英语语言学笔记 28页

此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除LinguisticsChapter1Introduction:LanguageandLinguisticslWhatislanguage?nDifferentdefinitionsoflanguageuLanguageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)u[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)uLanguageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.nEachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.nAsisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.lFeaturesofhumanlanguagenCreativityuLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.uThegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.nDualityuLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.uCertainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.uCertainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.nArbitrarinessuTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除uThereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.nDisplacementuThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.uLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.nCulturaltransmissionuCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.uLanguageisawayoftransmittingculture.nInterchangeabilityuAllmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.nReflexivityuHumanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.uThelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.lWhatislinguistics?nLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.uObserving&questioninguFormulatinghypothesesuVerifyingthehypothesesuProposingatheorynBranchesoflinguisticsuInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionslPhoneticslPhonologylMorphologylSyntaxlSemanticsuExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionslPragmaticslPsycholinguisticslSociolinguisticslAppliedlinguisticslComputationallinguisticslNeurolinguisticsnFeaturesoflinguisticsuDescriptiveuDealingwithspokenlanguageuSynchronic此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除Chapter2PhoneticslWhatisphonetics?nPhoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.nSub-branchesofphoneticsuArticulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsoundsuAcousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsuAuditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsoundslThespeechorgansnWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?uFromthelungnWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?uControllingtheairstreamnWhatarethecavities?uOralcavityuPharyngealcavityuNasalcavitylTranscriptionofspeechsoundsnUnitsofrepresentationuSegments(theindividualsounds)nPhoneticsymbolsuThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).uTheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.uInmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.lDescriptionofspeechsounds此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除nDescriptionofEnglishconsonantsuGeneralfeature:obstructionuCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionlPlacesofarticulationlMannersofarticulationlVoicingofarticulationuPlacesofarticulationlThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.nBilabial:[p][b][m][w]nLabiodental:[f][v]nInterdental:[W][T]nAlveolar:[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]nPalatal:[F][V][tF][dV][j]nVelar:[k][g][N]nGlottal:[h]uMannersofarticulationlThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.nStops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]nFricatives:[s][z][F][V][f][v][W][T][h]nAffricates:[tF][dV]nLiquids:[l][r]nGlides:[w][j]nNasals:[m][n][N]uVoicingofarticulationlThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.nVoicedsoundsnVoicelesssoundsnDescriptionofEnglishvowelsuGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionuCriteriaofvoweldescriptionlPartofthetonguethatisraisednFrontnCentralnBacklExtenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除nHighnMidnLowlKindofopeningmadeatthelipslPositionofthesoftpalateuSinglevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongsChapter3PhonologylWhatisphonology?nPhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.nPhonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.nPhonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.uWhatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?uWhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?uWhatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?lPhonemesandallophonesnAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.nThevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.nWeuseallophonestorealizephonemes.lDiscoveringphonemesnContrastivedistribution–phonemesuIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.uTypicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.lAminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.lMinimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除uTheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.uSomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.nComplementarydistribution–allophonesuSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.uIfsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.nFreevariationuIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.lDistinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesnFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.nDistinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.lPhonologicalrulesnPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.nWhatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.nTheregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.nTherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.l[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_l[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_lSuprasegmentalfeaturesnFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.nThesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.nStressuStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.uStressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormore此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除syllableshavestress.uIfawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.uInsomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.nIntonationuWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.uIntonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.uThesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.uInEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.nToneuToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.uThesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.uChineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Chapter4MorphologylWhatismorphology?nThetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.nWordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.nMorphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.lMorphemesandallomorphsnThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.nAmorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.n“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletivesuSomecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.uSomeverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelated此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除informtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.lFreeandboundmorphemesnSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.nOthermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.nThedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.nFreemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).lInflexionalandderivationalmorphemesnInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.nDerivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.uEnglishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.uSomelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.uTheprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.lConclusion:classificationofmorphemesnMorphemesuFreemorphemesuBoundmorphemeslInflexionallDerivational:affixesnPrefixes:-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-snSuffixeslFormationofnewwordsnDerivation此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除uDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.uSincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.uDerivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.uDerivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.uSomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.nCompoundinguCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.uThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.uIncompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.uThemeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.nConversionuConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.uConversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.nClippinguClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.uClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.uSomeclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.nBlendinguBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordin此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除thetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).nBack-formationuBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.nAcronymsandabbreviationsuAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.uAcronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.uThistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.nEponymsuEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.nCoinageuCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.uThiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.Chapter5SyntaxlWhatissyntax?nThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.nTraditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.nSyntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除lWhatisasentence?nSyntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.nAsequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguageknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.nSyntacticcategoriesuAsyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:lThechildfoundtheknife.lApolicemanfoundtheknife.lThemanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.lHefoundtheknife.uAlltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycallednounphrase(NP).Thenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubject.Theknife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.lStructuralgrammarnStructuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.nFormclassuFormclassisawiderconceptthanpartofspeechintraditionalgrammar.uLinguisticunitswhichcanappearinthesameslotaresaidtobeinthesameformclass.Forexample,a(n),the,my,that,every,etc.canbeplacedbeforenounsinEnglishsentences.Thesewordsfallintooneformclass.uTheselinguisticunitsareobservedtohavethesamedistribution.nImmediateconstituent(IC)analysisuStructuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysis.uAsentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.uExamples:此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除lOldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomenlThe|||little||girl|speaks||French.uInthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.lIwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.uTwoadvantagesofICanalysis:lItcananalyzesomeambiguities.lItshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.lTransformational-generative(TG)grammarnBackgroundandthegoalofTGgrammaruChomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.lAdequacyofobservationlAdequacyofdescriptionlAdequacyofexplanationuWritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.uTGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.nSyntacticcategoriesuNounPhrase(NP)uVerbPhrase(VP)uSentence(S)uDeterminer(Det)uAdjective(Adj)uPronoun(Pro)uVerb(V)uAuxiliaryVerb(Aux)uPrepositionalPhrase(PP)uAdverb(Adv)nPhrasestructure(PS)rulesuS→NPVP(Det)(Adj)NuNP→{Pro此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除uVP→(Aux)V(NP)(PP)uPP→PNPnTreediagrams(omit)nRecursionandtheinfinitudeoflanguageuScontainsNPandVPandthatSmaybeaconstituentofNPandVP.NPandPPcanbemutuallyinclusive.Ifphrasalcategoriesappearonbothsidesofthearrowinphrasestructurerules,therulesarerecursive.Recursiverulescanbeappliedagainandagain,andthephrasestructurecangrowendlessly.nSub-categorizationofthelexicon.uTheprocessofputtingwordsofthesamelexicalcategoryintosmallerclassesaccordingtotheirsyntacticcharacteristicsiscalledsub-categorization.nTransformationalrules(T-rules)uParticlemovementT-rulelJohnturnedthemachineoff.Johnturnedoffthemachine.uReplacementT-rulelJohnbeatTom.HebeatTom.lThehouseneedsrepairing(toberepaired).uInsertionT-rulelAfishisswimminginthepond.Thereisafishswimminginthepond.uDeletionT-rulelTheycameinand(they)satdown.uCopyingT-rulelHeiscoming,isn’the?lHehasfinishedhishomework,hasn’the?uReflexivizationT-rulelIwashme(myself).nTGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.Chapter6SemanticslWhatissemantics?nSemanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.However,itisnottheonlylinguisticdisciplinethatstudiesmeaning.此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除nSemanticsanswersthequestion“whatdoesthissentencemean”.Inotherwords,itistheanalysisofconventionalmeaningsinwordsandsentencesoutofcontext.lReferenceandsensenLinguisticexpressionsstandinarelationtotheworld.Therearetwoaspectsofmeaning.nReferenceistherelationbywhichawordpicksoutoridentifiesanentityintheworld.Butthereferentialtheoryfailstoaccountforcertainkindsoflinguisticexpression.uSomewordsaremeaningful,buttheyidentifynoentitiesintherealworld,suchasthewordsdragon,phoenix,unicorn,andmermaid.uItisnotpossibleforsomewordstofindreferentintheworld,suchasthewordsbut,and,of,however,the,etc.uSpeakersofEnglishunderstandthemeaningofaroundtrianglealthoughthereisnosuchgraph.nSenseistherelationbywhichwordsstandinhumanmind.Itismentalrepresentation,theassociationwithsomethinginthespeaker’sorhearer’smind.Thestudyofmeaningfromtheperspectiveofsenseiscalledtherepresentationalapproach.lClassificationoflexicalmeaningsnReferentialmeaning(denotativemeaning)–centralmeaningofwords,stable,universalnAssociativemeaning–meaningthathingesonreferentialmeaning,lessstable,moreculture-specificuConnotativemeaning–thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,embracesthepropertiesofthereferent,peripheraluSocialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)–whatisconveyedaboutthesocialcircumstancesoftheuseofalinguisticexpressionuAffectivemeaning–whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingorattitudeofthespeaker/writertowardswhatisreferredtouReflectedmeaning–whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressionlTaboosuCollocativemeaning–theassociatedmeaningawordacquiresinline此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除withthemeaningofwordswhichtendtoco-occurwithitlLexicalsenserelationsnSynonymyuSynonymsarewordswhichhavedifferentformsbutsimilarmeanings.lDialectalsynonyms–lift/elevator,flat/apartmentlSynonymsofdifferentstyles–gentleman/guylSynonymsofdifferentregisters–salt/sodiumchloridelSynonymsdifferinginaffectivemeaning–attract/seducelSynonymsdifferingincollocation–beautiful/handsome,able/capableuSynonymsarefrequentlyusedinspeakingandwritingasacohesivedevice.Inordertoavoidrepetitionthewriter/speakerneedstouseasynonymtoreplaceawordinthepreviousco-textwhenhe/shewantstocontinuetoaddressthatidea.Thesynonymstogetherfunctiontocreatecohesionofthetext.nAntonymyuAntonymsarewordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.lGradableantonyms–pairsofwordsoppositetoeachother,butthepositiveofoneworddoesnotnecessarilyimplythenegativeoftheother.Forexample,thewordshotandcoldareapairofantonyms,butnothotdoesnotnecessarilymeancold,maybewarm,mildorcool.Therefore,thispairofantonymsisapairofgradableantonyms.lComplementaryantonyms–wordsoppositetoeachotherandthepositiveofoneimpliesthenegativeoftheother:alive/deadlReversal(relational)antonyms–wordsthatdenotethesamerelationorprocessfromoneortheotherdirection:push/pull,up/down,teacher/studentuAntonymyisfrequentlyutilizedasarhetoricalresourceinlanguageuse.Oxymoronandantithesisbasedonantonymy.Gradableantonymsmaygiverisetofuzziness.nHomonymyuHomonymsarewordswhichhavethesameform,butdifferentmeanings.lHomographs–wordswhichareidenticalinspelling,butdifferentinmeaningandpronunciation:tear[tZE](v.)/tear[tiE](n.)lHomophones–wordswhichareidenticalinpronunciation,but此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除differentinspellingandmeaning:see/sealFullhomonyms–wordswhichareidenticalinspellingandpronunciation,butdifferentinmeaning:bear(v.togivebirthtoababy/tostand)/bear(n.akindofanimal)uRhetorically,homonymsareoftenusedaspuns.nPolysemyuApolysemeisawordwhichhasseveralrelatedsenses.uPolysemyisbasedontheintuitionofnativespeakersaswellastheetymologyorhistoryofwords.nHyponymyuHyponymyisarelationofinclusion.uTiger,lion,elephantanddogarehyponymsofthewordanimal.Wordslikeanimalarecalledsuperordinates.uThiskindofverticalsemanticrelationlinkswordsinahierarchicalwork.lComponentialanalysisnComponentialanalysisistheapproachthatanalyzewordmeaningbydecomposingitintoitsatomicfeatures.Itshowsthesemanticfeaturesofaword.nExamples:uMan:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULTuBoy:+HUMAN+MALE–ADULTuFather:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT→PARENTuDaughter:+HUMAN–MALE0ADULT←PARENTChapter7PragmaticslWhatispragmatics?nPragmaticscanbedefinedastheanalysisofmeaningincontext.nPragmaticanalysisofmeaningisfirstandforemostconcernedwiththestudyofwhatiscommunicatedbyaspeaker/writerandinterpretedbyalistener/reader.nAnalysisofintentionalmeaningnecessarilyinvolvestheinterpretationofwhatpeopledothroughlanguageinaparticularcontext.此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除nIntendedmeaningmayormaynotbeexplicitlyexpressed.Pragmaticanalysisalsoexploreshowlisteners/readersmakeinferencesaboutwhatiscommunicated.lWhatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwolinguisticstudiesofmeaning–semanticsandpragmatics?nSemanticsstudiesliteral,structuralorlexicalmeaning,whilepragmaticsstudiesnon-literal,implicit,intendedmeaning,orspeakermeaning.nSemanticsiscontextindependent,decontextualized,whilepragmaticsiscontextdependent,contextualized.nSemanticsdealswithwhatissaid,whilepragmaticsdealswithwhatisimplicatedorinferred.lDeixisandreferencenDeixisisawordoriginallyfromGreek.Itmeanspointingvialanguage.Anexpressionusedbyaspeaker/writertoidentifysomethingiscalleddeicticexpression.nOutofcontext,wecannotunderstandsentencescontainingdeicticexpressions,becausewedonotknowwhattheseexpressionsrefertorespectively.nAccordingtoreferentialcontent,deixiscanbeputintopersondeixis,placedeixis,timedeixisanddiscoursedeixis.uPersondeixis:I,we,you,me,he,etc.uPlacedeixis:here,there,above,over,this,that…lProximalanddistaltermsnProximaltermsareusedwhensomethingisclosetothespeaker,whiledistaltermswhensomethingisawayfromthespeaker.uTimedeixis:next…,by…,before…,etc.lTenses:codingtimeuDiscoursedeixislAnaphoric:backwardreferencelCataphoric:forwardreferencenThedeicticcentre–ego-centriccentrelSpeechactsnInlinguisticcommunication,peopledonotmerelyexchangeinformation.此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除Theyactuallydosomethingthroughtalkingorwritinginvariouscircumstances.Actionsperformedviaspeakingarecalledspeechacts.nPerformativesentencesuImplicitperformatives–It’scoldhere.uExplicitperformatives–Pleaseclosethedoor.nTypesofspeechactsuLocutionaryspeechact–theactionofmakingthesentenceuIllocutionaryspeechact–theintentionsuPerlocutionaryspeechact–theeffectsuOfthesedimensions,themostimportantistheillocutionaryact.nInlinguisticcommunicationpeoplerespondtoanillocutionaryactofanutterance,becauseitisthemeaningintendedbythespeaker.nIfateachersays,“Ihaverunoutofchalk”intheprocessoflecturing,theactofsayingislocutionary,theactofdemandingforchalkisillocutionary,andtheeffecttheutterancebringsabout–oneofthestudentswillgoandgetsomechalk–isperlocutionary.nInEnglish,illocutionaryactsarealsogivenspecificlabels,suchasrequest,warning,promise,invitation,compliment,complaint,apology,offer,refusal,etc.thesespecificlabelsnamevariousspeechfunctions.nAsfunctionsmaynotcorrespondtoforms,speechactscanbedirectandindirect.uSearle:twowaysofcommunication(performingacts)lDirectspeechact:Closethedoor.lIndirectspeechact:It’scoldinhere.uWhydopeopleoftenspeakindirectlyinsocialcommunication?lDifferentsocialvariables:age,sex,socialconditionlPoliteness:communicativestrategyuIndirectspeechactsarerelatedtoappropriateness.lIndirectspeechactsaremadeforpoliteness,notviceversa.Tomakeappropriatechoicesdoesnotnecessarilymeanindirectspeechacts.lCooperationandimplicaturenConversationalImplicatureuInourdailylife,speakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Inotherwords,whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenershaveto此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除assumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.Thissenseofcooperationissimplyoneinwhichpeoplehavingaconversationarenotnormallyassumedtobetryingtoconfuse,trick,orwithholdrelevantinformationfromoneanother.uHowever,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.Forexample:[1]A:Canyoutellmethetime?B:Well,themilkmanhascome.uInthislittleconversation,AisaskingBaboutthetime,butBisnotansweringdirectly.ThatindicatesthatBmayalsonotnotheaccuratetime,butthroughsaying“themilkmanhascome”,heisinfactgivingaroughtime.TheanswerBgivesisrelatedtotheliteralmeaningofthewords,butisnotmerelythat.Thatisoftenthecaseincommunication.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicatureisforthepurposeofexplaininghowlistenersinferthespeakers’intentionthroughthewords.uThestudyofconversationalimplicaturestartsfromGrice(1967),theAmericanphilosopher.Hethinks,indailycommunication,peopleareobservingasetofbasicrulesofcooperatingwitheachothersoastocommunicateeffectivelythroughconversation.Hecallsthissetofrulesthecooperativeprinciple(CP)elaboratedinfoursub-principles(maxims),thatisthecooperativeprinciple.nTheCooperativePrincipleuMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Themaximsare:lQuantitynMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).nDonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.lQuality–Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.nDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.nDonotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.lRelation–Berelevant.lManner–Beperspicuous.nAvoidobscurityofexpression.nAvoidambiguity.nBebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除nBeorderly.uWeassumethatpeoplearenormallygoingtoprovideanappropriateamountofinformation,i.e.theyaretellingtherelevanttruthclearly.ThecooperativeprinciplegivenbyGriceisanidealizedcaseofcommunication.uHowever,therearemorecasesthatspeakersarenotfullyadheringtotheprinciples.Butthelistenerwillassumethatthespeakerisobservingtheprinciples“inadeeperdegree”.Forexample:[1]A:WhereisBill?B:ThereisayellowcaroutsideSue’shouse.uIn[2],thespeakerBseemstobeviolatingthemaximsofquantityandrelation,butwealsoassumethatBisstillobservingtheCPandthinkabouttherelationshipbetweenA’squestionandthe“yellowcar”inB’sanswer.IfBillhasayellowcar,hemaybeinSue’shouse.uIfaspeakerviolateCPbytheprincipleitself,thereisnoconversationatall,sotherecannotbeimplicature.Implicaturecanonlybecausedbyviolatingoneormoremaxims.nFourCasesof“Violating”themaximsgivenbyGriceandConversationalImplicatureuThepeopleinconversationmayviolateoneormoremaximssecretly.Inthisway,hemaymisleadthelistener.lForthiscase,intheconversation[2]above,weassumethatBisobservingtheCPandBillhasayellowcar.ButifBisintentionallytryingtomisleadAtothinkthatBillisinSue’shouse,wewillbemisledwithoutknowing.Inthiscase,ifone“lies”inconversation,thereisnoimplicatureintheconversation,onlythemisleading.uHemaydeclarethatheisnotobservingthemaximsortheCP.lInthiskindofsituation,thespeakerdirectlydeclaresheisnotcooperating.Hehasmadeitclearthathedoesnotwanttogoonwiththeconversation,sothereisnoimplicatureeither.uHemayfallintoadilemma.Forexample,forthepurposeobservingthefirstprincipleofthemaximofquantity(makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired),hemaybeviolatingthesecondprincipleofthemaximofquality(donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence).lForthiscase,Gricegaveanexample:[2]A:WheredoesClive?B:SomewhereinthesouthofFrance.lIn[3],ifBknowsthatAisgoingtovisitC,hisanswerisviolating此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除themaximofquantity,becauseheisnotgivingenoughinformationaboutwhereClives.Buthehasnotdeclaredthathewillnotobservethemaxims.SowecanknowthatBknowsifhegivesmoreinformation,hewillviolatetheprinciple“donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence”.Inotherwords,hehasfallenintoa“dilemma”.SowecaninferthathisimplicatureisthathedoesnotknowtheexactaddressofC.Inthiscase,thereisconversationalimplicature.uHemay“flout”oneormoremaxims.Inotherwords,hemaybeobviouslynotobservingthem.lThelastsituationisthetypicalcasethatcanmakeconversationalimplicature.Oncetheparticipantinaconversationhasmadeanimplicature,heorsheismakinguseoneofthemaxims.Wecanseethatfromthefollowingexamples:[1]A:Whereareyougoingwiththedog?B:TotheV-E-T.lIn[4],thedogisknowntobeabletorecognizetheword“vet”andtohatebeingtakenthere.Therefore,Amakesthewordspelledout.Hereheis“flouting”themaximofmanner,makingtheimplicaturethathedoesnotwantthedogtoknowtheanswertothequestionjustasked.[2](Inaformalget-together)A:Mrs.Xisanoldbag.B:Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthissummer,hasn’tit?lBisintentionallyviolatingthemaximofrelationin[5],implicatingthatwhatAhassaidistoorudeandheshouldchangeatopic.lConversationalimplicatureChapter8LanguageinSocialContextslWhatissociolinguistics?nThesociolinguisticstudyoflanguageuLanguageinrelationtosocietyuDiversityoflanguage,variationbetweensocietiesorwithinasocietynThedistinctionbetween“language”and“alanguage”uTrytoanswerthefollowingthreequestions:此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除lCanlanguagebedefinedintermsofgeography?lCanlanguagebedefinedintermsofnationality?lShouldlanguagebedefinedbymutualintelligibility?uTheanswertothesequestionsshouldallbeno.Alllanguagesareequal.Ifyoudefinelanguageintermsofthesefactors,youarespeakingof“alanguage”.lVarietiesoflanguagenAlanguagevariesaccordingtothefollowingfactors:uSituationuGeographicalareasuSocialfactorsuPurposesandsubjectmattersuTime(throughwhichthelanguagedevelops)nGeographicalvarietiesandregionaldialectsuWhat’stherelationshipbetweenaregionaldialectandthenationalstandardspeech?lAregionaldialectisavarietyofthenationalstandardspeech.uAccentlPronunciation:lSpelling:-our/-orlVocabulary:lGrammar:haveyou/doyouhave…uSocialvarietieslSociolectsareformsofalanguagethatcharacterizethespeechofdifferentsocialclasses.lAsocialvarietyisavarietyoflanguagebroughtaboutbythesocialfactors.lLanguageplaystheroleofasocialindicator.lSocialclassesandvariationnGrammar:thirdpersonsingularnPronunciation:popularcontractedformslSexandvariationnWomentendtospeakmorestandard,decentvariation.nWomentendtomakeoverstatements,especiallywhenmakingcomment.nWomenprefertousecertainadjectiveswhicharenotusednormally.此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除nWomentendtoavoidtheuseofvulgarwords.nWomentendtousecertainexpressionstoshowhappinessorsurprise.lAgeandvariationlRaceandvariationnRacialdifferencenBlackEnglish-Pronunciation-GrammarlTemporaldialectsnStandarddialectandidiolectuStandarddialectisthehighestprestigeinasocietyoranation.Itisusuallybasedonthewell-educatedspeech.lItisusedinnewsmediaandliterature.lItisdescribedindictionariesandgrammarbooks.lItistaughtinschoolsandtonon-nativelearners.uIdiolectisthelanguagesystemofanindividual.Itisone’sparticularwayofspeakingand/orwriting.nRegister–situationalvarietyuRegisterisaspeechvarietywhichchangesaccordingtothesituationwherelanguageisused.Usuallyitissharedbyagroupofpeople,suchaslawyers,doctors,stampcollectors,etc.uToknowhowtousearegistermeanstoknowhowtouselanguageappropriately.uRegisterisanalyzedonthreedimensions:field,modeandtenor.Fieldisconcernedwithwhyandaboutwhatwecommunicate;modeisrelatedtohowwecommunicate;tenorisaboutwithwhomwecommunicate.lFormalitynFrozennFormalnConsultativenCasualnIntimatelLanguageincontactnThroughouthistorynonaturallanguageispureorfreefromtheinfluenceof此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除otherlanguages.Duetotrade,war,colonizationandothercauseslanguagesmaycomeintocontact.Whenthisoccurs,mixedcodesmaycomeintobeing,whicharecalledpidginsandcreoles.uThetermpidginisthelabelforthecodeusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguages.Apidginisnotthenativelanguageofanygroup.uAcreoleisamixedlanguagewhichhasbecomethemothertongueofaspeechcommunity.nBilingualismandmultilingualismarenormalinmanypartsoftheworldtoday.nBilingualismgivesrisetocode-switchingandcode-mixing.Theformerreferstothefactthataspeakerchangesfromonelanguagetotheotherindifferentsituationsorwhentalkingaboutdifferenttopics.Thelatterreferstothechangefromonelanguagetotheotherlanguagewithinthesameutterance.lTaboosandeuphemismsnTabooreferstoaprohibitionontheuseof,mentionof,orassociationwithparticularobjects,actions,orpersons.Euphemismisanexpressionthatsubstitutesonewhichmaybeseenasoffensiveordisturbingtotheaddressee.nTabooandeuphemismareactuallytwosidesofthesamecoin.nWhatistabooornottaboodependsonthecontext.lAbriefintroductiontoahottopicnowadays:languageandculturenWhatisculture?uNatureismaterial,whilecultureisspiritual.uLinguisticrelativitynLanguageispartofculture,acarrierofculture.uLanguageisaproductofoursociallife.uLanguageistheprincipalmeanbywhichcultureispasseddown.uLanguagereflectsthewayofthinking.Mentalactivitiesdependonlinguisticactivity.nSapir-Whorfhypothesis(relationshipbetweenlanguageandculture)uDeterminismlLanguagedeterminesourwayofthinking.uRelativism(linguisticrelativity)此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除lCompetencenLinguisticcompetence:grammaticality,presentedbyChomskynCommunicativecompetence:fourcomponentsuGrammaticalityuAcceptabilityuAppropriatenessuEffectivenessChapter9SecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA)lWhatisSLA?nWhatislanguageacquisition?uThenaturalprocessofchildren’slanguagedevelopment.uItisdifferentfromlanguagelearning.uFourstagesoflanguageacquisitionlBabbling–holophrastic–two-word–telegraphicnWhatissecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)?uSLAislearningalanguageinF2(thelanguagebeinglearnt)languageenvironment.uItisdifferentfromforeignlanguagelearning,whichislearningalanguageinF1languageenvironment.uThemajordifferenceistheenvironment.nForeignlanguageteaching(FLT)andsecondlanguageteaching(SLT)nSLAtheorylFactorsaffectingSLAnExternalfactors:socialfactorsuSocialdemanduLanguagepolicynInternalfactors:learnerfactorsuMotivationlInstrumentallIntegrativeuAgeuLearningstrategy此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除lCognitivenRepetitionnTranslationnNote-takinglMetacognitivenOrganizingnSelf-monitoringnSelf-evaluationuPersonalityuAttitudelAnalysisoflearners’languagenWhyanalyze?uLearners’languageprovidesdataforresearchintothenatureofthelearningprocess.Inordertogaininsightintotheprocess,researchershaveengagedintheanalysisoflearners’language.nHowtoanalyze?uContrastiveanalysislComparethetargetlanguagewiththemothertongue.uErroranalysislIdentifyingerrorsnErrorsareduetothefaultinknowledgeofthespeaker,whilemistakesarebecauseofunsuccessfulperformance.lDescribingerrorsnOmission-Hecameinto_classroomwithabookin_hand.nAddition/wordy-Mychildgoestohisschool.nSelection-Ihope/wish…nDisordering-Iyesterdaywentto…(I,yesterday,wentto…/Iwentto…yesterday)lExplainingerrorsandanalyzingreasonnInterlingualfactors-Mothertongue’sinfluencenIntralingualfactors-Overgeneralization此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除-Simplification-Cross-associationlLimitationforerroranalysisnFailtoseewhatlearners’languagewillbelikeifwefocusontheerrors.uInterlanguagelApproximatelanguagesystemlTransitionallanguagelLanguagetransfer–toborrowlanguagefromL1nPositivetransfer:L1doeshelpnNegativetransfer:L1misleadslLearnersextendpatternsbyanalogy–overgeneralizedmistakes(overextension).lCommunicativestrategylExplainingSLAnNativisttheoriesuChomsky:LADsystemuKrashen:monitortheoryuInputhypothesis(i+1hypothesis)nEnvironmentalisttheoriesuCulturalawarenessuTheoreticalperspective(languageoutlook)uConfidenceandcompetencenFunctionalisttheoriesuLanguageuseuCommunicativestrategies(CS)Chapter10LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeaching(FLT)lFLTasasystemnGovernmentplanningnSyllabusdesignandmaterialdevelopmentnClassroomteaching此文档仅供学习与交流\n此文档收集于网络，如有侵权，请联系网站删除nEvaluationlContributionoflinguistics:applicationsandimplicationsnApplicationsuLinguisticdescriptioncanbedirectlyusedasinputintosyllabusandmaterialdevelopment.nImplicationsuThereisanindirectrelationshipbetweenlinguisticsandFLT.lContents:whattoteach?lMethodology:howtoteach?uWhatwelearnfromacertaintheoryishelpfulindecidingthose.lTheroleofateachernOrganizernLanguageuser此文档仅供学习与交流