语言学分支介绍 63页

InvitationstoLinguisticsLanguageLinguisticsDesignfeaturesFunctionsofLanguageBranchesofLinguisticsImportantdistinctionsinLinguistics\nInvitationstoLinguisticsDesignfeatures:thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguagesofanimals.Function:therolelanguageplaysincommunicationorinparticularsocialsituations.\nDesignFeaturesArbitrariness:theabsenceofanyphysicalcorrespondencebetweenlinguisticsignalsandtheentitiestowhichtheyrefer.Duality:thestructuralorganizationoflanguageintotwoabstractlevels:meaningfulunitsandmeaninglesssegments.Displacement:theabilityoflanguagetorefertocontextsremovedfromthespeaker’simmediatesituation.\nFunctionsofLanguagePhaticcommunion:saidoftalkusedtoestablishatmosphereormaintainsocialcontact.Metalanguage:alanguageusedfortalkingaboutlanguage.\nDistinctionsinLinguisticsSynchroniclinguistics:thestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.Diachroniclinguistics:thestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.\nDistinctionsinLinguisticsPrescriptive:tomakeauthoritarianstatementaboutthecorrectnessofaparticularuseoflanguage.Descriptive:tomakeanobjectiveandsystematicaccountofthepatternsanduseofalanguageorvariety.\nDistinctionsinLinguisticsLangue:theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.Parole:theconcreteutterancesofaspeaker.\nDistinctionsinLinguisticsLanguagecompetence:theidealuser’sknowledgeofrulesofhislanguage,thatis,ofitssoundstructure,itswordsanditsgrammaticalrules.Atransformational–generativegrammarisamodeloflanguagecompetence.Languageperformance:thelanguageactuallyusedbypeopleinspeakingorwriting.\nSpeechSoundsPhoneticsPhonologyDescriptionandclassificationofconsonantsandvowelsBasicconcepts:phone,phoneme,allophonePhonologicalprocesses:assimilationSuprasegmentals:syllable,stress,intonation,tone\nPhoneticsPhonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Itcanbedividedintothreemainareasofstudyarticulatoryphonetics,acousticphoneticsandperceptual/auditoryphonetics.Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds,orthestudyofhowspeechsoundsareproduced.\nPhoneticsVowel:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.Consonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.\nPhoneticsMannerofarticulation:waysinwhicharticulationofconsonantscanbeaccomplished-(a)thearticulartorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;(b)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;or(c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.Placeofarticulation:thepointwhereanobstructiontotheflowofairismadeinproducingaconsonant.\nPhoneticsVoicing:thevibrationofthevocalfolds.Whenthevocalfoldsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachotherandtheresultantsoundissaidtobe“voiced”.Whenthevocalfoldsareapartandtheaircanpassthrougheasily,thesoundproducedissaidtobe“voiceless”.\nPhoneticsCardinalvowels:asetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.\nPhoneticsIPA:astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonictranscription,itsbasicprincipleisusingadifferentletterforeachdistinguishablespeechsound.Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsandthediacritics.\nPhoneticsCoarticulation:simultaneousoroverlappingarticulations,aswhenthenasalqualityofanasalsoundaffectstheprecedingorfollowingsoundsothatthelatterbecomesnasalized.Iftheaffectedsoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation,ifthesoundshowtheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticution.\nPhonologyPhonology:thestudyofsoundsystem-theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.\nPhonologyPhoneme:Itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Itisaunitofexplicitsoundcontrast.Allophone:Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Phone:aphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Itisaspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.\nPhonologyMinimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.\nPhonologyAssimilation:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound,atermoftenusedsynonymouslywith“coarticulation”.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,itiscalledregressive“assimilation”;theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownprogressive“assimilation.”\nPhonologySuprasegmentalfeatures:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeatureincludestress,intonationandtone.\nPhonologySyllable:animportantunitinthestudyofsuprasegmentals.Asyllablemusthaveanucleusorpeak,whichisoftenthetaskofavowelorpossiblythatofasyllabicconsonant,andofteninvolvesanoptionalsetofconsonantsbeforeand/orafterthenucleus.\nPhonologyMaximalonsetprinciple:aprinciplefordividingthesyllableswhenthereisaclusterofconsonantsbetweentwovowels,whichstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.\nPhonologyStress:thedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Whenasyllableisproducedwithmoreforceandisthereforemore“prominent”,itisa“stressed”syllableincontrasttoalessprominent,“unstressed”syllable.\nPhonologyIntonation:theoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Tone:asetoffall-risepatternsaffectinghemeaningsofindividualwords.\nMorphologyTypesofMorphemesInflectionandWordFormationFreemorphemesvs.BoundmorphemesAffixes,InflectionalAffixesandDerivationalAffixesRoot,Stem\nMorphologyMorphology:abranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morpheme:thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulcomponentsofwords.\nMorphologyFreemorpheme:Freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelybythemselves.Boundmorpheme:arethosemorphemesthatcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.\nMorphologyRoot:Arootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalysedwithouttotallossofidentity.Stem:Astemistheexistingformtowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.Affix:Themorphemesthatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Naturally,affixesbelongtothetypeof“bound”morphemes.\nMorphologyInflection:Themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,person,finiteness,aspectandcasestowhichtheyareattached.Derivation:themanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.\nSyntaxSyntacticrelationsGrammaticalconstructionanditsconstituentsSyntacticfunctionCategorySyntacticunitsExtensionofsentences\nSyntaxSyntax:thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.Sentence:astructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.\nSyntaxConstruction:Itreferstoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningoruseconstructcontains.Itcanfurtherdividedintotheexternalandinternalproperties.E.g.Theboykickedtheball.Theexternalsyntaxisanindependentclause,whileNP(“theboy”),VP(“”kicked)andNP(“theball”)willbeassignedrespectivelytothedifferentelementsintheclause.\nSyntaxConstituent:Itisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.E.g.Theboyatetheapple,S(A),theboy(B),atetheapple(C),eachpartisaconstituent.Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits.Iftwoconstituents,inthecaseoftheexampleabove,B(theboy)andC(atetheapple,)arejoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA,thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA.\nSyntaxEndocentric:Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCentreorHead.Inthephrasetwoprettygirls,girlsisthecentreorHeadofthisphraseorwordgroup.\nSyntaxExocentric:Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Center”or“Head”insidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.InthesentenceTheboysmiled,neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentenceasawhole.\nSyntaxCoordination:AcommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesisformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butoror.Thisphenomenonisknownascoordination.Intheconstructiontheladyorthetiger,bothNPstheladyandthetigerhaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.\nSyntaxSubordination:Itreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.ThusthesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.Inthephraseswimminginthelake,swimmingistheheadandinthelakearethewordsmodifyingthehead.\nSyntaxEmbedding:Embeddingreferstothemeansbywhichoneclauseisincludedinanotherclauseinsyntacticsubordination.E.g.Isawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyear.\nSyntaxRecursiveness:Itmainlymeansthataconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butitcanbeusedtoanymeanstoextendanyconstituent.Togetherwithopenness,recursivenessisthecoreofcreativityoflanguage.E.g.“Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew”.\nSyntaxCategory:Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,andsoon.\nSemanticsSenserelationsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyPolysemyHomonymy\nSemanticsSemantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Conceptualmeaning:ThisisthefirsttypeofmeaningrecognizedbyLeech,whichhedefinedasthelogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.Inotherwords,itoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionofreference.ButLeechalsouses“sense”asabriefertermforthisconceptualmeaning.Asaresult,Leech’sconceptualmeaninghastwosides:senseandreference.\nSemanticsDenotation:Inthephilosopher’susage,denotationinvolvestherelationshipbetweenalinguisticunitandthenon-linguisticentitiestowhichitrefers.Thusitisequivalenttoreferentialmeaning.Forexample,thedenotationofhumanisanypersonsuchasJohnandMary.Connotation:Inthephilosopher’susage,connotation,oppositetodenotation,meansthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.Forexample,theconnotationofhumanis“biped”,“featherless”,“rational”,etc.\nSemanticsSense:Itisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Reference:Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.\nSemanticsSynonymy:Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Polysemy:Itreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.\nSemanticsHomonymy:Itreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,I.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophones:refertotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.Homographs:refertotwowordsareidenticalinspelling.E.g.tearv./tearn.\nSemanticsHyponymy:Itreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.\nSemanticsAntonymy:Itisthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimensions.Gradableantonymy:Itisthesenserelationbetweentwoantonymswhichdifferintermsofdegree.Thereisanintermediategroundbetweenthetwo.Thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Somethingwhichisnot“good”isnotnecessarily“bad”.Itmaysimplybe“so-so”or“average”.\nSemanticsComplementaryantonomy:Itisthesenserelationbetweentwoantonymswhicharecomplementarytoeachother.Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother.NotonlyHeisalivemeans“Heisnotdead”,Heisnotalivealsomeans“Heisdead”.\nSemanticsConverseantonymy:Itisaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.XbuyssomethingfromYmeansthesameasYsellssomethingtoX.XistheparentofYmeansthesameasYisthechildofX.Itisthesamerelationshipseenfromtwodifferentangles.\nSemanticsRelationalopposites:Thisisanothernameforconverseantonyms.Asconverseantonymyistypicallyseeninreciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelations,temporalandspatialrelations,theseantonymsarealsoknownasrelationalopposites.\nSemanticsComponentialanalysis:Itisawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.\nSemanticsPredicationanalysis:Itisanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredandimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsetc.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argumentandpredicate.\nPragmaticsSpeechActTheoryTheTheoryofConversationalImplicature\nPragmaticsPragmatics:Itisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics;itsdevelopmentandestablishmentinthe1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudyoflinguistics,especiallythatofsemantics.Ageneraldefinitionofpragmaticsisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication,.Thescopeofpragmaticstudyincludes“speechacttheory”,“context”,“principleofconversation”etc.\nPragmaticsContext:Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeoflanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.\nPragmaticsSentencemeaning:Themeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Utterance:Itreferstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication.Itbecomesanutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered.\nPragmaticsPerformative:Aperformativeisasentencelike“InamethisshipthequeenElizabeth”,whichdoesnotdescribethingsandcannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteringofaperformativesentenceis,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.Verbslike“name”areknownasperformativeverbs.\nPragmaticsConstative:Incontrasttoperformative,sentenceslike“Ipoursomeliquidintothetube”isadescriptionofwhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.Thespeakercannotpouranyliquidintoatubebysimplyutteringthesewords.Hemustaccompanyhiswordswiththeactualpouring.Otherwiseonecanaccusehimofmakingafalsestatement.\nPragmaticsLocutionaryact:Itistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactperformedofsayingsomething.Illocutionaryact:Itistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Perlocutionaryact:Itistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.\nPragmaticsCo-operativeprinciple:It,proposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Theprinciplehasthefollowingfourmaxims:1)themaximofquantity2)themaximofquality3)themaximofrelation4)themaximofmanner\nPragmaticsConversationalimplicature:Thisisatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.Inthissense,implicatureiscomparabletoillocutionaryforceinspeechacttheoryinthattheyarebothconcernedwiththecontextualsideofmeaning,or言外之意inChinese.