelarea,aplateau5.3.2.3Homonymy(同音异义)Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalin\nspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.Homonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…5.3.2.4Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusive（包含的,包括的）wordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate（上坐标词）,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms（下义词）.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother,e.g.Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily（百合花）,chrysanthemum（菊花）,peony（牡丹花）,narcissus（水仙花）,…Superordinate:furnitureHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,…Hyponymy----thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.5.3.2.5Antonymy（反义现象）Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning;wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms（反义词）.Oppositenesscanbefoundondifferentdimensionsanddifferentkindsofantonymsasthefollowing:1)GradableantonymsGradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…2)ComplementaryantonymsComplementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…3)RelationaloppositesPairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.Forexample,ifAisthehusbandofB,thenBisthewifeofA.So“husband”and“wife”areapairofrelationalopposites.Similarrelationisfoundbetween“father”and“son”,“teacher”and“pupil“,“doctor”and“patient”,“buy”and“sell”,“let”and“rent”,“above”and“below”.Homework(2’)   1.Review\n   2.Qs1-4,Pp76.(oral)   3.Prepare5.3:LexicalmeaningComments:DateLecture9Chapter5Semantics(5.4-5)I.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture:   1. Senserelationsbetweensentences   2.Analysisofmeaning       a. Componentialanalysis       b.PredicationanalysisII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestion(10’):  1.WhatisSemantics?2.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?3.Definesenseandreference4.DefinethemajorsenserelationsB.NewContents(80’):5.4 Senserelationsbetweensentences1) XissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.       2) XisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.       3) XentailsYX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.       4) XpresupposesYX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.X:Paulhasgivenupsmoking.Y:Pauloncesmoked.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.       5) Xisacontradiction*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.*Theorphan’sparentsareprettywell-off.WhenXisacontradiction,itisinvariablyfalse.        6) Xissemanticallyanomalous*Themanispregnant.*Thetablehasbadintentions.*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.5.5Analysisofmeaning5.5.1Componential（成分的）analysis—awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning\n       Componentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissected(仔细分析)intomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.Plus[+]andminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemantic[-]featureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Forexample:Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Woman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]5.5.2Predicationanalysis（述谓结构分析）—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning1) Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2) Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.(1)Thegrammaticalmeaning:Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.WithourknowledgeofEnglishgrammar,wecaneasilytellthatthefollowingsentencesarenotgrammaticallywell-formed:*Thedogarechasingthecat.*Hegavethebookme.*WewillwenttoBeijingtomorrow.Acertaingrammarruleisviolatedineachofthesentences.(2)Thesemanticmeaning:Thenwhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions,i.e.,constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.Somesentencesmaybegrammaticallywell-formed,i.e.,theycomplyperfectlywiththegrammarrulesofthelanguage,yettheymaynotbesemanticallymeaningful.Thereasonisthattheycontainwordswhicharenotsupposedtogotogether,thusviolatingtheselectionalrestrictions,e.g.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.Thetwosentencesaregrammaticallyperfect.Theyhaveallthenecessarygrammaticalcomponentsofasentence,andthereisnomistakeinagreementortense.Buttheproblemwiththefirstsentenceisthatnoonehaseverseenanygreenclouds,andcloudsneversleep,stillless,sleepfuriously.Theproblemwiththesecondsentenceisthatsincerity,beinganabstractnotion,cannotperformtheactionofshakinghands,andnooneevershakeshandswithanapple,stillless,ablackapple.Soinbothsentencessomeselectionalrestrictionshavebeenviolated.Thishasledtosemanticill-formednessofthesentences.3)Differentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.Whatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysis(述谓结构分析）proposedbytheBritishlinguistG.Leech.Inhisframeworkofanalysis,thebasicunitiscalledpredication(述谓结构),whichisthe\nabstraction(抽象概念)ofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)（变元）andpredicate（谓词）.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Forexample,thepredicationofthesentence“Tomsmokes”issaidtoconsistoftheargument“TOM”andthepredicate“SMOKE”,andthepredicationcanbewrittenasTOM(SMOKE).Asthegrammaticalformofthesentencedoesnotaffectthesemanticpredicationofthesentence,allthefollowingsentencesaresaidtohavethesamepredication:Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.Tom,smoke.DoesTomsmoke?Tomdoesnotsmoke.TheycanallberegardedasthevariousgrammaticalrealizationsofthesamesemanticpredicationTOM(SMOKE).Thensomesentencescontainmorethanoneargument.Forexample,thesentence“Kidslikeapples”hastwonominalelements“kids”and“apples”,soitspredicationcanbewrittenasKID,APPLE(LIKE).Andtheninsomesentencesthereisnoargumentatall,suchasthoseEnglishsentencescontainingtheimpersonal“it”,e.g.“Itishot”.“It”inthissentencecannotbeconsideredasanargument,and(BEHOT)isthepredicateofthepredication.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placepredication(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).Althoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsofthecomponentialmake-upofasentence,theyhavedifferentrolesinthepredication.Thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement,foritincludestense,modality,etc.anditmayalsobesaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberandnatureofthearguments.Revisionexercises:1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?1)ThenamingtheorywasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2)Thisconceptualistviewrelateswordsandthingsthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3)Contextualismmeansthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context.Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.4)Behaviorismattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”(Bloomfield,1933)\n2.WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?Theyaredialectalsynonyms,stylisticsynonyms,synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,collocationalsynonymsandsemanticallydifferentsynonyms.3.Explainwithexamples“homonymy”,“polysemy”,and“hyponymyHomonymy（同音异义）referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones（同音异义词）(rain/reignnight/knightpiece/peaceleak/leek).Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs（同形异义词）(bowv./bown.tearv./tearn.leadv./leadn).Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms(fastadj./fastv.scalen./scalev.).Polysemy（一词多义）meansthatdifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,suchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Taketheword“table”forexample.Hyponymy（下义关系）referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate（上义词）,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother,e.g.Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,carnation,lily,morningglory4.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseachofthefollowingpairsofantonyms（反义词）belong?Oppositescanbeclassifiedbythedifferentdimensions.Gradableantonyms:poor/rich,literate/illiterate,wide/narrowComplementaryantonyms:north/south,vacant/occupied,above/below,Relationalopposites:doctor/patient,father/daughter5.Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:Tom’swifeispregnant.Tomhasawife.XentailsY(X的意思包含在Y里).IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.Helikesseafood.Helikescrabs.XissynonymouswithV.IfXistrue,Yistrue,andifXisfalse,Yisfalse.Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced.Mysisterisamarriedwoman.XisinconsistentwithV.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yisfalse,andifXisfalse,Yistrue.Theyaregoingtohaveanotherbaby.Theyhaveachild.Xpresupposes（预设）Y.(Yisaprerequisite（先决条件,前提）ofX.)IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue,e.g.IfJohn’sbikeneedsrepairing,Johnmusthaveabike.6.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.7.Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthe\nlanguage.Theviolationsofselectionalrestrictionscanmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless.8.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis:Themansellsice-cream.MANICE-CREAM(SELL)Isthebabysleeping?BABY(SLEEP)Itissnowing.(SNOW)Thetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)Vocabularydenotev.Tomark;indicate作标志；指明;Toserveasasymbolornameforthemeaningof;signify:表示，意为;Tosignifydirectly;refertospecifically:SeeSynonymsatmean(1)直接表示；特指参见mean(1)signifyvt.Todenote;mean.SeeSynonymsatmean1表示…的意思；是…的意思参见mean1;Tomakeknown,aswithasignorword表明：使…公诸于众，如用手势或话语vi.Tohavemeaningorimportance.SeeSynonymsatcount1有重要性，要紧：有意义的或有重要性的参见count1manifestv.Toshowordemonstrateplainly;reveal显示：清楚地显示或表示；表明;Tobeevidenceof;prove证实：提供证据；证明indicatev.Toshowthewaytoorthedirectionof;pointout指示，指明；指出;Toserveasasign,symptom,ortokenof;signify:象征，显示；Tosuggestordemonstratethenecessity,expedience,oradvisabilityof:说明，显示：暗示或表明某事之必要性、迫切性或明智性;Tostateorexpressbriefly:简述，表示：简单扼要地说明或表明unicornn.Afabledcreaturesymbolicofvirginityandusuallyrepresentedasahorsewithasinglestraightspiraledhornprojectingfromitsforehead.独角兽，麒麟：一种虚构的代表童贞的动物，通常表示为一匹马，有直螺旋状的独角从它的额部突出plausiblea.Seeminglyorapparentlyvalid,likely,oracceptable;credible:看似真实的，看似有道理的；可靠的;Givingadeceptiveimpressionoftruth,acceptability,orreliability;specious花言巧语的：产生事实、可接受性或可信赖性的欺骗印象的；华而不实的referentn.Somethingthatrefers,especiallyalinguisticiteminitscapacityofreferringtoa\nmeaning.能指事物：能指称之物，特指有能够指称某种意思的能力的一语言成份;Somethingreferredto所指事物referencen.Anactofreferring:参考：参考的行为;Significanceinaspecifiedcontext特殊的重要性：在特定上下文中有特别的意义;Meaningordenotation涵义：意思或含义Thestateofbeingrelatedorreferred相关：被提及或被参考的状态;Amentionofanoccurrenceorasituation:提及：提到发生的事件或处境;Anoteinapublicationreferringthereadertoanotherpassageorsource参考书目：提示读者参考另外的篇章或资料的出版物注解;Thepassageorsourcesoreferredto.参考资料：供参考的篇章或资料---withreferenceto;inreferenceto关于；就…而言virtuen.Moralexcellenceandrighteousness;goodness正直，善良：道德上的优点和正直；美德;Anexampleorkindofmoralexcellence美德，德行：一种美德或其实例;Chastity,especiallyinagirlorwoman.贞操：贞操，尤指女孩或女子;Aparticularlyefficacious,good,orbeneficialquality;advantage:优点，长处：尤其灵验的、好的或受益的品质；长处;Effectiveforceorpower:效力，力量：---byvirtueof或invirtueof:Onthegroundsorbasisof;byreasonof:借助；凭借；因为spatiotemporala.Of,relatingto,orexistinginbothspaceandtime时空：关于时间和空间的、与之有关的或存在于时间和空间的;Oforrelatingtospace-time时空的：时空的或与之有关的collocationn.Theactofcollocatingorthestateofbeingcollocated并置：并置排列的行为或被并置排列的状态;Anarrangementorjuxtaposition,especiallyoflinguisticelements,suchaswords.搭配：排列或并置，尤指语言学中的成分排列，如构词sensen.Anyofthefacultiesbywhichstimulifromoutsideorinsidethebodyarereceivedandfelt,asthefacultiesofhearing,sight,smell,touch,taste,andequilibrium.感觉：接受和感觉体外或体内刺激的能力，如听力、视力、嗅觉、触觉、味觉和平衡的官能;*Intuitiveoracquiredperceptionorabilitytoestimate直觉，意识：直觉的或已获得的估计的领悟力或能力;Acapacitytoappreciateorunderstand欣赏或理解的能力;Ameaningthatisconveyed,asinspeechorwriting;signification含义：要传达的意思，如在演说或文学作品中；含义\nv.Tobecomeawareof;perceive感觉：意识到；感觉;Tograsp;understand.理解；领会caninea./n.Of,relatingto,orcharacteristicofthecanids犬科动物的：犬科动物的、与之相关的或具有其特点的;Of,relatingto,orbeingoneofthepointedconicalteethlocatedbetweentheincisorsandthefirstbicuspids.犬齿的：门牙和第一颗前磨牙之间的锋利锥形牙的、与犬齿相关的或位于犬齿的tripletn.Agrouporsetofthreeofonekind三个一组：一类人或物的三个组成一组或一套;Oneofthreechildrenbornatonebirth.三胞胎中的一个;Agroupofthreelinesofverse三行联句：一组三行短诗windscreen/windshieldn.Ascreenforprotectionagainstthewind风挡：用于防风起保护作用的屏障;ChieflyBritishThewindshieldofamotorvehicle.【多用于英国】汽车挡风玻璃polysemyn.多义（词）现象leakv.Topermittheescape,entry,orpassageofsomethingthroughabreachorflaw:泄漏;Toescapeorpassthroughabreachorflaw:漏出：通过缺口或裂缝逃逸或通过leekn.Anedibleplant(Alliumporrum)relatedtotheonionandhavingawhite,slenderbulbandflat,dark-greenleaves.韭葱，北美野韭，葱属植物：一种与洋葱有关的可食性植物（韭葱葱属），长有白色、纤细的球茎和扁平、深绿的叶子etymologyn.Theoriginandhistoricaldevelopmentofalinguisticformasshownbydeterminingitsbasicelements,earliestknownuse,andchangesinformandmeaning,tracingitstransmissionfromonelanguagetoanother,identifyingitscognatesinotherlanguages,andreconstructingitsancestralformwherepossible.词源：一种语言形式的起源及其历史发展可通过确定该词或词素的基本组成部分，已知最早的用法及其形式和含义的转变，追溯它从一种语言转变为另一种语言的过程，鉴定它在其它语言中的同源词和重现它的祖传形式来展现和说明;Thebranchoflinguisticsthatdealswithetymologies词源学：有关词源的一门语言学分支inclusivea.Takingagreatdealoreverythingwithinitsscope;comprehensive包括的，包罗广泛的：将大量或每一件事都包括在其范围之内的；综合性的dimensionn.Ameasureofspatialextent,especiallywidth,height,orlength.\n尺寸：存在于空间范围的一种量变，特别是宽度、高度或长度;OftendimensionsExtentormagnitude;scope常作dimensions面积：范围或大小；规模;Aspect;element:各方面：方面；因素assertionn.Theactofasserting武断：武断的行为;Somethingdeclaredorstatedpositively,oftenwithnosupportorattemptatproof.断言：肯定的宣称或陈述，通常没有证据或不试图证实inconsistenta.Lackingincorrectlogicalrelation;contradictory矛盾的：缺少正确的逻辑关系的；矛盾的;Notinagreementorharmony;incompatible不一致的或不协调的；不相容的presupposev.Tobelieveorsupposeinadvance预先相信或假定;Torequireorinvolvenecessarilyasanantecedentcondition.SeeSynonymsatpresume要求或需要以…为先决条件参见presumeanomalousa.Deviatingfromthenormalorcommonorder,form,orrule不规则的：偏离正常的一般的顺序、形式或规则的;Equivocal,asinclassificationornature不明确的，模棱两可的：在类别或性质上不明确的   C.Homework(2’)   1.Review   2.Qs5-8,. (oral)   3.PrepareChapter6 Comments:Date：Lecture10Chapter6PragmaticsI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowingfromthislecture: 6.1Somebasicnotions6.2 Speechacttheory6.3Principleofconversation6.4Cross-culturalprogmaticfalureII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestion(10’):1.1.What’sthedifferencebetweensenseandreference? 2.Whatarethemajorsenserelationsonthelexicallevel?Explain.  1.Definethefollowing2terms:     (1)Componentialanalysis     (2)Predicationanalysis  2.Whatdoesapredicationconsistof?\nA.NewContents:6.1Somebasicnotions 6.1.1 Definition (10’):1）differentdefinitons1.Pragmaticsisthestudyoflinguisticactsandthecontextsinwhichtheyareperformed.(Stalnaker1972:383)2.Pragmaticsisatheorywhichseekstocharacterizehowspeakersusethesentencesofalanguagetoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.(Kempson1975:84)3.Pragmaticsisthetheoryoflanguageuseandlinguisticcommunication.(Akmajian1979:267)4.Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowutterancehavemeaningsinsituations.(Leech1983:x)5.Pragmaticisthescienceoflanguageseeninrelationtoitsusers.(Mey1993:5)6.Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningininteraction（互动意义）.(Thomas1995:22)7.Pragmaticsisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeaker(orwriter)andinterpretedbyalistener(orreader).(Yule1996:3)2)Definitioninourbook:Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.       2.commonplace       3.topicsinpragmatics       4.originanddevelopmentofpragmatics6.1.2Pragmaticsvs.semantics(10’)1.Semantics:Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,sentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.2.Pragmatics:Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageuseisleftunconsidered.Therefore,contextistakenintoconsideration.   6.1.3. Context(10’)       1. definitonAsacomprehensiveconcept,‘context’referstoallelementsofacommunicativesituation:theverbalandnon-verbalcontext,thecontextofthegivenspeechsituationandthesocialcontextoftherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandhearer,theirknowledge,andtheirattitude.(Bussmann1996:100)       2.ImportanceofContextContextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.E.g.Itishotinhere.6.1.4Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning1.Sentence:Sentenceisaunitofspeechconstructedaccordingtolanguage-dependentrules,whichisrelativelycompleteandindependentinrespectofcontent,grammaticalstructure,andintonation.Itisagrammaticalunit,abstract,self-contained,andindependentofcontext.2.Utterance:Whenasentenceistakenassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,itistreatedasanutterance.Therefore,utteranceisthestringofsoundsorwrittensymbolsproducedbyaspeakerbetweentwopauses.Anutterancecanconsistofasinglewordorseveralsentences.6.1.5Correctnessvs.appropriatenessPragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,if\nyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)6.1.6TopicsinpragmaticsPragmaticsstudiessuchtopicsasrelatedtolanguagecommunication,including:deixis,speechacts,indirectlanguage,conversation,politeness,cross-culturalcommunication,andpresupposition.6.2Speechacttheory6.2.1Austin’smodelofspeechacts（奥斯丁的语言行为模式）Constatives(叙述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable(能证实的).Performatives(施为句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Austin’snewmodelofspeechacts:locutionaryact（言内行为）,illocutionaryact（言外行为）,andperlocutionaryact（言后行为）.6.2.2Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts1.Assertives/representatives(陈述)2.Directives(指令)3.Commissives(承诺)4.Expressives(表达)5.Declarations(宣布)6.2.3IndirectspeechactsWhensomeoneisnotsayinginanexplicitandstraightforwardmannerwhathemeanstosay,ratherheistryingtoputacrosshismessageinanimplicit,roundaboutway,wecansayheisusingindirectlanguage.6.3PrincipleofconversationCooperativeprinciple(CP)----AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.6.3.1FourmaximsofCPThemaximofquality（质量准则）Themaximofquantity（数量准则）Themaximofrelation（关系准则）Themaximofmanner（方式准则）6.3.2Conversationalimplicature(含意)\n6.3.3ViolationofMaximofquality6.4Cross-culturalpragmaticfailureC.Homework(2’)   1.Review   2.Pp.94:Exercise(oral)   3.PrepareChapter7.Comments：Date：Lecture11Chapter7LanguageChangeI.Objectives   Studentsaretoknowthefollowingthroughthislecture:  1.Thescopeofthestudy2.Soundchange3.Morphological&syntacticchange4.Vocabularychange5.Somerecenttrends6.CausesoflanguagechangeII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestion(10’) 1.What’sthedifferencebetweenpragmaticsandsemantics?2.What’sthedifferencebetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning?3.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencecanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingafact: “Thefinalexaminationisdrawingnear.”4.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Explainwiththefollowingexample:     “Oh!Whatniceapples!”  5.ExplainwithexamplesthefivetypesofillocutionaryactclassifiedbySearle:      (1)representatives     (2)directives     (3)commissives     (4) expressives      (5)declarations6.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Trytogiveyourownexamplestoshowhowfloutingofthesemaimsgivesrisetoconversationalimplicature.B.NewContents(77’)7.1ThescopeofthestudyItisafactthatalllanguageschangethroughtime,thoughtheydosoratherslowly.Therefore,thescopeofthestudyoflanguagechangeisaboutthechangesinthephonology,morphology,syntax,lexiconandsemanticcomponentsofthegrammarofalanguage.7.2Phonologicalchanges（语音变化）\nSoundchangestendtobesystematic;itispossibletoseearegularpatternofpronunciationchangesthroughoutthehistoryoftheEnglishlanguage.7.3Morphologicalandsyntacticchange(形态和句法变化）WehaveseenthesoundchangesinEnglish.Morerecently,therehasbeenanincreasinginterestinotheraspectsofgrammaraswell.Morphologicalandsyntacticchanges,forexample,havealsotakenplace.Theexamplesbelowwillenableustowitnesssuchchangesinprogress.7.3.1AdditionofaffixesInEnglishmanyaffixesareborrowed.DuringtheMiddleEnglishperiod,manyFrenchwordscontainingthesuffix-ment(eg.Accomplish-ment,commencement)wereintroducedintoEnglish.ThissuffixbecameveryproductiveinEnglishandwasusedwithbasesthatwerenotofFrenchorigin(e.g.acknowledgement,merriment).7.3.2LossofaffixesAsaffixescanbeaddedtothegrammar,theycanalsogetlost,someaffixessimplyfadeoutofusefornoapparentreason.Somelosscanbeexplainedviasoundchanges.Forexample,OldEnglishhadacomplexsystemofaffixesmarkingcaseandgender.Nounsweredividedintothreegenderclasses--masculine,neuter,andfeminie.Andtheassignmenttoaclasswasbasedonitsgrammaticalgender,notonthenaturegender,sex.Forinstance,oneWordforwoman(wifmann)wasmasculine,andanotherwordforwoman(wif)wasneuter.(P.96)7.3.3ChangeofwordorderAlllanguagesmakeadistinctionbetweenthesubjectanddirectobject,whichcanbeillustratedinwordorder.OldEnglishhadacomplicatedsystemofcasemarkingasexplainedintheprevioussection;itswordorderwassomehowvariablefromthatofModernEnglishtoo.WhenthedirectobjectwasapronouninOldEnglish,thesubject-object-verborderwasused.7.3.4ChangeinnegationruleAslateasthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesonecouldmerelyaddnotattheendofanaffirmativesentencetonegateit,asin;（7–3）Ilovetheenot.（7-4）Hesawyounot.InmodernEnglish,notmustprecedethemainverb,andado,markedforthepropertense,mustbeinserted;（7–5）Iloveyou.Idonotloveyou.7.4LexicalandsemanticchangeLexicalitemsarethebuildingblockofalanguage,andthechangesinthisaspectarecomparativelymoreobviousandnoticeable.Generallyspeaking,therearemainlytwopossiblewaysoflexicalchanges;theadditionandlossofwordswhichoftenreflectstheintroductionofnewobjectsandnotionsinsocialpractices.7.4.1Additionofnewwords1)Coinage(创新词)Anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose,e.g.walkmanKodakXeroxFord2)Clippedwords（缩略词）Clippingreferstotheabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.gym—gymnasiumexpo—exposition\nmemo---memorandumdisco—discotheque3)Blending(紧缩法)Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.smog---smoke+fog4)Acronyms（首字母缩略法）Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.CBS—ColumbiaBroadcastingSystemISBN—InternationalStandardBookNumber5)Back-formation(逆构词法)Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.Suchwordsarethuscalledback-formation,e.g.toedit(derivedfromeditoronthemistakenassumptionthatorwastheagentivesuffix)tohawk(derivedfromhawker)tobeg(derivedfrombeggar)6)FunctionalshiftWordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,noun—verb：tokneeverb—noun：ahold控制adjective—verb：tocooladjective—noun：adaily日报7)BorrowingWhendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoften“borrowed”fromonelanguagetoanother.Theloanwordmaylabelanewconcept,oritmayreplaceorbecomeasynonymofanativeword.Englishhasborrowedaverylargenumberofwordsfrommanydifferentlanguagesthroughoutitshistory.TheexamplesbelowaresomeoftheloanwordsinEnglish.7.4.2LossofwordsWordscanbelostfromalanguageastimegoesby.Thefollowingwords,takenfromRomeoandJuliet,havefadedoutoftheEnglishlanguage.BeseemàtobesuitableWotàtoknowGyveàafetterWhereforeàwhy7.4.3SemanticchangeAsrevealedinthelasttwosections,lexicalitemsmaybeaddedtoalanguageorbelost.Itisalsotruethatwordsmayshiftinmeaning,i.e.semanticchange.Inthissectionweshalllookatthreeprocessesforsemanticchange,namely,widening,narrowing,andshiftinmeaning.1）Semanticbroading\nWhenthemeaningofawordbecomesbroader,thatwordmeanseverythingitusedtomean,andthenmore.E.g.Holiday:[+specific]holyday[+general]anyrestdayTail:[+specific]tailofahorse[+general]tailofanyanimal2)SemanticnarrowingInthecourseofseveralgenerations,semanticchangehasnarrowedthemeaningofawordtowhatitisinModernEnglish.E.g.Hound:anydog---aspecialkindofdoggirl:youngpersonofeithersex---youngpeopleoffemalesexdeer:anyanimal---aparticularkindofanimalmeat:food---ediblepartofananimalcorn:grain---aparticulargrain3）SemanticshiftThefactthatalexicalitemmayundergoashiftinmeaningisthethirdkindofsemanticchange.Thewordinnreferstoasmallhotelorpub,usuallyanoldone.Butnowawell-knownnicehotelmayuseinnasitsname,suchasHolidayInn.Thisisanexampleillustratinghowthemeaningofawordmaybeelevated.TheoverworkedModernEnglishwordnicemeant“ignorant”athousandyearsago,anotherexampleofelevationinmeaning.7.5SomerecenttrendsTheEnglishlanguagehasnotstoodstillduringthelast50years.InthissectionweshallattemptagenerallookatthemainchangesthathavecomeaboutinnormalEnglishusage.7.5.1MovingtowardsgreaterinformalitySincetheSecondWorldWartherehasbeenatrendtowardsmuchgreaterinformalityofexpression.Conversationalformslikeain’t,don’tandcan’tarenowcommonlyusedinarticlesinthepress,andoftenpeopleprefertouseinformalstylessuchas“It’sme”and“Whodidyousee?”ALondonbusnoticesays,“Pleasedonotspeaktothedriverwhileheisdriving.”Yearsago,thiswouldhavebeen“Passengersarerequirednottocommunicatewiththedriverwhilethevehicleisinnotion.”7.5.2TheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishFormanyyearsAmericanEnglishhasbeenassaultingtheBritishIsleswithever-increasingweightandpersistence,throughmovies,newspapers,magazines,radioandtelevision.Thoughpetrol,autumn,liftandpavementhavenotsurrenderedtogasoline,fall,elevatorandsidewalk,wordswhichaptlyfillarealneedsuchasteenagerandcommuterhavenowbecomewellestablishedinBritishEnglish.7.5.3TheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyAsscienceandtechnologydevelop,theyusenewwordstoexpressnewconcepts,newtechniquesaswellasnewinventions.Astheyhavedevelopedmorerapidlyduringthelast50years,consequently,newwordsandexpressionshavebeencoinedoneafteranother.Herearesomeexamplesinthreedifferentdomains.1)Spacetravel2)Computerandinternetlanguage3)Ecology7.6TheCausesofthelanguagechange1.Therapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;2.Socialandpoliticalchangesandpoliticalneeds;\n3.Moreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;4.Thewaychildrenacquirethelanguageprovidesabasiccauseofchange;5.“economyofmemory”--”linguisticlaziness”.III.Homework(3’)     1.Review     2.Pp.109:1-8(oral)     3.PrepareChapter8(1-2) Comments:Date：Lecture12Chapter8LanguageandSocietyI.ObjectivesStudentsaretolearnthefollowingthroughthislecture:       1. Thescopeofsociolinguistics           a. Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety           b.Speechcommunityandspeechvariety           c. Twoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies      2. Varietiesoflanguage          a. dialectalvarieties          b. register          c. degreeofformality3.Standarddialect     4. PidginandCreole     5. BilingualismanddiglossiaII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestion(20’)   1.Definethefollowing4terms:       1)boundmorpheme        2)freemorpheme       3)derivationalmorpheme       4)inflectionalmorpheme   2.Listasmanyaspossiblemethodsfortheadditionofnewwords.   3.Whatarethe3processesforsemanticchangeofwords?B.NewContents(67’)8.1 ThescopeofsociolinguisticsSociolinguistics----asub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.8.1.1TheRelatednessbetweenLanguageandsociety1.Inwhatwaysislanguagerelatedwithsociety?----Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.•Languageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)•Theuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuser’ssocialbackground.(socialclass,\nage,sex,educationlevel,etc.)•Language,esp.thestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)•Asasocialphenomenon,languageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalic[r]).2.RelatednessbetweenLanguageandsociety1）Whilelanguageisprincipallyusedtocommunicatemeaning,itisalsousedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.2.）Tosomeextent,language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.3.Asasocialphenomenon,languageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,andtheevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial.8.1.2SpeechCommunityandSpeechVariety1.Speechcommunity----thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Insociolinguistics,itreferstotheagroupofpeoplewhodoinfacthavetheopportunitytointeractwitheachotherandwhosharenotjustasinglelanguagewithitsrelatedvarieties,butalsoattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.2.Speechvarietyorlanguagevariety----anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.regionaldialects,sociolects(社会方言)andregisters.8.1.3Twoapproachestoscociolinguisticstudies1.Macro-ScociolinguisticsMacro-sociolinguisticsisabird’s-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety.Itlooksatsocietyasawholeandconsidershowlanguagefunctionsinitandhowitreflectsthesocialdifferentiations.2.Micro-SociolinguisticsMicro-sociolinguisticsisaworm’s-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.Itlooksatsocietyfromthepointofviewofandindividualmemberwithinit.8.2Varietiesoflanguage8.2.1Dialectalvarieties1.Regionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Ithasbeenfoundthatregionaldialectboundariesoftencoincidewithgeographicalbarrierssuchasmountains,rivers,orswamps.Thisdifferentiationisaccountedforbythelackofcommunicationintheolddayswhentravelwasdifficultandtherewaslittlecommunicationbetweenruralcommunitiesseparatedbysomekindofgeographicalbarrier.Inmostcases,however,theregionaldialectsspokenintwoneighbouringareasaremutuallyintelligibletoagreatextent,andthechangefromonedialecttoanotherisveryoftenagradual,ratherthananabruptprocess.2.Sociolectisalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.Socialdialecthastodowithseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.TwopeoplewhowerebornandbroughtupinthesamegeographicaIregionandspeakthesameregionaldialectmayspeakdifferentlybecauseofanumberofsocialfactors.Consciouslyorunconsciously,theirsocialbackgroundsinfluencetheirchoiceoflinguisticforms,andthelinguisticfeaturesofthelanguagetheyuserevealtheiridentities.E.g.Ididityesterday.Idoneityesterday.\n3.Languageandgender(性别)Thelanguageusedbymenandwomenhavesomespecialfeaturesoftheirown.Differencesbetweenwomenandmenhavealwaysbeenatopicofinteresttothehumanspeciesandsupposedlinguisticdifferencesareoftenenshrined（铭记）inproverbs:Awoman'stonguewagslikealamb'stail.(England)Foxesarealltailandwomenarealltongue.(England-Cheshire)TheNorthSeawillsoonerbefoundwantinginwaterthanawomanatalossforaword.(Jutland)4.LanguageandageInmanycommunities,thelanguageusedbytheoldgenerationdiffersfromthatusedbytheyoungergenerationincertainways.icebox----fridge,wireless----boombox5.Idiolect(个人方言;个人言语特点)Idiolect----apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations(e.g.Hemingway,Luxun).Inotherwords,anindividualspeaker’sregionalandsocialbackground,his/hergenderandagejointlydeterminethewayhe/shetalks.Andthelanguagehe/sheuses,whichbearsdistinctivefeaturesofhis/herown,ishis/heridiolect.6.Ethnicdialect(少数民族方言)Anethnicdialectisasocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.AnethnicdialectofEnglishthathasreceivedalotofattentioninrecentstudiesofsociolinguisticsisBlackEnglish,thekindofEnglishspokenmostlybyalargesectionofnon-middle-classAmericanBlacks.8.2.2Register(语域)Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.1.linguisticrepertoire(语言全部技能);2.field(主题，范围,课题或学术兴趣或专业领域)ofdiscourse;3.tenor(意旨)ofdiscourse;4.mode(方式,模式)ofdiscourse.8.2.3DegreeofformalityLanguageusedondifferentoccasionsdiffersinthedegreeofformality,whichisdeterminedbythesocialvariables,e.g.whowearetalkingwithandwhatwearetalkingabout.Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)---Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!---Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.---Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?\n---Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.---Frozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.----Note:Differentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological(P121).8.3StandarddialectThestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.8.4Pidgin（洋经浜语）andCreole（克里奥耳语、混合语）Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.8.5Bilingualism（双语现象）andDiglossia（双语制）Bilingualism（双语现象）：Insomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.Diglossia（双语制）：AccordingtoFerguson(1959),diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.P.125       III.Homework(2’)      1.Review      2.Pp.126Ex.1-8(oral)      3.PrepareChapter9  Comments:Date：Lecture13Chapter9LanguageandCulture I.ObjectivesStudentsaretoknowthefollowingthroughthislecture:1.TheGeneralIdea;2.Whatisculture?3.Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture;4.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis;5.Linguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences;6.Thesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearning;7.Culturaloverlapanddiffusion;8.Interculturalcommunication.\nII.Procedures A. Reviewquestion(15’)1.Whatarethewaysthatlanguageisrelatedwithsociety?    2.Listasmanydialectalvarietiesaspossible.    3.Whatarethethreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister?Whatiseachconcernedwith?4.Definethefollowing4terms:   1)Pidgin    2)Creole   3)Bilingualism   4)DiglossiaB.NewContents(72’) 9.1Introduction1.Languageandcultureareintrinsically（内在地、固有地）dependent,andhaveevolvedtogetherthroughthehistory.2.Languageisrelatedtocognition,andcognitionisrelatedtotheculturalsetting.9.2WhatIsCulture?1.DefinitionInabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeopleincludingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsofcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc.2.Classificationofculture1)Materialcultural:concrete,substantialandobservable.2)Spiritualculture:theproductsofmind(ideologies,beliefs,valuesandconceptsoftimeandspace,forexample),abstract,ambiguous,andhidden.3.Culturevs.NatureNaturereferstowhatisbornandgrows,whileculturereferstowhathasbeengrownandbroughtupwith,inotherwords,whatcanbenurtured.9.3Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture1.Languageandculture:Adialecticalrelationship(辩证关系）1)Everylanguageispartofaculture.Assuch,itcannotbutserveandreflectculturalneeds.2)Inanothersense,languageisnotapassivereflectorofculture.Itreinforces（加强）andpreserves（保持）beliefsandcustomsandconditionstheirfuturecourse.(胡壮麟等1988：250)2.Languageandculture:Arelationshipof“parttowhole”.Cultureisawidersystemthatcompletelyincludeslanguageasasubsystem.Alanguagenotonlyexpressesfacts,ideas,oreventswhichrepresentsimilarworldknowledgebyitspeople,butalsoreflectsthepeople’sattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooksetc.Inaword,languageexpressesculturalreality.3.Summary:1)Languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality.2)Asaproductofculture,languagehelpsperpetuate(causetocontinueindefinitely)theculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.\n9.4Sapir-WhorfHypothesis1.Definition:Itisahypothesisconcerningtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought,proposedbyWhorf,undertheinfluenceofSapir,histeacher.Accordingtothishypothesis,thestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave.Thatistosay,differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpresstheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently.2.Evidence:Allobserversarenotledbythesamephysicalenvironmenttosamepictureofuniverse,unlesstheirlinguisticbackgroundsaresimilar,orcaninsomewaybecalibrated（Tomakecorrectionsin;adjust(使标准化）.(Whorf1940)3.Thestrongandtheweakversion:Strong:thelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior.Weak:thelanguagepatternsinfluencepeople’sthinkingandbehavior.4.Toconcludethissection,thestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:(1)Thereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.(2)MorethaninWhorf’sdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.9.5LinguisticEvidenceofCulturalDifferencesThemeaningsofalinguisticsign：1.Denotativemeaning(指示意义）：也叫概念意义、外延意义或认知意义(cognitivemeaning),是词汇的最基本意义,是语言符号所代表的事物的最基本特征的抽象概括,常视作是词语在字典中的意义。Anysignhasameaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary,thisisthedenotativemeaning.Forexample,“rose”isaflowerthathasapleasantsmellandisusuallyred,pink,white,oryellowetc.2.Connotativemeaning：词的内涵意义，指一个词在概念意义之外的交际值，是词的附加意义或联想意义；含蓄意义。Onmostoccasionsrosemeansmorethanaflower,italsotriggersmanyassociationsmostlygoodonessuchaslove,fragrance,passionandbeautyetc.Theseareitsconnotationsorconnotativemeanings.3.Iconicmeaning（形象意义）：Moreover,theword“rose”alsoinvokesimage(oricons)topeople.Thefamousline“Myloveisared,redrose”stirsupvividlytheimaginationofabeautifulyounglady.Thisistheiconicmeaning.Manypoeticorliteraryworksuseheavilythewordsfilledwithiconicmeanings.9.5.1GreetingsandtermsofaddressThefollowingaresomeillustrationsoftheculturaldifferencesinlanguageusewhichwemay\noftencomeacrossinourdailylife.Weshallexaminethemonebyone.ItisestimatedthatinEnglishandChinesethereareatleastadozendifferentgreetings：1.GreetingsA.Hi!Hello!Howdoyoudo?Howareyou?B.您好!你好!到哪儿去？吃了没有？2.TermsofaddressA.Mr./Mrs./Miss/Ms.Sir/Madam；uncle,auntB.同志/师傅；叔叔，阿姨C.ExtensionofkinshiptermsisanotherfeatureofChineseculture：大舅，二舅……；大姨，二姨……；大姑，二姑……9.5.2ThanksandcomplimentsCulturaldifferencesarealsoevidentinthewaysgratitudeandcomplimentsareexpressed.ItisnotedthatpeopleintheWesttendtoverbalizetheirgratitudeandcomplimentsmorethanChinesespeakersandthatthewesternerstendtoacceptthanksandcomplimentsmoredirectlyandfranklythanweChinesedo.9.5.3ColorwordsForpeopleallovertheworldthecoloursoftherainbowarethesame,butthisdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthatpeoplespeakingdifferentlanguagesdividethecolourspectrum(光谱)inthesamewayorusetermsthatdesignatethesamerangeofhue.BerlinandKay(1969)：对颜色词跨语言的研究发现了其内在规律。不同语言具有不同的基本颜色词，最多的有十一个，如英语；最少的只有两个。语言包含基本颜色词的数量和种类选择具有以下规律：黑/白>红>黄/蓝/绿>棕>粉/橙/灰/紫Colorwordsandtheirassociations(synaesthesia联觉）：warmcolors/coldcolors\nsweetmusic/softvoicered/revolutionyellow/power9.5.4PrivacyandtaboosAlthoughpeopleofdifferentculturehavemanycommonareasofprivacyortaboos,therearealsoareaswhereourculturediffersfromWesternculture.1.PrivacyAge/familybackground/salary2.Taboo：Atabooisavehementprohibitionofanactionbasedonthebeliefthatsuchbehavioriseithertoosacredortooaccursedforordinaryindividualstoundertake.9.5.5RoundingoffnumbersThewayaspeechcommunityroundsoffitsnumbersisnothaphazard,rather,itisexplainableasinterplaybetweenlanguageandculture.Membersofaspeechcommunityoftengivepreferencetothenumbersthattheircommunityregardsassignificant.Americans,forinstance,prefertoroundoffnumberto4,asin4ouncesinaquarterpoundor4quartsinagallon.AFrenchman,however,wouldnotregardsuchanumberasroundatall;hewouldroundoffto5asheisfamiliarwiththedecimalsystem.MostEuropeansystemsofstatingone’sagearedifferentfromtheChinesesystem.InEnglishculture,forexample,aspeakerusuallystateshisageashismostrecentbirthdayfollowedbythemeasureyearsoldthoughthereareexceptionswithyoungchildrenwhooftenplacetheiragebetweenbirthdays,asin(1)I’mfourandahalfyearsold.andwithparentswhousuallyexpresstheageofinfantsinmonthsandweeks,as(2)ThebabygirlwillbethirteenmonthsoldbynextFriday.9.5.6Wordsandculture-specificconnotationsAswehavelearntthatanylinguisticsignmayhavedenotative,connotativeandiconickindsofmeanings,itiseasytounderstandthatthesamewordindifferentlanguagesmaybeentailed(需要)withdifferentconnotations.Connotationmeans“theimplicationofaword,apartfromitsprimarymeaning”,accordingtotheLongmanModernEnglishDictionary;or“thesuggestingofameaningbyawordapartfromthethingitexplicitlynamesordescribes”accordingtotheWebster.Thereforethedenotationofaword,itsdictionarymeaning,isdifferentfromitsconnotation.Sometimes,asamewordintwodifferentlanguagesmayhavetotallydifferentconnotations.Generallythesemanticdifferencesbetweentwolanguagesmaybegroupedasthefollowing:1.Nocounterparts:Aterminonelanguagethatdoesnothaveacounterpartinanotherlanguage.2.Sameonthesurface:Wordsortermsinbothlanguagesthatappeartorefertothesameobjectorconceptonthesurface,butwhichactuallyrefertoquitedifferentthings.Forexample,“weekend”maystirupdifferentconnotationsinChineseandEnglish.3.Manymoreinanotherlanguage:Thingsorconceptsthatarerepresentedbyoneorperhapstwotermsinonelanguage,butbymanymoretermsintheanotherlanguage,thatis,finerdistinctionsexistintheotherlanguage.4.Sameprimarymeaning,differentsecondarymeaning:Termsthathavemoreorlessthesame\nprimarymeaning,butwhichhaveconsiderablydifferentsecondaryoradditionalmeanings.9.5.7Culture-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphorsDifferentlanguagesmayreflectdifferentcultures,differentculturesentaildifferentlanguageexpressions.Idioms,proverbsandsayingsandmetaphorsindifferentlanguages,derivedfromdifferentorigins,alsodemonstrateculturaldifferences.1.Idioms(成语,惯用语):成语是语言词汇中的一部分定型的词组或短句。成语有固定的结构形式和固定的说法，表示一定的意义，在语句中是作为一个整体来应用的。成语是语言中经过长期使用、锤炼而形成的固定短语。汉语成语一般都是四字格式，不是四字的较少，如“五十步笑百步”、“欲速则不达”、“醉翁之意不在酒”。Differentlanguagesmayhavedifferentidiomsowingtodifferentlivingenvironments,socialconventionsandliteraturetraditionetc.Forexample,sinceEnglishpeopleviewdogashumanbeing’sbestfriend,wecanfindmoreEnglishexpressionswithdogthaninChinese.2.Proverbsandsayings(谚语、格言):一种广为流传的表达人们智慧的简短箴言，其语言凝练，具有鲜明的形象和一定的韵律，且易于记忆。Proverbsandsayingswithdogsarelistedasfollows.Everydoghashisday.Dogdoesnoteatdog.Giveadoganillnameandhanghim.Barkingdogsseldombite.Bewareofasilentdogandstillwater.Loveme,lovemydog.3.Metaphors：隐喻(Metaphor)是把甲事物当成具有鲜明的同一特点的乙事物来描写，它不用比喻词，有时甚至不用本体，只说喻体，而是把比喻关系暗含在句子中。Astometaphor,wecaneasilyfindthatinChineseangeriscomparedwith“liquid”or“qiti”asin“woqisile”(Iamangrytodeath)whileinEnglishangerismorecomparedwith“fire”asin“Heisoutraged.”“Hisfaceturnedredwithanger.”“Shelosthertemper.”9.6Culturecontact,culturaloverlapanddiffusionContactsbetweenpeopleswithdifferentculturesusuallyleadtochangeinoneorbothsystems.Traditionally,threeformsofculturecontactareidentified：acculturation\n（文化适应；文化移入；文化互渗），assimilation（同化；吸收）andamalgamation（融合）.Acculturationistheprocessofchanginginmaterialculturetraditionalpractices,andbeliefsthatoccurswhenonegrouplsculturalsysteminterfereswiththatofanother,directlyorindirectlychallengingthelattertoadapttothewaysoftheformer.Suchchangehascharacterizedmostpoliticalconquestsandexpansionsoverthecenturies,whichaccountsfortheborrowingofmanyFrenchwordsinEnglishforinstance.Assimilationistheprocesswherebyindividualsorgroupsdilferingethnicityareabsorbedintothedominantcultureofasocietythoughnotalwayscompletely.Themosttypicalexampleforthisis"themeltingpot”,auniqueculturalfeatureintheU.S.MillionsofEuropeanimmigrantsofdifferentculturaloriginsbecameassimilatewithintwoorthreegenerations.DespitetheupheavalofoversearelocationtheinfluencesofthepublicschoolsystemandotherforcesinAmericanlife,thesedifferentculturalelements,contributingtothemakingofthisnewnationandtheformingofAmericanculturearestillinfluencingtheAmericanculture.•Amalgamation(orhybridization)occurswhenasocietybecomesethnicallymixedinawaythatrepresentsasynthesisratherthantheeliminationorabsorptionofonegroupbyanother.InMexico,forexample,SpanishandIndianculturesbecomeincreasinglyamalgamatedovercenturiesofcontact.•Despitetheculturaldifferences,thereexistagreaterorlesserdegreeofculturaloverlapbetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.9.7ThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearningWhenlearningaforeignorsecondlanguage,weshouldnotonlylearnthepronunciation,grammar,wordsandidioms,butalsolearntoseetheworldasnativespeakersdo;thatistosay,weshouldlearnthewaysinwhichtheforeignlanguagereflectstheideas,customs,andbehaviorofthatsociety,andlearntounderstandtheir“languageofthemind”culture.Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguageisculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.9.8InterculturalcommunicationInterculturalcommunication,alsoknownascross-culturalcommunication,iscommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionsandsynibolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.Itisfrequentlyusedtorefertocommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultureswhichcentersonsignidcantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentperspectives.Asanewly-establisheddiscipline,interculturalcommunicationmakesmulti-disciplinarystudyofpolitenessacrossculturesingreatdetail.Ithelpstobridgethegapbetweenbothculturalandlinguisticdifferences.III.Homework(2’)    1.Review    2.Pp.141-2Ex.1(oral)    3.PrepareChapter10 Comments:\nDate：Lecture14Chapter10LanguageacquisitionI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowing1.Languageacquisition2.Theoriesofchildlanguageacquisition1)thebehaviorist(行为主义)views2)theinnatist（语法天生主义)views3)theinteractionist（互动主义）views3.Cognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment4.Languageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhypothesis5.Stagesinchildlanguagedevelopment6.Atypical(非典型的)developmentII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’):B.NewContent(75’)Chapter10Languageacquisition10.1IntroductionLanguageacquisition----referstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.Thischapterwillprovidesometentativeanswerstotheabovequestionsconcerninghowlanguageislearned.Somechildlanguageacquisitiontheorieswillbefirstintroduced,thentheCriticalPeriodHypothesisandlearningenvironmentwillbediscussedwithexemplificationandfinallythestagesoflanguagelearningpresentedbriefly.10.2TheoriesofchildlanguageacquisitionGenerallyspeaking,therearemainlythreedifferenttheoriesconcerninghowlanguageislearned,namelythebehaviorist(行为主义),theinnatist（语法天生主义),theinteractionist（互动主义）views.10.2.1AbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisitionTraditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.Achildimitatesthesoundsandpatternsofthepeoplearoundhim;peoplerecognizethechild’sattemptsandreinforce（加强）theattemptsbyrespondingdifferently,thechildrepeatstherightsoundsorpatternstogetthereward(reinforcement).10.2.2Aninnatist(语法天生主义)viewoflanguageacquisitionAccordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition,humanbeingsarebiologically\nprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.OriginallyChomskyreferredtothisinnateabilityasLanguageAcquisitionDevice（语言习得机制),(alsoknownasLAD).TheLADwasdescribedasanimaginary“blackbox”existingsomewhereinthehumanbrain.The“blackbox”issaidtocontainprinciplesthatareuniversaltoallhumanlanguages.Childrenneedaccess(接近、存取)tothesamplesofanaturallanguagetoactivatetheLAD,whichenablesthemtodiscoverhislanguage’sstructurebymatchingtheinnateknowledgeofbasicgrammaticalsystemtothatparticularlanguage.LaterChomskyprefersthisinnateendowment（天资、能力或天赋）asUniversalGrammar(UG)andholdsthatifchildrenarepre-equippedwithUG,thenwhattheyhavetolearnisthewaysinwhichtheirownlanguagemakesuseoftheseprinciplesandthevariationsonthoseprincipleswhichmayexistintheparticularlanguagetheyarelearning.10.2.3AninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionTheinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplay(相互影响)betweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Integratedwiththeinnatistview,theinteractionistfurtherclaimsthatthemodifiedlanguagewhichissuitableforthechild’scapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.Intheeverydaylifepeopleoftencomeacrossthesituationsinwhichadultsspeakdifferentlywhentalkingtolittlechildren,theyusea“special”speechknownas“motherese”orchilddirectedspeech(CDS)or“caretakertalk”tomakethemselvesunderstoodbythechildren.10.3CognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopmentThecognitivefactorsrelatetolanguageacquisitionmainlyintwoways.First.languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.Secondly,thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.Manycarefulstudiesofchildren’sacquisitionsequencesanderrorsinvariouslanguageshaverevealedthatchildrenhavesome“operatingprinciples”formakingsenseoflanguagedata.Forexample,mostchildrenexperiencethefollowingsimilarprocessoflearningthenegativeform.10.4　Languageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhypothesisTwoimportantfactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.Thesetwofactorsbearremarkablerelevancetotheirlanguagedevelopment.Thissubsectionisdevotedtothediscussionofthese4factors.1.Inbehavioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacksamongwhichthepositivereinforcementorrewardencourageschildren’seffortsandfacilitatesthe“correct”learningofthelanguagewhilethenegativefeedbackdiscourageschildrentorepeatthe“mistakes”.2.However,theinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildren’sinternalprocessingofthelanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.3.Theinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildren’scomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.4.CriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH):\nCloselyrelatedtotheexternallanguageenvironment,ageisanotherfactorthatisworthmentioninginfirstlanguageacquisition.Observedthatchildren’sabilitytodevelopnormalbehaviorsandknowledgeinenvironmentsdoesnotcontinueindefinitelyandthatchildrenwhohaveneverlearnedlanguage(forvariousreasons)cannotreturntonormalifthesedeprivationsgoonfortoolong.TherearetwoversionsoftheCPH:---ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.---Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictor’sandGenie’scases,P.151)10.5StagesinchildlanguagedevelopmentSincethe1960s,manystudieshavebeenconductedtoexaminetheunderlyingprogressofchildren’slanguageacquisition.Thefollowingwilloutlinesomemainstagesofchildren’slanguagedevelopment.10.5.1PhonologicaldevelopmentThefollowingtableshowstheappearanceofconsonantphonemesinEnglish,withrespecttochronologicalage:By2pbmnw2.5tdkgnh3fs1j4FvzrtFdV10.5.2Vocabularydevelopmenta)Under-extension(扩充,范围)Childrendonotlearnthemeaningofaword“allatonce”.Whenachildlearnsanewword,hemaywellunder-extenditoroverextendit.Forexample,thechildmaygetconfusedathearingthecolorofwhiteusedforpaperwhenhe/shefirstthoughtitasthewordforsnow.Thecommondenialthatbirdsareanimalsisalsoatypicalexampleofunder-extension.b)Over-extensionOverextensionhappenswhenachildtakesapropertyofanobjectandgeneralizesit.Itislikelytooccurlaterratherthanimmediatelyfollowingtheacquisitionofaword.Over-extensionisbasedonboththeextensionofcategories(appleforallfruit)oranalogies(appleforanythinground)andtheextensionoffamilyresemblancessuchasclocksextendedbothtobracelet(手镯)andtothesoundofdrippingofwater,whichsoundsliketick,tick,tick.Taketheword“daddy”forexample.10.5.3GrammaticaldevelopmentAroundtheageoftwo,childrenbegintoproducetwo-wordutterances.Theyaretypicallytheexamplesoftelegraphicspeech.Thiskindofspeechcontainscontentwordswhichgiveustheinformationandlacksthefunctionelements,orfunctionwordswhichbythemselvestellusnothing.Duringthisstagetherearenosyntacticormorphologicalmarkers,thatis,theyusenoinflectionsfornumber,person,ortense,andsoon.Ithasbeennotedthatinnoun+nounsentences,thetwowordscanexpressanumberofdifferentgrammaticalrelationswhichwillbeexpressedlaterbyothersyntacticdevices.Hereisanexample,“Mommysock”canbeusedeithertoshowasubject+objectrelationinthesituationwhenthemotherisputtingthesockonandthechildispointingtoMommy’ssockortoshowpossession,meaning“ThisisMommy’ssock”.10.5.4PragmaticdevelopmentOneimportantaspectisgender.Bytheageofthree,thechildmayvaryhisspeechstylewhenhestartsimitatingcertainroles.Forinstance,aboymayshowheisbeinganadultbysayingtoyoungerchildren,“Cometodadda,there’sagoodgirl”etc.Thisshowsthechildisawarethatcertainwaysofspeakingareappropriatetospecialroles.Besides,genderdifferencescanalsobefoundinthetopicsandquantityofchildrentalk.10.6Atypical(非典型的)developmentAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotrauma(外伤,损伤)orinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:\nHearingimpairment(损害,损伤)Mentalretardation(延迟)Autism(孤独症)stuttering(口吃)Aphasia(失语症)Dyslexia(诵读困难)anddysgraphia(书写困难)Notallthechildrenachievethesameleveloflanguagedevelopment.Someacquisitionmaybedelayedbutfollowthesamerulesoflanguagedevelopment.Atypicallanguagedevelopment(abnormallanguagedevelopment)mayoccurduetotrauma(外伤)orinjury.Theatypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:hearingimpairment(损伤)whichcanbeslightorsevereandmayleadtominorlossortotallackoflanguage;mentalretardation(延迟)whichmaycauseadelayedlanguageacquisition;autism(孤独症)(languageimpairmentfromtheverybeginning);stuttering(口吃)(repetitionofsounds,syllables,orphraseswherethespeakercannot“release”thewords);aphasia(失语症)(partialortotallossoflanguageduetobraindamage);dyslexia(诵读困难)anddysgraphia(书写困难)(disordersinreadingandwritingwhichmaybeacquiredordevelopmental).Recentlypeoplehavemadelotsstudiesintheseaspectstoinvestigatemoreonthenatureandprocessoffirstlanguageacquisition.III.Homework(2’)    1.Review    2.Pp.141-2Ex.1(oral)    3.PrepareChapter10 Comments:Date：Lecture15Chapter10LanguageacquisitionI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowing1.Languageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhypothesis2.Stagesinchildlanguagedevelopment3.Atypical(非典型的)developmentII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’):B.NewContent(75’)10.4　Languageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhypothesisTwoimportantfactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.Thesetwofactorsbearremarkablerelevancetotheirlanguagedevelopment.Thissubsectionisdevotedtothediscussionofthesefactors.1.Inbehavioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacksamongwhichthepositivereinforcementorrewardencourageschildren’seffortsandfacilitatesthe“correct”learningofthelanguagewhilethenegativefeedbackdiscourageschildrentorepeatthe“mistakes”.2.However,theinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildren’sinternalprocessingofthe\nlanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.3.Theinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildren’scomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.4.CriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH):Closelyrelatedtotheexternallanguageenvironment,ageisanotherfactorthatisworthmentioninginfirstlanguageacquisition.Observedthatchildren’sabilitytodevelopnormalbehaviorsandknowledgeinenvironmentsdoesnotcontinueindefinitelyandthatchildrenwhohaveneverlearnedlanguage(forvariousreasons)cannotreturntonormalifthesedeprivationsgoonfortoolong.10.5StagesinchildlanguagedevelopmentSincethe1960s,manystudieshavebeenconductedtoexaminetheunderlyingprogressofchildren’slanguageacquisition.Thefollowingwilloutlinesomemainstagesofchildren’slanguagedevelopment.10.5.1Phonologicaldevelopment•ThefollowingtableshowstheappearanceofconsonantphonemesinEnglish,withrespecttochronologicalage:•By2pbmnw2.5tdkgnh3fs1j4FvzrtFdV10.5.2Vocabularydevelopmenta)Under-extensionChildrendonotlearnthemeaningofaword“allatonce”.Whenachildlearnsanewword,hemaywellunder-extenditoroverextendit.Forexample,thechildmaygetconfusedathearingthecolorofwhiteusedforpaperwhenhe/shefirstthoughtitasthewordforsnow.Thecommondenialthatbirdsareanimalsisalsoatypicalexampleofunder-extension.b)Over-extensionOverextensionhappenswhenachildtakesapropertyofanobjectandgeneralizesit.Itislikelytooccurlaterratherthanimmediatelyfollowingtheacquisitionofaword.Over-extensionisbasedonboththeextensionofcategories(appleforallfruit)oranalogies(appleforanythinground)andtheextensionoffamilyresemblancessuchasclocksextendedbothtobracelet(手镯)andtothesoundofdrippingofwater,whichsoundsliketick,tick,tick.Taketheword“daddy”forexample.10.5.3GrammaticaldevelopmentAroundtheageoftwo,childrenbegintoproducetwo-wordutterances.Theyaretypicallytheexamplesoftelegraphicspeech.Thiskindofspeechcontainscontentwordswhichgiveustheinformationandlacksthefunctionelements,orfunctionwordswhichbythemselvestellusnothing.Duringthisstagetherearenosyntacticormorphologicalmarkers,thatis,theyusenoinflectionsfornumber,person,ortense,andsoon.Ithasbeennotedthatinnoun+nounsentences,thetwowordscanexpressanumberofdifferentgrammaticalrelationswhichwillbeexpressedlaterbyothersyntacticdevices.Hereisanexample,“Mommysock”canbeusedeithertoshowasubject+objectrelationinthesituationwhenthemotherisputtingthesockonandthechildispointingtoMommy’ssockortoshowpossession,\nmeaning“ThisisMommy’ssock”.•About6monthslater,the2-wordutterancesphasewilldevelopintosentenceswhichcontainthreemainelements,e.g.•(4)daddykickball•(5)thatbigbag•(6)puttruckwindow10.5.4PragmaticdevelopmentOneimportantaspectisgender.Bytheageofthree,thechildmayvaryhisspeechstylewhenhestartsimitatingcertainroles.Forinstance,aboymayshowheisbeinganadultbysayingtoyoungerchildren,“Cometodadda,there’sagoodgirl”etc.Thisshowsthechildisawarethatcertainwaysofspeakingareappropriatetospecialroles.Besides,genderdifferencescanalsobefoundinthetopicsandquantityofchildrentalk.Politenessisoneofthefewaspectsofspeechthatareexplicitlytaughtbyadults.Approximatelyattheageofthreeorfour,parentsbegintointroducecommentswhichfocusattentionontheappropriateuseoflanguage.Theysayconstantly“Don’ttalkwhenI’mtalking”,“Don’tshoutatthetable,“etc.Atypicalexampleisthatthehundredsoftimesparentsremindchildrentosaypleaseandthankyou:Child:CanIhaveacake?Parent:Whatdoyousay?Child:Please.Parent:Yes.Parent:Here’sanice-cream(Childacceptsit.)Parent:Whatdoyousay?Child:Thankyou.Parent:That’sright.Graduallythechildlearnstheintentionbeneaththelinguisticform.Inotherwordshehastolearnto“readbetweenthelines”.10.6Atypical(非典型的)developmentAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotraumaorinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:---Hearingimpairment---Mentalretardation---autism---stuttering---Aphasia---DyslexiaanddysgraphiaNotallthechildrenachievethesameleveloflanguagedevelopment.Someacquisitionmaybedelayedbutfollowthesamerulesoflanguagedevelopment.Atypicallanguagedevelopment(abnormallanguagedevelopment)mayoccurduetotrauma(外伤)orinjury.III.Homework(2’)    1.Review    2.Pp.141-2Ex.1(oral)    3.PrepareChapter10 Comments:\nDate：Lecture16Chapter11Secondlanguageacquisition（1）I.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowing：1.Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA),2.Connectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisition3.Contrastiveanalysis4.ErrorAnalysis5.InterlanguageII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’):B.NewContent(75’)11.1Introduction1.SecondLanguageAcquisition----formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.2.Distinguishsecondlanguage&foreignlanguageAlthoughSLlearningisdifferentfromFLlearninginmanyaspects,peopletendtotreatthemequalandapplySLAresearchresultstoFLlearningandteaching.Inthischaptersomekeynotionsandmodelswillbeintroducedanddiscussedtoshedsomelightonsecond/foreignlanguagelearningingeneral.11.2Connectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisition(FLA)andsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)Thefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackcloth(背景)forperceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).•SLAisdifferentfromFLA(firstlanguageacquisition).•Inter-language•Fossilization•UniversalGrammar11.3ContrastiveanalysisInfluencedbythebehaviorismviewthatsecondlanguagelearningwasseenasthedevelopmentofanewsetofhabits,thenativelanguagetookon(呈现，具有)greatsignificanceforitwasregardedasthemajorcauseforlackofsuccessinlearningasecondlanguageorforeignlanguage.Andadistinctionwasmadebetweenpositivetransferandnegativetransfer.\n---Positivetransfer----facilitatetargetlanguagelearning---Negativetransfer----interfereorhindertargetlanguagelearning---Itisbelievedthatdifferencesbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewouldposedifficultiesinsecond/foreignlanguagelearningandteaching,e.g.*Totouchthesociety.*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.ShortcomingsofCA:TheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyofthepredictionsofthetargetlanguagelearningdifficultyformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiveanalysisturnedouttobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupthatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“Differences”and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts.11.4ErrorAnalysis(EA)Thecontrastiveapproachtolearners’errorshasshednewlightonpeople’sattitudes:theerrorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypothesesaboutthelanguagetobelearnt.Theyareworthfurtherprobing.A.Inter-lingualerrorsinter(之间;中间的)lingual(语言的)----Inter-lingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguistic(跨语言)interferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a. Substitutionof[t]for[W]and[d]for[T]:threeàtree,thisàdis.b. Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepàship,meetàmitB.Intra-lingualerrorsintra-(在内，内，内部)Theintra-lingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Twotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:overgeneralization&cross-associationC.OvergeneralizationOvergeneralization----theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.Walked,watched,washed…*rided,*goed,*doed,*eated…Janeadvisemetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janehopedmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.D.Cross-associationCross-associationreferstothephenomenonthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.Other/another,much/many,stalagmite(石笋)/stalactite(钟乳石)…Itmayalsooccursatalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.\nE.Errors&mistakesErrors----unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigible(可改订/正的)bythelearner(failureincompetence)；Mistakes----eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).11.5Inter-languageProposedbyS.PitCorderandLarrySelinker,theconceptofinter-languagewasestablishedaslearnersindependentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Interl-angauge----learners’independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Whatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.Characteristicsofinter-languageInter-languagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeability(渗透)andfossilization(僵化).Fossilization----aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.III.Homework(2’)    1.Review;    2.DotherevisionexercisesonP169(oral);    3.Preparetherestofthechapter. Comments:Date:Lecture17Chapter11Secondlanguageacquisition（2）I.Objectives:StudentsaretolearnthefollowingI.Objectives:Studentsaretolearnthefollowing：1.Theroleofnativelanguageinsecondlanguagelearning2.Secondlanguagelearningmodelsandinputhypothesis3.Individualdifferences4.SecondlanguageacquisitionanditspedagogicalimplicationsII.ProceduresA.Reviewquestions(15’):\nB.NewContent(75’)11.6TheroleofnativelanguageinsecondlanguagelearningLanguagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)Mentalistsarguedthatfewerrorswerecausedbylanguagetransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.Threeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransfer:Alearner’spsychologyPerceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistanceActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguageIntheheydayofbehaviorism,peoplenoticedlearners’useofpriorlinguisticinformation(chieflyhismothertongue)orsomephysicallycarryover(遗留物)ofnativelanguagesurfacetoasecondlanguagecontext(e.g.“totouchthesociety”thedirecttransferfromChinesecollocationtoEnglishcollocation),namelylanguagetransfer.11.7SecondlanguagelearningmodelsandinputhypothesisBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement,a“nurture”position;Thementalistsortheinnativistsshifttoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.Thesocialinteractionistsarguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.Whilethebehaviorismmodelemphasizedtheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement,a“nurture”(培育)position,thementalistsorthein-nativistsshiftedtoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeings,equippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD),arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequateinput.Krashen’sInputHypothesis:Krashenmakeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.Heputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivingcomprehensibleinput.Hedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:“i”representslearners’currentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisan“i+1”.Krashenmistookinputandintake,thusreceivecriticism.11.8Individualdifferences1.Languageaptitude:Languageaptitudereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearner’sgeneralintelligence.JohnCarrollidentifiedsomecomponentsoflanguageaptitude:---Phonemiccodingability---Grammaticalsensitivity---Inductivelanguagelearningability---Rotelearningability2.Motivation\nMotivationcanbedefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Ithasastrongimpactonhiseffortsinlearningasecondlanguage.Generallyfourtypesofmotivationshavebeenidentified:---Instrumentalmotivation---Integrativemotivation---Resultativemotivation---Intrinsicmotivation3.LearningstrategiesLearningstrategiesarelearners’conscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.AccordingtoChamot(1986)&Oxford(1990),threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:Cognitivestrategies----analyzing,synthesisandinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.Metacognitivestrategies----planning,monitoringandevaluatingone’slearning.Affect/socialstrategies----thewayslearnersinteractwithotherspeakers.Cohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.4.AgeofacquisitionTheCriticalPeriodHypothesisRecentstudiessupportthehypothesisthatintermsoflearningachievementandgrammaticalitytheyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.5.PersonalityIntermsofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalrules,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners(asinthecaseofLiyang:CrazyEnglish).11.9SecondlanguageacquisitionanditspedagogicalimplicationsLearningEnglishasaforeignlanguageissomehowdifferentfromlearningitasasecondlanguage.Thisisbecausethelearningenvironmentsaredifferent.ModifiedinputAnalogoustoparentsorcare-takerstochildreninchildrenlanguageacquisition,teachersinclassalsocasttheroleofadjustingtheirspeechtothelearners'proficiencylevel.Thiskindofspeechiscalledteachertalk,orforeignertalk.Suchspeechsharessimilarfeatureswithmothereseorcare-takerese.Throughthesemodihcations,teachersmakesurethattheyareprovidingtherightinput,i.e.thecomprehensibleinputtofacilitatelearning.ModifiedinteractionInadditiontothemodifiedspeech,teachersalsoelicitfromstudentsresponses,initiateconversationsandinteractionstoprovidelearningprompts,morecomprehensionchecks,recastsandexpansion.Thisnotonlyhelpstopushstudentstoprocesstheinput,butalsohelpstoinvitetheirnoticingtothemismatchesbetweenthetargetlanguageformsandtheirownproduction,hencetoachievemaximumlearning.FocusonformWhatismore,teachersaresupposedtoprovideformalinstructionandexplicitcorrectioninclassroomlanguagelearningsetting.Feedback,orcorrection,mayhappenatanystageinclassroom,eitheratteachers,presentationofnewitems,oratstudents’practiceoraftertheirproduction.Clearandtimelyfeedbackplaysapositiveroleinsecondlanguagelearning.Mostresearchfindingsinsecondlanguageacquisitionhavedirectpedagogicalimplications.Secondlanguageacquisitionasascientificmulti-disciplinarystudyhasprovidedinsightsintohowpeoplelearnasecondlanguagefromhuman'sinternalmechanismandexternalfactorwhichmayimposeimpactstodifferentextents.III.Homework(2’)\n    1.P.169:Revisionexercises(oral)    2.Startthegeneralreviewofthetextbook.Comments: