语言学总结范文 24页

语言学总结范文　　1.Linguistics/linguist(语言学)DefinitionLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.Branchesofgenerallinguistics:centralcore(语言学的分支,中央核心)Phoics（语音学）Phonology（音位学）Morphology（形态学）Syntax（句法）Semantics（语义学）Pragmatics（语用学）3.Descriptive/prescriptive(描述,规定)Descriptivestudy（描述性研究）1.Describeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.2.Modernlinguistics（现代语言学）ismostlydescriptive.Itisscientific（科学的）andobjective（客观的）.Prescriptivestudy（规范研究）1.Laydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage.2.Tellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay.3.Traditionalgrammar（传统语法）isbasedon“high”writtenlanguageandaimstosetmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.4.Synchronicanddiachronic(共时的,历时的)Synchronicstudy（共时性研究）1.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory.2.Asynchronicapproachenjoyspriority（优先权）overadiachronicone.Diachronicstudy（历时研究）:Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.5.Langue/parole<语言/言语>　　(1).ThedistinctionbetweenthetwoconceptswasmadebyF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.\n　　(2).WhoisSaussure?F.deSaussure,SwissLinguist--FatherofModernLinguistics.Hiswork“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”<普通语言学>marksthebeginningofmodernlinguistics.　　(3).Langue:Abstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechmunity.Setofconventionsandruleswhichalllanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Parole:Realizationoflanguageinactualuse.Concreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Comparison:Langue:abstract;stableParole:concrete;variedInSaussure’sopinion,paroleissimplyamassoflinguisticfacts,toovaried,andconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,andwhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole.CompetenceandperformanceThedistinctionbetweenthetwoconceptswasproposedbyN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.N.Chomsky,AmericanLinguist,　　(1)Competence:语言能力Idealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance:语言运用Actualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticmunication.总结Distinctionbetweenthetwopairsofnotions:Saussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview.ModernLinguistics:descriptive,叙述性的Speech,UniversalframeworkTraditionalGrammarPrescriptive规范性的，Writing，Latin-basedframework7.Design\nfeatures:Arbitrariness/Productivity/Displacement/Culturaltransmission1.whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbols任意的有声信号usedforhumanmunication.CharlesF.HocketthaswrittenabookcalledaCourseInModernLinguistics2.Designfeaturesoflanguage结构特点Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Productivity（创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Duality（结构二重性）Lowerlevel:astructureofmeaninglesssounds,Higherlevel:groupedandregroupedsoundswithmeaningDisplacement（不受时空限制的特征）Languagescanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Culturaltransmission（文化传递）Thedetailedofanylanguagesystemarenotgeicallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.8.Phoics:Articulataryphoics/auditoryphoics/acousticphoicsThestudyofsoundsisdividedinto3areas:　　(1)Articulatoryphoics发音语音学　　(2)Auditoryphoics听觉语音学　　(3)Acousticphoics声学语言学9.Pharyngealcavity:thethroat①咽腔Oralcavity:themouth②Nasalcavity:thenose③10.IPA(International\nPhoicAlphabet国际音标)[辨InternationalPhoicAssociation国际语音协会]ThefirstversionoftheIPAwaspublishedin1888.TheIPAhasbeenrevisedandcorrectedseveral口腔鼻腔timesandthepresentsystemofIPAderivesmainlyfromonedevelopedinthe1920s,bytheBritishphoicianDanielJones(琼斯)andhiscolleaguesatuniversityofLondon.11.Placeofarticulation(①发音部位)[弱弱的补充一下]发音部位包括bilabial双唇音.labiodental唇齿音.dental齿间音.alveolar齿龈音.palatal硬腭音.velar软腭音.glottal声门音.Postalveolar后齿龈音.retroflex卷舌音.uvular小舌音.pharyngeal咽音。　　Mannerofarticulation(②发音方法)包括stop爆破音.Fricative摩擦音.Affricates破擦音.Lateral边音.(median)approximant中通音.12.Phonology(音系学)andPhoics(语音学)Phoicsstudiedhowspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived.Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundsystemoflanguages.13.Phone:isaphoicunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticmunicationareallphones.(P23)音素是从音色的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。　　在语音学与音韵学中，音素一词所指的是说话时所发出的声音。　　音素是具体存在的物理现象。　　Phone:doesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Somedo,somedon’t.forexample,[s]and[t]do,as[si:m]and[ti:m]aretwowordswithtotallydifferentmeanings,and[th]and[t]don’t,as[stop]and[sthop]meanthesame\ntoaspeakerofEnglish.Phoneme:isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoiccontext.音位在某一特殊语种中的有限的发音类别中的一个，它的改变可以使该语言中的词汇与其他词汇区别开。　　音位应该与人体的发音严格的区分开，因为音位是指一个有规律的有限的发音系统而人体的发音则是无限的。　　音位是音位学的单位，而人体发音则是从医学或物理学角度考虑的声音效果。　　Eg/p/peak→[ph]→withastrongpuffofairsteam→aspirated/p/speak→[p]→thepuffofairwithheld→unaspiratedSo/p/isaphonemeintheEnglishsoundsystem,anditcanberealizeddifferentlyasaspiratedorunaspiratedindifferentcontext.Conventionallyphonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets,andphonemesinslashes,e.g./p/,/l/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/m/…Allophones:Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoicenvironments.Forexample,thephonemeis/l/canberealizedasdark[I],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.Similarsoundsrelatedintwoways:1).Phonemiccontrast:Tworelateddistinctivephonemes./p/-[pit],[roup]/b/-[bit],[roub]2).Complementarydistribution（互补分布）:Allophonesofthesamephonemeourringin\ndifferentphoicenvironment,whichdonotdistinguishmeaning.Clear/l/-beforeavowel:look,leapDark/l/-betweenavowelandaconsonants,orattheendofaword:till,nail,feelMinimalpair:(最小对立体)Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundbinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Pill-bill,dill-gill,pill-till,till-kill,kill-dill,dill-gillBeat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat音位的确定通过对比替换方法；词首（pill/fill、pill/kill、till/dill、till/kill、kill/gill）、词中（lock/log、bit/bid、hurt/heard、trap/trash）、词尾（hit/hot、feet/foot、fail/full、beat/boot、bit/but）具有最小对立体；元音、辅音（lob/lead、pot/dog、pill/bell）均可成为最小对立体。　　14.Suprasegmentalfeatures9（超音段特征）hephonemicfeaturesthatourabovethelevelofthesegments.○1).Stress（重读）Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Forexample,ashiftofstressmay\nchangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Thenounhasthestressonthefirstsyllableandthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable.词重音实例:'importn.--im'portv./'increasen.--in'creasev.'Similaralterationofstressalsooursbetweenapoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishpoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,andthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.Eglackbirdreferstoaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack.（black`bird）greenhouseandgreenhouse,hotdogandhotdog词重音实例（动名词与分词）Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthebinationsof-ingformsandnouns.Egdining-room,readingglasses,sewingmachine,sleepingbaby,swimmingfishTwotypes1）onetype,the-ingformservesasamodifierofthenoun,e.g.dining-room,readingglasses.Theseareactuallypoundnouns.Asarule,inpronouncingthistypeof-ing+nounbinations,thewordstressalwaysfallsonthefirstelement;thesecondelementreceivessecondarystress:'dining-room,'readingglasses,'sewingmachine.2）theothertypeof-ing+nounbinations,thenounisactuallythedoeroftheactionindicatedbythe-ingform,e.g.sleepingbaby,swimmingfish.Thesearenot\npoundnouns,butnounphraseswithan-ingparticiplemodifier.Forthesebinations,theprimarystressfallsontheheadnoun,andthe-ingformreceivessecondarystress.Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcegiventotheponentsofasentence.ThepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentencearenouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns;theothercategoriesofwordslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.○2Tone（音调）Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegmentalfeature.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguages.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Ourmothertongue,Chinese,isatypicaltonelanguage.Ithasfourtones.Thefirsttoneislevel(阴平),thesecondrise(阳平),thethirdfall-rise(上声),andthefourthfall(去声).Theroleofthetonecanbewellillustratedbypronouncingthesamesoundbinationsuchas"ma"inthefourdifferenttones:ma(妈)ma(麻)ma(马)ma(骂)○3Intonation（语调实例）Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleinthe\nconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.Spokeninthefalling-tone,version　　(1)simplystatesafact,i.e.,thebookinquestionisnottheonehewants.Version　　(2),saidintherisingtone,indicatesuncertaintyonthepartofthespeaker;heisaskingthequestion:Isthatnotthebookhewants?Version　　(3),spokeninthefall-risetoneindicatesthatapartfromwhatissaid:literally,thereisanimpliedmessage,i.e.,besidestellingthelistenerthatthebookinquestionisnottheonehewants,thespeakerimpliesthatthereissomeotherbookhewants.Intonationcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingthenucleus（语核；音节核心）onit.Nucleusreferstothemajorpitchchangeinanintonationunit.Within\noneintonationunit,thenucleusnormallyfallsonthelaststressedsyllable.Shiftingthenucleustoanothersyllable,normallystressedorunstressed,willcausedifferenceinmeaning.15．Morphology（形态学）Linguistsusethetermmorphologytorefertothepartofthegrammerthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.Forexample,aspeakerofEnglishwhoknowstheverbreadcanrecognizereaderasthepersonwhoreads,andcanconstructandunderstandthewordssuchaslip-read,sight-read,reading,reading-class,reading-room,etc16.Openclass（开放类）Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandverbs(contentwords);canbeexpanded.EgBeatnik=beat+nik(noun)=amemberoftheBeatGenerationClosedclass(封闭类)Conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns(functionalwords);cannotbeexpanded.Eg:Letter“e”:anewneutralthirdpersonsingularpronoun,neithermasculinenorfeminine,whichcanbeusedasthegeneralform.Others,however,havepointedoutthatthey/theirarealreadybeingusedasaneutralthirdpersonsingular.eg:Anyonecanjointheclubiftheylike.Everyonecandotheirbest.Ofthetwoproposals,whichoneisthebettercandidate?Aspronounshave"closed"nature,wepredictthatthey/theirwillstandabetterchancetoservethisneedthanapletelynewpronoun.17..Openclass开放词汇:Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandverbs(contentwords);can\nbeexpanded.Closedclass封闭词汇:Conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns(functionalwords);cannotbeexpanded..Morphology语法:thusreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed..morpheme词素:Somewordsareformedbybininganumberofdistinctunitsofmeaning.Themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.Asinglewordmayconsistofoneormoremorphemes.Prefixes前缀:Thusun-islikedis-(disorder,disagree);itoursonlybeforeothermorphemes.Suchmorphemesarecalledprefixes.Suffixes后缀:Othermorphemesouronlyassuffixes,i.e.onlyafterothermorphemes.Examplesofsuchmorphemesare-or(operator),-er(writer),and-ful(wonderful),tomentionjustafew.Traditionally,theseprefixesandsuffixeshavebeencalledboundmorphemes附着语素Morphemeslikegirl,relyandsoon,canbeusedfreely,sotheyarecalledfreemorphemes自由语素Thesemorphemesareconjoinedtoothermorphemes(orwords)anewwordisderived,orformed,thustheycalledderivationalmorphemes派生语素Somederivationalmorphemesdonotchangegrammaticalclassthereareboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon.Suchboundmorphemesarereferredtoasinflectionalmorphemes屈折语素（曲折语素）.Theyareattachedtowordsormorphemes,buttheyneverchangetheir\nsyntactiategory.18.Syntax句法Itstudieshowwordsarebinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Whatwearegoingtostudyisthesimpleversionoftransformationalsyntax.19.1.Category（范畴）referstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.20.Afundamentalfactaboutwordsinallhumanlanguagesisthattheycanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledsyntactiategories（句法范畴）.Thisclassificationreflectsavarietyoffactors,includingthetypeofmeaningthatwordsexpress,thetypeofaffixes（词缀）thattheytake,andthetypeofstructuresinwhichtheycanour.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories.Intraditionalgrammaronlyabouteightcategories(calledpartsofspeech)arerecognized,butallcurrenttheoriesofgrammarhavefounditnecessarytoincreasethisnumberbytheadditionofsuchnon-traditionalcategoriesasdeterminer(Det)限定词,degreewords程度词(Deg)andqualifier(Qual)限定语.Herewordlevelcategoriesaredividedintotwokinds:majorlexicalcategories（小词汇分类）andminorlexicalcategories（主要词汇分类）Majorlexicalcategoriesplayaveryimportantroleinsentenceformation.Theydifferfromminorlexicalcategoriesinthattheyareoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt.Examples\nofsomelexicalcategoriesMajorlexicalcategoriesExamplesNoun(N)book,boy,love,sheepVerb(V)run,read,playAdjective(A)happy,tall,clearPreposition(P)about,over,onMinorlexicalcategoriesExamplesDeterminer(Det)the,a,this,thoseDegreeword(Deg)quite,very,more,soQualifier(Oual)often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary(Aux)must,should,can,mightConjunction(Con)and,but,or21.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures1.1.PhrasecategoriesA.Syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt..B.Themostmonlyrecognizedanddiscussedphrasalcategories:nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP)andprepositionalphrase(PP).C.Phrasesthatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontainthefollowingelements:head（中心语）,specifier（标志语）andplement（补足语）.Thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedistermedhead.Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsareplements.1.2phrasestructureruleA.Suchspecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.B.ThephrasestructuralruleforNP,VP,AP,and\nPPcanbewrittenasfollows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...VP→(Qual)V(NP)...AP→(Deg)A(PP)...PP→(Deg)P(NP)...22.NP→VP→AP→PPnounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP)andprepositionalphrase(PP)23.SurfaceanddeepstructuresTherearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaordancewiththehead'ssub-categorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(orD-structure).Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).24.Semantics4.1.Definition:Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning.4.2SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningA.ThenamingtheoryThistheorywasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Itmeansthatthewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Twolimitations:　　(1)Applicabletonounsonly　　(2)Nounsdonotalwaysdenoteexistingthingsanddonotalwaysrefertophysicalobjects.B.ConceptualistviewThisviewrelateswordsandthingsthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,in\ntheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.C.ContextualismTheyholdthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context--elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.J.R.Firth,heldtheviewthat'Weshallknowawordbythepanyitkeeps,'andthat'Byregardingwordsasacts,events,habits,welimitourinquirytowhatisobjectiveinthegrouplifeofourfellows."Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguistiontext.D.BehaviorismThistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.ThisviewofmeaningproposedbyBloomfieldisillustratedbyhisstoryaboutJackandJill,representedbythefigurebelow.4.3Lexicalmeaning4.3.1senseandreferenceSenseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarypilersareinterestedin.Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.4.3.2majorsenserelations4.3.2.1synonymyWordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Englishisrichinsynonymsforhistoricalreasons.IntheEnglishvocabularytherearetwocategoriesofwords:nativewordsand\nborrowed(loan)words.4.3.2.2PolysemyWhiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.4.2.3.3HomonymyHomonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophones（同音异义词）Homographs（同形异义词）Completehomonyms（完全同形异义词）4.3.2.4HyponymySuperordinate(上义词)Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate.Hyponyms（下义词）Themorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Co-hyponyms(并列下义词)Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.4.3.2.4AntonymyWordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.Gradableantonyms可分等级的反义词Complementaryantonyms互补反义词Relationalopposites关系反义词4.4Senserelationsbetweensentencesi.XissynonymouswithY.ii.XisinconsistentwithY.iii.XentailsY.(YisanentailmentofX.)iv.XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX.)v.Xisacontradiction.vi.Xissemanticallyanomalous4.5.analysisofmeaningponentialanalysis成分分析Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析25.SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningThenamingtheory:alsocalledthereferentialtheory.Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitreferstoorstandsfor.★problemswiththe\nnamingtheory:1)Thetheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworldatall.3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects,butabstractnotions.4)Somewordsmayhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentcontexts.5)Thesamereferencemayhavedifferentnames.(ThemorningstarVstheeveningstar)26.Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;Itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarypilersareinterestedin.2Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Peoplesuggestthatweshouldstudymeaningintermsofsenseratherthanreference.Why?1)Everywordhasasensebutnoteverywordhasareference.e.g.:but,if,anddonotrefertoanything.“god,ghost,dragon”refertoimaginarythings,whichdonotexistinreality.2)Itisnotconvenienttoexplainthemeaningofawordintermsofthethingitrefersto.Thethingawordstandsformaynotbeathandatthetimeofspeaking.3)Therearecaseswhenareferencecanbeexpressedbymorethanonesense.e.g.:”Eveningstar”and“morningstar”nearlyalwaysreferstoVenus.4)Some\nexpressionshavetheirreferencetotallydependentoncontext,eg:I,you,she.27.MajorSenseRelations1)Homonymy:Itreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth..2)Polysemy:Whiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.3)Hyponymy:Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.4)Homograph:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.28.Antonymy反义关系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。　　意义上相反的词叫反义词。　　a)Gradableantonyms分级反义词Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.一些反义词是级别上的对立，因为一对这样的反义词中间常有其它表示程度的词。　　意义相反实际上只是程度问题。　　示例Old和young是反义词，但它们代表两个极端，中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式，如middle-aged,mature,elderly.b)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词Apairofplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythe\nfeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.互补反义词具有这样的特征，否定其中一个就意味着肯定另一个。　　也就是说，是一个非此即彼、非彼即此的问题。　　示例Male/femalealive/deadc)Relationalopposites关系反义词Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.在意义上现实出逆向关系的一对词语叫关系反义词。　　示例Wife/husbandfather/sonteacher/pupildoctor/patientbuy/sellabove/below29.sente（）nceshavetheirownheads,theytakeanabstractcategoryinflectiondubbed‘lnfl’as（）theirheads,whichindicatesthesentence'tenseandagreement.InfltakesanNPthesubjectasits（图见页）specifierandaVPcategoryasitsplement.5030.predication谓述结构分析（句子间的逻辑关系）analysisApredicationconsistsofargumentsandpredicate.Beforelookingattheanalysisofsentencemeaning,twopointsaboutsentencemeaningneedbeclarified.First,themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitsponents,thatis,themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupthemeaningofallitsconstituentwords.Thesecondthingaboutsentencemeaningisthattherearetwoaspectstosentencemeaninggrammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.Predication\nanalysisproposedbytheBritishlinguistG.Leech.Inhisframeworkofanalysis,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofasentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargumentsandpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwithanominalelementinasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Forexamplethepredicationofthesentence‘Tomsmokes’issaidtoconsistoftheargument（）‘Tom’andthepredicate‘smoke’andthepredicationcanbewrittenasTomsmokeAlthoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsoftheponentialmakeupofasentence,theyhavedifferentrolesinthepredication.Thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement,foritincludestense,modalityetc,anditMayalsobesaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberandnatureofthearguments.31.Pragmaticspragmaticscanbedefinedinvariousways.Ageneraldefinitionisthatitisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuessfulmunication.pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.pragmaticsisaparativelynewbranchof\nstudyintheareaoflinguistics,itsdevelopmentandestablishmentinthe1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudyoflinguistics,especiallythatofsemantics.32.pragmaticsVSsemanticspragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudyofmeaning.whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics,ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.33.ContextItisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.34.sentencemeaning/utterancemeaningSentencemeaning:Themeaningofasentenceisoftenconsideredastheabstract，intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredicationutterancemeaning:Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete，andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning；itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofmunication，orsimplyinacontext.35.speechact:itisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherjohnAustininthelate50s0fthe20oflinguistiommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”36.Constatives/performativesConstativeswere\nstatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable;performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidn’tstateandwerenotverifiable.37.Locutionary/illocutionary/perlocutionaryactsthcentury.ItisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureAustin'smodelofspeechactsAordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:Locutionaryacttheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Illocutionaryacttheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Perlocutionaryacttheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.38.Representatives/directives/expressives/missives/declarationsRepresentatives/statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetruedirectives/tryingtogetthehearertodosomethingexpressives/mittingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofactionmissives/expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstatedeclarationsbringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething39.CooperativePrinciple:maxims/conversationalimplicatureAphilosopherand\nlogician,PaulGricemadeanattempttoexplainthecourseofnaturalconversation,inwhichimpliedmessagesarefrequentlyinvolved.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoursbytheaeptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Themaximofquantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange)2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofquality1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationBerelevantThemaximofmanner1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).4.Beorderly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons,butonlywhentheyare"flouted",touseGrice'sterm,does"conversationalimplicature"our.40.Additionofnewwords/lossofwords/changesinthemeaningofwordsWhenwesayoneknowsalanguage,wemeanheknowswhatwordsandmorphemesthereareinthatlanguage.Thesebasicunitsofmeaningconstitutethevocabulary,whichispartofthegrammar.Vocabulary\nchangecanincludea)additionofnewwordsCoinageClippedwordsBlendingAcronymsBack-formationFunctionalshiftBorrowingb)lossofwordsThelossofwordstakesplacegraduallyoverthecourseofseveralgenerationsc)changesinthemeaningofwordsWideningofmeaningNarrowingofmeaningMeaningshift41.Coinedword/clippedword/blend/acronymCoinage新造词、创新词Anewwordca...。　　　　内容仅供参考