语言学简介课件 80页

Chapter1IntroductionIntroductiontoLinguisticsInstructor:LiGengkeSchoolofForeignLanguages,TaishanMedicalUniversity\nOverviewofChapter11.CourseGuide1.1Howfarislinguisticsawayfromus?1.2Whylinguistics?1.3Courserequirementandassessment1.4Hintsonhowtolearn2.Whatislanguage?2.1Adefinition2.2Designfeaturesoflanguage2.3Functionsoflanguage\nOverviewofChapter13.Scopesoflinguistics3.1Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?3.2Micro-linguistics3.3Macro-linguistics4.Basicdistinctionsinlinguistics4.1Descriptivevsprescriptive4.2Speechvswriting4.3Languevsparole4.4Competencevsperformance4.5Synchronicvsdiachronic\nWarming-upDiscussionsforPart1Linguisticsisjokinglydubbed“richmen’sgame”.Isittrue?ThegameofeverybodyExample1我们还见不见面呢？我们什么时候再见呢？我们明天什么时候再见呢？Situation:Afterhoursofpleasanttalkonablinddate,themanistosaysomethingbeforesayinggood-byetotheladywhichheisquitefondof.\nWarming-upDiscussionsforPart1Example2Situation:Aisa30-year-oldwoman,unmarried;B,awoman,isherfriend.A:刚才和我跳舞的那位跳得太好啦！是你们单位的吗？B:是的。他妻子跳得更好呢！Someknowledgeaboutlanguageusemayenableustobemorecompetentinusinglanguage.\nHowfarislinguisticsawayfromus?1)Nowthatlanguageservesinpartastheessentialtoolforhumancommunication,alittleknowledgeaboutthenatureoflanguageandtheroleitplaysinourlifewillmakeusbetterlanguageusers.\nHowfarislinguisticsawayfromus?2)Theabilitytouselanguagedistinguisheshumanbeingsfromanimals.Thestudyoflanguagecanprovideinsightinto“humannature”.Itstudieshowweacquirelanguageandhowitispossibleforustoperceivethroughlanguage.Itwillalsoexaminetherelationshipsbetweenlanguageandthought,languageandlogicandlanguageandculture.\nHowfarislinguisticsawayfromus?3)Someknowledgeaboutthenatureoflanguageandparticularlyaboutlanguageacquisitionwillmakelanguagelearningmoreefficient.ThepriorityoflisteningandspeakingoverreadingandwritingLearningalanguagethroughusingit\nHowfarislinguisticsawayfromus?4)Ateacherofforeignlanguageswilldefinitelybenefitagreatdealfromsomeknowledgeoflinguistics.Howlearner’serrorsshouldbetreatedHoweachlevelofthelanguagesystemisrelatedtootherlevelsThedevelopmentoflanguageteachingtheoriesiscloselyrelatedwithandheavilydependentonthedevelopmentoflinguisticresearch.(Communicativeapproach;student-centeredness)\nHowfarislinguisticsawayfromus?5)Linguisticsisbecomingmoreandmoreinter-disciplinary,whichmeansthatitdrawsonthefindingsofotherdisciplineswhileitalsoshedslightontheirresearch.i.e.,Inthefieldofmedicine,linguisticknowledgehasproventobeextremelyusefulinstudyingthehumanbrain(neurolinguistics,whichtypicallystudiesthedisturbancesoflanguagecomprehensionandproductioncausedbythedamageofcertainareasofthebrain).Thequestforthe“perfect”wordprocessorandspeechrecognitiontechnologymeansthatlinguistsareinhighdemandinthefieldofcomputertechnology(ComputationalLinguistics).\nHowfarislinguisticsawayfromus?Conclusion:Linguisticsisveryclosetous.Itisreal,enlightening,andcloselyrelatedtoourunderstandingoflanguageandtoourlearningandteachingaswellasouruseoflanguage.Linguisticscanbeinteresting.\nWhyLinguistics?First,informedpeopleoughttoknowatleastsomethingaboutmodernscience.ItishelpfulandnecessaryforEnglishmajors,aslanguagelearnersorwould-belanguageteachers,toknowsomebasiclinguisticknowledge.Somemythsaboutlanguage:\nWhyLinguistics?Languageisonlyameansofcommunication.Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence.Thefunctionoflanguageistoexchangeinformation.EnglishismoredifficulttolearnthanChinese.BlackEnglishisnotstandardandshouldbereformed.(Iaskdidhedoit./Idrunkthemilk./HeliveinNewYork.)\nWhyLinguistics?Second,linguists’modesofthoughtaregeneralizableandcaninformotherstudies.Particularly,learninglinguisticscanhelpimproveyourlogicalanddialecticalthinking.Howcanweapproachanobjectscientifically?Ascientificstudyisonewhichisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Observation－generallzation－hypothesls－testedbyfurtherobservation－theory\nWhyLinguistics?Principles(thethreecanonsofscience):(i)exhaustiveness:itstrivesforthorough-goingnessintheexaminationofrelevantmaterials;(ii)consistency:thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement;(iii)economy:otherthingsbeingequal,ashorterstatementoranalysisistobepreferredtoonethatislongerormorecomplex.Methodology：Prescriptiveordescriptive\nWhyLinguistics?Third,languageplaysacentralroleinourlivesasindividualsandsocialbeings.Unawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.Linguisticsdirectlyorindirectlysaysmuchabouthumannaturethatweoughtalltobeinterestedin.\nCourseRequirementandassessment1)Ourtextbookissoinformativethatinthisintroductorycoursewecannotcoverallthetopicsinit;youwillfindthatmuchofthetextbookisleftwithoutanytouch.Self-taughtstudyisveryimportant.2)Youaresuggestedtolookoverthereadingquestionsforeachsectionofthetextbeforeyoureadthatsection.Afteryouhavereadthetextmakesurethatyoucananswerthembeforeyougoontothenextsection.3)Remember:Donottrytolearnanythingbyrote;withoutunderstandingwhatyouread,learninglinguisticsisnothingbutawasteoftime.Iexpectthatyouwillbedoingalotoftextsearchinginansweringthequestions(thatiswhatIwoulddo,anyway).4)Homeworkshouldbefinishedintime;classroomgroupworkisessential.Classparticipationandperformanceinclassandassignmentwilltakeup30%ofthetotalscore,finalexamtakinguptheother50%.\nReferenceBooks戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。胡壮麟，(2001/2006)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。Fromkin,V.&R.Rodman,(1998),AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,Ranehart&Winston,Inc.\nWhatislanguage?Doesthewordlanguagemeanthesameinthefollowingsetofexpressions?“thelanguageofmusic”“badlanguage”“MarkTwain’slanguage”“bodylanguage”\nDifferentsensesoflanguagewhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)thewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeare’slanguage,Luxun’slanguage)aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)atoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)asetofrules.(rule-governed)\nWhatislanguage?Sapir’sdefinition(1921)“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”Hall’sdefinition(1968)Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”\nWhatislanguage?Chomsky’sdefinition(1957)“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”Sapiruses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.\nWhatislanguage?Agenerallyacceptabledefinition(Accordingtotheimportantfeaturesoflanguagesthatmostlinguistsagreeon)Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.\nLanguageisasystemSystematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.\nLanguageisarbitraryArbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.\nLanguageissymbolicinnatureSymbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare\nLanguageisprimarilyvocalVocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.\nLanguageishuman-specificHuman-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.\nDesignfeaturesoflanguageLanguageishumanspecific.Allhumanlanguageshavecertaincharacteristicsincommonandlinguistshaveidentifiedthesecharacteristicsasdefiningfeaturesofhumanlanguage.Thesefeatures,nowcalleddesignfeatures,arefoundutterlylackinginanimalcommunicationandthussethumanlanguageapartfromanimalcrysystems.\nDesignfeaturesoflanguageThefollowingsevendesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenidentifiedbytheeminentAmericanlinguistC.F.Hockett(1958):ArbitrarinessDualityProductivity(creativity)InterchangeabilityDisplacementSpecializationCulturaltransmission\nArbitrarinessNological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.e.g.“house”uchi(Japanese)mansion(French)房子(Chinese)Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang…)Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…\nDuality(doublearticulation)Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)DoublearticulationAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.\nProductivity/creativityPeculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires\nDisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.\nCulturaltransmissionLanguageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.\nSpecializationSpecializationreferstothefactthatmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.Speechisaspecializedactivity.Weuseitinadetachedmanner.Wecantalkaboutanexcitingexperiencewhileengagedinactivitiescompletelydetachedfromthesubjectunderdiscussion.Forexample,amothercantellastorytoherchildwhileslicingupacake.Animalscanonlyrespondtoastimulus.Abeeinabeedance,forinstance,istotallyinvolvedphysicallyinthecommunicationprocess.\nInterchangeabilityInterchangeabilityorreciprocityreferstothefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessages,andhisroleasthespeakerandhearercanbeexchangedatease.Intheanimalworldgibbonsandbeesareendowedwiththeabilitytoproduceandreceivemessages.Thiscommunicativeabilityisfoundlackinginotheranimals.Somemalebirds,forexample,possesscallswhichfemalesdonothave.Thisfeatureoflinguisticsinterchangeabilitydistinguisheshumanlanguagefromanimals’communication.\nFunctionsoflanguageLanguageisusedforcommunication:Phaticfunction/communionDirectivefunctionInformativefunctionInterrogativefunctionPerformativefunctionEvocativefunctionExpressivefunctionMetalingualfunction\n1)Phaticfunction/communion寒暄交谈Phaticfunction/communion:languageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontactbetweenthespeakerandhearer.Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherservethisfunction.Forexample,theexpressionssuchasHowdoyoudo?andAh,hereyouare,donotconveymeaning,butareusedtoestablishacommonsentimentbetweenthespeakerandhearer.Theyindicatethatachannelofcommunicationisopenifitshouldbeneeded.(slangs,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,switchestosocialandregionaldialects.(interpersonalfunction)\n2)Directivefunction指令功能Languageisusedtogetthehearertodosomething,suchasordersandrequests.Mostimperativesentencesareofthisfunction.Forexample,thesentence“Closeyourbookandlistentome”performthisfunction.\n3)Interrogativefunctionlanguageisusedtoaskforinformationfromothers.Allquestionsexpectingrepliesservethisfunction.What’syouridea?,Whattimeisitnow?,Whatisitlike?,Howoldareyou?,andthelikearequitecommonlyusedtoperformtheinterrogativefunction.However,rhetoricalquestionsdonothavetheinterrogativefunction,suchasShelly’sfamoussentenceO,Wind,ifwintercomes,canspringbefarbehind?.\n4)InformativefunctionLanguageisusedtotellsomething,togiveinformation,ortoreasonthingsout.Declarativesentencesservethisfunction.Forinstance,thesymbol“Roadclosed”onaroadservethisfunction.\n5)Expressive/emotivefunctionLanguageisusedtoexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions.Ejaculationsservethisfunction,suchasMyGod!andGoodheavens!.(Theemotivefunctionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.Itisameansofgettingridofournervousenergywhenweareunderstress,e.g.swearwords,obscenities,involuntaryverbalreactionstoapieceofartorscenery;conventionalwords/phrases,e.g.God,My,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh,Oh.)\n6)Evocativefunction呼唤功能languageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearers.Jokes,advertising,andpropagandaservethisfunction.\n7)Performativefunctionlanguageisusedtodothingsortoperformacts.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentences,thepresident’sdeclarationofwarortheQueen’snamingofaship,etc.servethisfunction.Atameeting,forinstance,assoonasthechairmansaysIdeclarethemeetingopen,themeetinghasstarted.\nOriginoflanguageThe‘Divine’origin:“InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.”(Gospel,John1:1)\n“AndtheLordsaid,Behold,thepeopleisone,andtheyhaveallonelanguage;andthistheybegintodo;andnownothingwillberestrainedfromthem,whichtheyhaveimaginedtodo.”(Genesis,11:6)\nThe“bow-wow”theoryInprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.Onomatopoeicwordsseemtobeaconvenientevidenceforthistheory.Buttheyareverydifferentinthedegreeofresemblancetheyexpresswiththenaturalsounds.Thistheorylackssupportiveevidence.\nThe“pooh-pooh”theoryInthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.Asforevidence,wecanonlycitetheuniversaluseofsoundsasinterjections.Whatmakesthetheoryproblematicisthatthereisonlyalimitednumberofinterjectionsinalmostalllanguages.Besides,interjectionssuchasOh,Ah,Oopsbearlittlerelationshipwiththesoundsystemofalanguageandthereforearenotgoodevidence.\nThe“yo-he-ho”theoryAsprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.Wedohaveprosodicuseofrhythmsinlanguages,butrhythmicgruntsarefardifferentfromlanguageinitspresentsense.Thetheoryisagainatmostaspeculation.\nTheby-nowfruitlesssearchfortheoriginoflanguagesreflectspeople'sconcernwiththeoriginofhumanityandmaycomeupwithenlighteningfindingsinfuture.Onethingwecansayforcertainisthatlanguageevolveswithinspecifichistorical,socialandculturalcontexts.\n\nScopeoflinguisticsWarming-upquestion:Whatshouldorcanwestudyaboutlanguage?SoundFormMeaning\nMicro-linguisticsBranchesconcerninglanguageitselfThestudyofspeechsounds(音)：phonetics&phonology；Thestudyoflanguageform(形)：morphology(wordform)&syntax(sentencestructure);Thestudyofmeaning(义):semantics&pragmaticsMicrolinguistics:fieldsofenquirypurelyaboutlanguageitself;alsocalledthecorebranchesoflinguistics\nMicrolinguisticsPhonetics----speechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.Phonology----soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology----theformofwordsSyntax----therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics----themeaningoflanguageWhenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse----Pragmatics.\nMacro-linguisticsInterdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticsLanguagecanbealsostudiedinrelationwithsomethingelse,resultinginmanyinterdisciplinarybrancheswhichoverlapwithanthropology,communication,foreignlanguageteachingandlearning,psychology,orsociology.Herearesomeofthosesubfields:\nMacro-linguistics:SociolinguisticsSociolinguisticsstudiestherelationsbetweenlanguageandsociety:howsocialfactorsinfluencethestructureanduseoflanguage.Itstudiessuchmattesasthelinguisticidentityofsocialgroups,socialattitudestolanguage,standardandnon-standardformsoflanguage,thepatternsandneedsofnationallanguageuse,andsoon.Anothernameforsociolinguisticsisthesociologyoflanguage.Linguisticandsocialproblemsarecloselyrelated,somuchsothatlinguisticsitselfhassometimesbeenregardedasa“social”science.\nMacro-linguistics:PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageandmind:thementalstructuresandprocesseswhichareinvolvedintheacquisition,comprehensionandproductionoflanguage.Perhapsthemostwell-developedpartofpsycholinguisticsisconcernedwithlanguageacquisitioninchildrenalthoughthereisagrowingamountofworkbeingdoneonsecondlanguageacquisitionandlearning.Peoplehavealsoattemptedtostudysuchthingsasspeechperceptionandcomprehension.Thesetopicsofresearchareintrinsicallyboundupwiththebroaderpsychologicalstudiesofcognitionandmemory.WewillreturntothediscussionofpsycholinguisticsinChapter9.\nMacro-linguistics:neurolinguisticsRelatedwithpsycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageprocessingandlanguagepresentationinthebrain,whichisnowknownasneurolinguisticsorneurologicallinguistics.Ittypicallystudiesthedisturbancesoflanguagecomprehensionandproductioncausedbythedamageofcertainareasofthebrain.NowithasbeenfoundthatdamageinBroca’sareawillcausenon-fluentspeech,fullofbrokensentencesconsistingmainlyofcontentwords.DamageinWernicke’sareawillcauseseverelyweakenedcomprehensionofwordsandsentencesespeciallyinspeech.\nMacro-linguistics-StylisticsStylisticsisthestudyofhowliteraryeffectscanberelatedtolinguisticfeatures.Itusuallyreferstothestudyofwrittenlanguage,includingliterarytexts,butitalsoinvestigatesspokenlanguagesometimes.Itisconcernedwiththechoicesthatareavailabletoawriterandthereasonswhyparticularformsandexpressionsareusedratherthanothers.Sincestylisticsisthescientificstudyofliterarystyle,itcanbecalledthe“scienceofliterature”.\nMacro-linguistics-DiscourseanalysisDiscourseanalysis,ortextlinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthecontextsinwhichlanguageisused.Itdealswithhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversationsandinterviews,andthevariousdevicesusedbyspeakersandwriterswhentheyconnectsinglesentencestogetherintoacohesiveandcoherentwhole.Therecentdevelopmentsofdiscourseanalysishavebeencarriedoutonclassroomdiscourseanalysis,criticaldiscourseanalysis,andcognitivediscourseanalysis.WewillexaminealltheseinChapter7.\nMacro-linguistics-ComputationallinguisticsComputationallinguisticsisanapproachtolinguisticswhichemploysmathematicaltechniques,oftenwiththehelpofacomputer.Itincludestheanalysisoflanguagedata,theresearchonmachine-aidedtranslation,electronicproductionofartificialspeechandtheautomaticrecognitionofhumanspeech.Ithasproducedprogrammesforcollectingandevaluatinglargeamountsoflanguagedataformakingfrequencywordlists,forautomaticallyindexing,andforproducingconcordances(wordlistswithcontexts).\nMacro-linguistics-CognitivelinguisticsCognitivelinguisticsisanapproachtotheanalysisofnaturallanguagethatfocusesonlanguageasaninstrumentfororganizing,processing,andconveyinginformation.Itissometimescalledaparadigmoraschooloflinguistics.Theanalysisoftheconceptualandexperientialbasisoflinguisticcategoriesisofprimaryimportancewithincognitivelinguistics:itprimarilyconsiderslanguageasasystemofcategories.Therefore,themaintopicsthatcognitivelinguisticsisinterestedinarecategoriesandcategorization,conceptualmetaphorandmetonymy,iconicity,andgrammaticalization,whichwillbestudiedindetailinChapter10.\nSomeotherdistinctionsoflinguisticsApartfromtheabovebranchesoflinguistics,thereareofcoursesomeotherdistinctionsoflinguistics,suchas:functionallinguistics(anapproachtolinguisticswhichisconcernedwithlanguageasaninstrumentofsocialinteractionratherthanasasystemthatisviewedinisolation)versusformallinguistics(Thestudyoftheabstractformoflanguageandtheirinternalrelations);theoreticallinguisticsversusappliedlinguistics;Corpuslinguistics(linguisticdescriptionbasedontheextensiveaccumulationofactuallyoccurringlanguagedataanditsanalysisbycomputers);forensiclinguistics(theexaminationoflinguisticevidenceforlegalpurposes);mathematicallinguistics(thestudyofthemathematicalpropertiesoflanguage,usuallyemployingconceptsofastatisticaloralgebraickind);anthropologicallinguistics(thestudyoflanguageincross-culturalsettings);philosophicallinguistics(thelinkbetweenlanguageandlogicalthought),andsoonandsoforth.\nAppliedlinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsisprimarilyconcernedwiththeapplicationoflinguistictheories,methodsandfindingstotheelucidationoflanguageproblemswhichhaveariseninotherareasofexperience.Themostwell-developedbranchofappliedlinguisticsisthelearningandteachingofforeignlanguagesandsometimesthetermisusedasifthisweretheonlyfieldinvolved.Butseveralotherfieldsofapplicationhaveemergedinrecentyears,includingthelinguisticanalysisoflanguagedisorders,whichiscalledclinicallinguistics,andtheuseoflanguageinmother-tongueeducation,whichiscallededucationallinguistics,anddevelopmentsinlexicology,translationandstylistics.Itseemsthatthereisnoclear-cutboundarybetweenappliedlinguisticsandthevariousinterdisciplinarybranchesoflinguistics,suchassociolinguisticsandpsycholinguistics.Ontheotherhand,asthesebranchesdeveloptheirowntheoreticalfoundations,thedistinctionbetween“pure”and“applied”isbecomingobvious.\nGlobalviewofbranchesoflinguistics\nBasicdistinctionsinlinguisticsPrescriptivevs.descriptivestudiesLanguevs.paroleCompetencevs.performanceSpeechvs.writingDiachronicvs.synchronicstudiesSyntagmaticvs.paradigmaticrelationsFunctionalismvs.formalism\nDescriptivevsprescriptiveDescriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)\nSynchronicvsdiachronicSynchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)\nSpeechvswritingSpeech----primarymediumoflanguageWriting----laterdeveloped\nLanguevsparole(F.deSaussure)Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.\nLangueissocial,conventionalsideoflanguage,whileparoleisindividualizedspeech.Langueisthecode,andparoleisthemessage.Paroleistheconcretemanifestationoflanguageeitherthroughspeechorwriting.Langueistheabstractknowledgenecessaryforspeaking,listening,writingandreading.Itisrelativelystableandsystematic,whereasparoleismorevariableandmaychangeaccordingtocontextualfactors.Paroleandlanguetogetherconstitutelanguage.Whileparoleconstitutestheimmediatelyaccessibledata,thelinguist'sproperobjectisthelangueofeachcommunity,thelexicon,grammar,andphonologyimplantedineachindividualbyhisupbringinginsocietyandonthebasisofwhichhespeaksand understandshislanguage.\nCompetenceandperformance(Chomsky)Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.\nInwhatwaydolangueandcompetenceagree?Inwhatwaytheydiffer?Chomsky’sdistinctionobviouslycorrespondsinsomedegreetothatofSaussure.Itrepresentsasimilarclassificationofknowledgeandbehaviourandasimilardichotomyofthescopeoflinguisticenquiry.However,theirviewsarenotexactlythesame.Chomsky’scompetenceisapsychologicalconstructanddeSaussure’slangueisasetofsocialconventions.Thereareotherminordifferences,butperhapstheunderlyingconsiderationsarethesame.Whetherweadoptapsychologicalvieworasociologicalone,theprincipleistoabstractrulesfromimmediatelyobservablelanguageuseandtrytodescribethesystemgoverningparticularexamplesofspeakingorwriting.\nSyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsSaussurehasputforwardanotherpairofconcepts:syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations.Theformerreferstothehorizontalrelationshipbetweenlinguisticelements,whichformlinearsequences.Thelatermeanstheverticalrelationshipbetweenforms,whichmightoccupythesameparticularplaceinastructure.Thefollowingdiagramsmightgiveusavividpictureofthetwoconcepts.Whereas,paradigmaticrelationsarerelationsofsubstitution,thatis,linguisticforms(e.g.letters,wordsandphrases)canbesubstitutedforeachotherinthesamepositioninawordorsentence.\nFunctionalismandformalism----functionallinguisticsandformallinguisticsGeneralspeaking,scholarsoflinguistscanbedividedintotwomajorcamps:oneisfunctionalism,andtheotherisformalism.Functionalismorfunctionallinguisticsreferstothestudyoftheformoflanguageinreferencetotheirsocialfunctionincommunication.Itconsiderstheindividualasasocialbeingandinvestigatesthewaywhichsheorheacquireslanguageandusesitinordertocommunicatewithothersinherorhissocialenvironment.Functionalismtendstoexplaintheformsoflanguagebyattributingadeterminingroleofitsfunction.Thefunctionispresumedtobecommunication.Itholdsthattheuseoflanguageinfluencesitsform.Therefore,linguisticsshouldstudythefunctionsoflanguage.MostcontemporarylinguisticsinEuropesincethePragueSchool(布拉格学派)isfunctional.\nFormalismorformallinguisticsisthestudyoftheabstractformsoflanguageandtheirinternalrelations.Itfixesontheformsoflanguagesasevidenceoftheuniversalswithoutconsideringhowtheseformsfunctionincommunicationandthewaysofsociallifeindifferentcommunities.ThemostoutstandingrepresentativeofformalismisNoamChomsky’stransformationalgenerativegrammar.\nLinguisticsvs.traditionalgrammarFirst,linguisticsisdescriptive,whiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Linguisticsdescribeslanguagesastheyareanddoesnotlaydownrulesofcorrectness;traditionalgrammaremphasizessuchmattersascorrectnessandaimstoprescribewhatisright.Second,linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.\nLinguisticsvs.traditionalgrammarThird,traditionalgrammarisbasedonLatinandittriestoimposetheLatincategoriesandstructuresonotherlanguages(Latinpatternsandcategories,especiallyitscasesystemandtensedivisionsofpast,presentandfuture.Forexample,somegrammariansstatedthatEnglishhadsixcasesbecauseLatinhadsixcases.),whilelinguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmerits.Linguistsareopposedtothenotionthatanyonelanguagecanprovideanadequateframeworkfortheothers.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwillbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind.\nSummaryAssignmentsExercisesanddiscussionquestionsPreviewofChapter2