现代语言学自考资料 36页

※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※第一章绪论1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.\nModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.4/Whatislanguage?语言的定义Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Sapiruses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.5/Designfeatures语言的甄别性特征Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.Arbitrariness语言的随意性Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnot\nentirelyarbitrary.Example:differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Productivity语言的创造性Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Duality语言的二重性Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Displacement语言的移位性Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Culturaltransmission语言的文化传递性Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter2Phonology音系学1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage语言的声音媒介Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage(语言的声音媒介).Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.2．Whatisphonetics?什么是语音学？Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Therearethreebranchesofphonetics.Theyare:Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthe\nspeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.3.Organsofspeech发音器官Thepharyngealcavity咽腔thethroatTheoralcavity口腔themouthThenasalcavity鼻腔thenoseTheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinmanyways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynx(喉)beforeitreachesanyofthecavities.Lyingacrosstheglottis(声门)arethevocalcords(声带).Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”.Thespeedofthevibrationdeterminesthepitchofthesound.Thetongueisthemostflexibleintheoralcavity.4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols(字母符号)only,calledbroadtranscription(宽式音标).Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符号),callednarrowtranscription(窄式音标).实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类\na)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants英语辅音的分类按发音方式分Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricative擦音：[f][v][s][z][W][T][s][V][h]Affricate塞擦音：[tF][dV]Liquid流音：[l][r]Nasal鼻音：[m][n][N]Glide滑音：[w][j]按发音部位分Bilabial双唇音：[p][b][m][w]Labiodental唇齿音：[f][v]Dental齿音：[W][T]Alveolar齿龈音：[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]Velar软腭音：[k][g][N]Glottal声门音：[h]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels英语元音的分类按舌头在口中的位置分：Frontvowel前元音：[i:][i][e][A][a]Centralvowel中元音：[[:][[][Q]Backvowel后元音：[u:][u][R:][R][a:]按口形的大小分：Closevowel闭元音：[i:][i][u:][u]Semi-closevowel半闭元音：[e][[:]Openvowel开元音：[A][a]Semi-openvowel半开元音：[[][R:][Q][R][a:]按唇形是否为圆分Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：[i:][i][e][A][a][[:][[][Q][a:]roundedvowel圆唇元音：[u:][u][R:][R]按语音的长短分Longvowel长元音[i:][[:][a:][u:][R:]Shortvowel短元音[i][e][A][a][[][Q][u][R]在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：[ei][ai][[u][au][Ri][i[][e[][u[]3.Phonology音系学Phonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;\nPhonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.Example:单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。3.Phone,phoneme,andallophone语音（音素）、音位、音位变体Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p//t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p][t].Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.4.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theformeriscalledphonemiccontrast,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。Thelatteriscalledcomplementarydistribution;theyaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.如top中的送气的[p]和stop中不送气的[p]。Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.如[pen]和[ben]。5.Somerulesinphonology几条音系规则\nA)sequentialrules系列规则Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.B)assimilationrules同化规则Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.C)deletionrules省略规则Theruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.3.Suprasegmentalfeatures-stress,tone,intonation超切分特征：重音、声调和语调Distinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.A)Stress重音B)Tone声调C)Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter3Morphology形态学Definition定义Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。1.Morpheme语素Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage语言最小的意义单位。Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.\n语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。1.Typesofmorphemes语素的分类a)Freemorphemes自由语素Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.b)Boundmorphemes黏着语素Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.2.Typesofboundmorphemes黏着语素的分类Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes词根和词缀。Arootisoftenseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名词复数-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示过去时-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示进行时-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名词的所有格Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。实例：Tolerate词根toler-＋词缀-ate\nQuickly自由语素quick＋词缀-lyCarelessness自由语素care＋词缀-less形成的派生词careless＋词缀-nessAffixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixesandsuffixes前缀和后缀Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”.Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestem,theymodify=ythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.1.Morphologicalrules形态学规则Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.2.Typesofcompoundwords复合词的类型Noun+noun名词＋名词如：handbook,sunshineAdjective+noun形容词＋名词如：highway,sweetheartAdjective+noun+ed形容词＋名词＋ed如：white-haired,green=eyedVerb+noun动词＋名词如：pickpocket,drivewayAdverb+noun副词＋名词如：downtown,upgradeNoun+verb名词＋动词如：toothpick,snowfallVerb+adverb动词＋副词如：follow-up,kick-offNoun+adjective名词＋形容词如：world-famous,life-long-ingform+noun-ing形式＋名词如：dining-room,reading-glassesOtherforms其它形式如：go-between,father-in-law,upbringing,have-nots,thank-younote3.Featuresofcompounds1)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.如armchair,follow-up,thunderbird2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：follow-up,crackdown,kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick,snowfall,facelift都是名词而不是动词。3)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.如hotdog,greenhouse等。4)Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethe\nsecondelementreceivessecondarystress.如runningdog重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter4Syntax句法学1．WhatisSyntax?Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreek.Itliterallymeantarrangement.Itmeansthatsentencesarestructuredaccordingtoaparticulararrangementofwords.Well-arrangedsentencesareconsideredgrammaticalsentences.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.2.Syntaxasasystemofrules句法是规则系统Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsfallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.3.Thebasiccomponentsofasentence句子的构成Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubject（主语）anditspredicate（谓语）whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.Thereferringexpression（被指称的对象）,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,isgrammaticallycalledsubject.Asubjectisusuallyanounoranounphrase.Thepartofsentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.4．Typesofsentence句子的类型a)Thesimplesentence简单句Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.b)Thecoordinatesentence并列句Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausejoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”but””or”.c)Thecomplexsentence复合句Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thatis,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.\n5.Thelinearwordorderofasentence句子的线性词序Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.6.Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence句子的层次结构Thesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature.7.Treediagramsofsentencestructure句子结构树形图Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.8.Lexicalcategories词类Wordsareorganizedintogroupsoflexicalcategories,commonlyknownaspartsofspeech.Alanguagehasmajorandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesthatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosedcategoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesisfixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Englishhasfourmajorlexicalcategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories.主要词类：Noun(N)名词：studentVerb(V)动词：likeAdjective(Adj)形容词：tallAdverb(Adv)副词：loudly次要词类：Determiner(Det)限定词：the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux)助动词：can,do,willPreposition(Prep)介词：in,at,overPronoun(Pron)代词：he,she,us,mineConjunction(Conj)连词：and,or,but,whileInterjection(Int)感叹词：oh,ah,eh9.Phrasalcategories词组类型Fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP).NPandVPareessentialcomponentsofasentence,comprisingthesubjectandpredicate.Importantnote:NPjustcontainanoun,VPjustcontainaverb,PPjustcontainaprepositionandAPjustcontainanadjective.10.Grammaticalrelations语法关系\nThestructuralandlogicalfunctionrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.InEnglishandmanyotherlanguages,thesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.Strictlyspeaking,thisstatementistrueonlyintermsofthestructuralsubject（结构主语）andthestructuralobject（结构宾语）.Thelogicalsubject（逻辑主语）andthelogicalobject（逻辑宾语）mayhavedifferentpositions.11.Phrasalstructurerules短语结构规则Thecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrasestructuralrule,orrewriterule.Example1:S→NPVP.Thearrowisreadas“consistof”,or“isrewrittenas”。Theruleis:asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase.Example2:NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)Anounphraseconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anoptionaldeterminer,anoptionaladjective,anobligatorynoun,anoptionalprepositionalphrase,and/oranoptionalsentence.Example3:VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)AP→A(PP)(S)PP→PNP12.Therecursivenessofphrasestructurerules短语结构规则的循环性Significantly,theserulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Althoughtheserulesarepartoftherulesandregulationsofthegrammar,theysufficetoexplainhowlanguageis“creative”,andhowspeakerswith“finite”mindshavetheabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitesetofsentences.Thatis,therecursivepropertycapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.13.X-bartheoryX标杆理论NP/VP/AP/PPallmustcontainoneobligatoryword,wecallXP.ThismeansthatXPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP/VP/AP/PPandXstandsforN/V/A/P.Therulemodifiedas:XP→(Specifier)X(Complement).14.Syntacticmovementandmovementrules句法位移和移位规则a)NPmovement名词词组位移NP-movementoccurswhenasentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Example:Themanbeatthechild./Thechildwasbeatenbytheman.NotallNP-movementarerelatedtochangingasentencefromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Example:Itseemstheyarequitefitforthejob./Theyseemquitefitforthejob.NP“they”hasmovedfromthesubjectpositionoftheembeddedclausetothematrixclause.\na)WHmovementWH位移WH-movementisobligatoryinEnglishwhichchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.WH-movementissyntacticallyrequiredwhenthesentencechangesfromastatementintoaquestion.b)Othertypesofmovement其它类型的位移（1）Generalquestions(一般疑问句)inEnglishmayalsoinvolvesyntacticmovementwithAUX-movement.AUX-movementisthemovementofanauxiliaryverb,suchasbe/have/do/will/can/should,tothesentence-initialposition.Example:SheisanEnglishprofessor./IssheanEnglishprofessor?（2）Forstylisticpurposes,apost-verbadjectiveinanadverbialclausebeginningwith“though”mayproposetothesentenceinitialposition.Example:Thoughshewassick,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren./Sickthoughshewas,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren.15.D-structureandS-structure深层结构和表层结构Whatsyntacticmovementsuggestsforthestudyofthegrammaristhatasentencestructuremayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation,onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,andtheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationsarecommonlytermedasD-structure(thedeepstructure)andS-structure(thesurfacestructure).Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-structure.Sincesyntacticmovementdoesnotoccurtoallsentences,theD-structureandS-structureofsomesentenceslookexactlythesameatdifferentlevelsofrepresentation.16.Moveα–ageneralmovementrule移动α规则Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,thatis,theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveAlpha.AlphaisaGreeksymbolusedheretorepresentanyconstituent,andwhatMoveAlphasaysis“moveanyconstituenttoanyplace”.Itistoopowerful,sothegrammarshouldincludesomeconditionswhichwillrestrainthemovementpoweroftheruleandwhichwillstimulatethatonly“certainconstituents”canmovetoonly“certainpositions.”17．Theoryofuniversalgrammar普遍语法理论Sinceearly1980sNoamChomskydevelopedatheoryofuniversalgrammar(UG)knowastheprinciple-an-parameterstheory.UGisasystemoflinguisticknowledgeandahumanspecies-specificgiftwhichexistsinthemindorbrainofanormalhumanbeing.UGconsistsofasetofgeneralconditions,orgeneralprinciplesandalsocontainsasetofparameters.18.Generalprinciplesofuniversalgrammar普遍语法的广义原则a)CaseCondition.AsisrequiredbytheCaseConditionprinciple,anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyverborprepositiontotheobjectposition,orbyauxiliarytothesubjectposition.ThetheoryofCaseConditionaccountsforthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.b)AdjacencyCondition.AsisrequiredbyAdjacencyConditionprinciple,aCaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.Thisconditionexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.\n18.Theparametersofuniversalgrammar普遍语法的参数ParametersaresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.Setinoneofthepermissibleways,aparameteracquiresaparticularvalue,forexample,aplusorminusvalue,whichallowsthegrammarofalanguagetobehaveinawayverydifferentfromthatofanotherlanguage.a)UGisbelievedtocontainaparameterwitthevalues(+strictadjacency)and(-strictadjacency)setontheAdjacencyCondition.WithEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe(+strictadjacency)value,whileforFrench-typelanguages,theparameterissettotheother.b)Anotherparameter,theonethatinvolveswordorder,concernsthedirectionalityofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalityParameter.ThisparameteroffersaneatandconsistentaccountforthetypologicaldifferenceinthewordorderwithintheVPcategorybetweenEnglishandJapanese.InEnglish,VP→VNPwhileinJapanese,VP→NPV.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter5Semantics语义学1.Whatissemantics？什么是语义学？Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.2.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)Thenamingtheory命名论ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2)Theconceptualistview意念论Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3)Contextualism语境论Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.4)Behaviorism行为主义论Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.3.Senseandreference意义和所指Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.\n它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。1)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.2)Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.1.Majorsenserelations主要意义关系1）Synonymy同义关系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:a)Dialectalsynonyms–synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.示例：英国英语美国英语AutumnfallLiftelevatorFlatdepartmentWindscreenwindshieldTorchflashlightb)Stylisticsynonyms–synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.示例：Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentStart,begin,commenceKid,child,offspringc)SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.示例：Collaborator合作者/Accomplice同谋者，帮凶Like,love,admire,adore,worshipEconomical,frugal,thrifty,mean,miserly,stingyd)Collocationalsynonyms–synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.Accuse…ofcharge…withrebuke…fore)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms–synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.示例：Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑astound暗示难以置信Escape意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事flee意味匆匆离开\n1）Polysemy多义关系Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.示例：Table2）Homonymy同音/同形异义关系Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.示例：同音异义词：rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace同形异义词：bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.完全同形异义词：fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.3）Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.示例：上义词：flower下义词：rose（玫瑰花）,tulip（郁金香）,carnation（康乃馨）,lily（百合花）,morningglory（牵牛花）上义词：animal下义词：dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bear4）Antonymy反义关系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.a)Gradableantonyms分级反义词Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.示例：Old和young是反义词，但它们代表两个极端，中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式，如middle-aged,mature,elderly.b)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.示例：Male/femalealive/deadc)Relationalopposites关系反义词\nPairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.示例：Wife/husbandfather/sonteacher/pupildoctor/patientbuy/sellabove/below1.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的意义关系1)XissynonymouswithY.X和Y是同义关系示例：X:Heisabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.如果X是真的，Y也是真的，如果X是假的，Y也是假的。2)XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾关系示例：X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.如果X是真的，Y就是假的，如果X是假的，Y就是真的。3)XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)X蕴涵Y(Y是X的蕴涵)示例：X:Johnmarriedablondheiress(女继承人).Y:Johnmarriedablond.蕴涵是一种包含关系。如果X蕴涵Y，X的意义就为Y所包含。4)XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX)X预示Y(Y是X的先决条件)示例：X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.5)Xisacontradiction.X是个矛盾句示例：X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtobachelor.X句子本身自相矛盾，它永远是假的。6)Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在语义上反常示例：X:Thetablehasbadintentions.X在语义上反常，它就是荒唐的。2.Analysisofmeaning1)Componentialanalysis–awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningTheapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.\nOneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.示例：Man和woman这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE这些共同的特征，但在MALE这一特征上不同。Man和boy这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ANIMATE,+MALE这些共同的特征，但在ADULT这一特征上不同。1)Predicationanalysis–awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning述谓结构分析－一种句义分析法Linguistshaveproposeddifferentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.WhatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysisproposedbythelinguistGLeech.Ingrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,anditisanalyzedintosuchgrammaticalcomponentsassubject,predicate,andattribute.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsnasentence.句子的语法形式不影响其语义述谓，下列所有句子具有同样的述谓：Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.Tom,smoke!DoesTomsmoke?这是同一语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)在语法上的多种体现。Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placepredication(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).示例：Thebuildingisnexttothelibrary.(Two-placepredication)Heissnoring.(One-placepredication)Itislate.(No-placepredication)※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※\nChapter6Pragmatics语用学1.Whatispragmatics?什么是语用学？Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Itplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.2.Pragmaticsandsemantics语用学和语义学Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning,buttheyaredifferent.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning,thecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.3.Context语境Contextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.4.Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized,whileutterancemeaningisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.5.Speechacttheory言语行为理论Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50’softhe20thcentury.Accordingtospeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.Accordingtospeechacttheory,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.a)Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntaxlexiconandphonology.b)Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.c)Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtabouttheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Americanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearleclassifiedillocutionaryactsintofivegeneraltypes.Eachtypehasacommon,generalpurpose.\na)representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue示例：Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore./theearthisglobe.b)directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething示例：Openthewindow!/Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?c)commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction示例：Ipromisetocome./Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.d)expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate示例：I’msorryforthemessIhavemade./It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.e)declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething示例：Inowdeclarethemeetingopen./Ifireyou.Importantremark:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint,buttheydifferintheirstrengthorforth.1.Principleofconversation会话原则AmericanphilosopherPaulGriceconcludedthatnaturallanguagehaditsownlogic.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple(CP).Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:在最高原则，即合作原则下，人们在交际中要遵守如下四个准则：a)Themaximofquantity数量准则lMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).lDonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.b)Themaximofquality质量准则lDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要说自己认为不真实的话。lDonotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。c)Themaximofrelation关联准则lBerelevant.说话要贴切，有关联。d)Themaximofmanner方式准则lAvoidobscurityofexpression.避免晦涩的词语。lAvoidambiguity.避免歧义。lBebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).说话要简要（避免累赘）。lBeorderly.说话要有条理。ItisinterestingandimportanttonotethatwhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,theydonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Forvariousreasonsthesemaximsareoftenviolated,or“flouted”.MostoftheseviolationsgiverisetowhatGricecalls“conversationalimplicature”.Inotherword,whenweviolateanyofthesemaxims,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.示例1：DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.\n违反数量准则示例2：Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.违反质量准则示例3：Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don’tyouthink?Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?违反关联准则示例4：Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.违反方式准则※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter7HistoricalLinguistics历史语言学1.Thepurposeandsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage研究语言变化的目的和意义Thehistoricalstudyoflanguageisofgreatimportancetoourunderstandingofhumanlanguagesandhumanlinguisticcompetence.Researchesinhistoricallinguisticsshedlightonprehistoricdevelopmentintheevolutionoflanguageandtheconnectionsofearlierandlatervariantsofthesamelanguage,andprovidevaluableinsightsintothekinshippatternsofdifferentlanguages.Thehistoricalstudyoflanguagealsoenablesustodeterminehownon-linguisticfactors,suchassocial,culturalandpsychologicalfactors,interactovertimetotriggerlinguisticchange.2.Thenatureoflanguagechange语言变化的本质Alllivinglanguageschangewithtime.Unlessalanguageisnolongerspokenbythegeneralpublicofasociety,suchasLatin,itschangeisinevitable.Asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic.Languagechangeisextensive,takingplaceinvirtuallyallaspectsofthegrammar.Althoughlanguagechangeisuniversal,inevitable,andinsomecases,vigorous,itisneveranovernightoccurrence.Languagedevelopmentmayberegardedaslinguisticevolutionfromonestagetoanother.3.MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish英语历史发展的主要阶段a)OldEnglish(450-1100)古英语阶段b)MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)中古英语阶段c)ModernEnglish(1500-今)现代英语阶段MostModernEnglishspeakersfindMiddleEnglishonlypartiallycomprehensible,andOldEnglishsimplyunintelligible,justlikeaforeignlanguagehardlyrecognizableasthenativelanguagetheyspeak.OldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhenAnglo-SaxonsinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.\nMiddleEnglishbeganwiththearrivaloftheNormanFrenchinvadersinEngland.MiddleEnglishhadbeendeeplyinfluencedbyNormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar.ModernEnglishisseparatedwithMiddleEnglishwithEuropeanrenaissancemovement.AsBritishinfluencereachedothercontinents,the“BritishEmpire”establishedEnglish-speakingcoloniesinmanypartsoftheworld.EnglishisnowthenativelanguageintheUnitedStates,Canada,AustraliaandNewZealand.1.LinguisticchangeinEnglish英语语言系统的变化Languagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthegrammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.Linguisticchangeoccursinallcomponentsofthegrammar,includingchangesinthesound,morphological,syntactic,lexicalandsemanticsystems.a)soundchange语音变化lVowelsoundchange元音变化ThechangeoccurredattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiod,approximately1400-1600.Thesechangesledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenthephonemicrepresentationsofwordsandmorphemes,thatis,betweenthepronunciationandthespellingsystemofModernEnglish.KnownastheGreatVowelShiftinthehistoryofEnglish,thesechangesinvolvesevenlong,ortense,vowels.RefertoP132ofthetestbookforexamples.lSoundloss语音消失Notonlydidtypesofvowelsoundschange,butsomesoundssimplydisappearedfromthegeneralpronunciationofEnglish.lSoundaddition语音增加WhilesomesoundswerelostinthecourseofthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish,othersoundswereadded.Soundadditionincludesthegainorinsertionofasound.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.RefertoP134ofthetextbookforexamples.lSoundmovement语音移位Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovement,knownasmetathesis,involvesareversalinpositionoftwoadjoiningsoundsegments.b)Morphologicalchange形态变化lAffixloss词缀消失lAffixaddition词缀增加c)Syntacticchange句法变化lRuleloss规则消失消失的规则包括：1》Morphosyntacticruleofadjectiveagreement.Therulestipulatedthattheendingsofadjectivesmustagreewiththeheadnounincase,number,andgender.2》OldEnglishsyntaxcontainedadouble-negationrule,whichwouldnegateasentencewithbothnegatorsof“ne”(“not”)and“nǽfre”(“never”).lRuleaddition规则增加\n增加的规则有：1》Particlemovementrule.实例：Johnthrewouttheballthroughthewindow.其中throwout中的小品词out可以移位Johnthrewtheballoutthroughthewindow.2》AnothersyntacticrulegaininEnglishconcernsthedistinctionbetweenauxiliaryverbsandmainverbs.InmodernEnglishthesyntacticbehaviorofauxiliaryverbsdiffersfromthatofmainverbsinthatonlyauxiliaryverbscanbefrontedininterrogativesentences.lRulechange规则变化发生变化的规则有：1》Anegativesentencecouldbeformedbymerelyadding“not’attheendofanaffirmativesentencepriortoShakespeare’stime.2》Languagesvaryintheorderofthesubject,theverbandtheobject.a)Lexicalchange词汇变化lLexicalloss词汇消失lLexicaladdition词汇增加ThehistoryofEnglishlexicalexpansionisonethatischaracterizedwithheavyborrowingandwordformation.AlthoughEnglishhasborrowedmostheavilyfromFrench,otherlanguagesasLatinandGreekhavealsomadetheircontributions.Inadditiontoborrowing,newwordshavemadetheirentryintoEnglishviawordformationrulessuchascompounding,derivation,acronymformation,blending,abbreviation,clipping,back-formation,andcoinage.b)Semanticchange语义变化lSemanticbroadening语义扩大化lSemanticnarrowing语义狭义化lSemanticshift语义演变1.LanguageFamily语系Languagefamilyisagroupofhistorically(orgenetically)relatedlanguagesthathavedevelopedfromacommonancestrallanguage.Forexample,mostofthelanguagesofEurope,Persia,andthenorthpartofIndiabelongtotheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily,andtheyhavethesameoriginknownasProto-Indo-European.2.ClassifyinggeneticallyrelatedlanguagesItisestimatedthatoverfivethousandlanguagesarespokenintheworldtoday.Thereareabout30languagefamilieswithfourmainones:theIndo-EuropeanFamily,theSino-TibetanFamily,theAustronesianFamily,andtheAfroasiaticFamily.世界上大概有五千多中语言，30个语系，其中最重要的4个语系是：印欧语系、汉藏语言、澳斯特罗尼亚语系和非亚语系。TheIndo-Europeanfamilyhasamembershipofabout150languages.TheSino-Tibetanfamilyconsistsofabout300EastAsianlanguages.TheAustronesianFamilycomprisesupto1000differentlanguagesscatteredoveronethirdoftheSouthernHemisphere.TheAfroasiaticFamilyismadeupofabout250languagesspreadacrossthenorthernpartofAfricaandwesternAsia.EnglishisbelongedtotheIndo-EuropeanFamily.\nManyseeminglydifferentlanguagesareactuallygeneticallyrelatedassistersorcousinsofabiglanguagefamilyandhavedevelopedfromacommon,possibly“dead”,ancestrallanguage.Historicallinguistshavetoidentifyandclassifyfamiliesofrelatedlanguagesinagenealogicalfamilytree,andtoreconstructtheprotolanguage.Alanguagefamilyisestablishedbytheuseofamethodknownascomparativereconstruction.Byidentifyingandcomparingsimilarlinguisticformswithsimilarmeaningsacrossrelatedlanguages,,historicallinguistsreconstructtheprotoforminthecommonancestrallanguage.Workonthesystematicform-meaningresemblanceincognates,wordsthathavedescendedfromacommonsource,liesatthecoreofcomparativereconstruction.1.TheIndo-EuropeanlanguagefamilyTheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamilyisthefirstandmostwidelyinvestigatedlanguagefamilyoftheworld.ThediscoveryofIndo-EuropeanbeganwiththeworkofBritishscholarSirWilliamJones.In1822,theGermanscholarJacobGrimmspecifiedinhistreatisetheregularsoundcorrespondencesamongSanskrit,Greek,Latin,andtheGermaniclanguages.Grimm’smajorcontributiontohistoricallinguisticsishisexplanationoftherelationshipsamongcognatesintermsofasoundshift,thesystematicmodificationofaseriesofphonemes.Becausethesesoundchangesweresostrikinglyregularandlaw-like,theybecamecollectivelyasGrimm’sLaw.2.Thecausesoflanguagechange语音变化的原因a)Soundassimilation语音的同化Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Assimilationprocessesarephonologicalchangesduetophysiologicalmechanisms.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundismadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology-thelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.Anotherexampleofsoundassimilationinvolvesvowelnasalization.Anotherexampleofsoundassimilationthatresultsinmorpho-logicalandlexicalchangesisthe/k/soundasintheword“key”.b)Rulesimplificationandregularization规则的简化与统一Rulesimplificationandregularizationinvolvesexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.c)Internalborrowing内部借用Anotherkindofchangethatismotivatedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemoryiscalledinternalborrowing.d)Elaboration规则的细化Ruleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.Languageseemstomaintainabalanceinexpressivenessandgrammaticalelaborationovertime.Ifaparticulargrammaticalfeatureislostasaresultof,say,achangeinthephonologicalsystem,someotherfeaturemaybeaddedinanothercomponentofthegrammar,suchasinthesyntax.e)Sociologicaltriggers社会因素Linguisticshavebecomeincreasinglyawareofsociologicaltriggersforlanguagechange.Radicalsocio-politicalchangessuchaswars,invasions,occupation,colonialization,andlanguageplanningandstandardizationpoliciesleadtovigorouslanguagechanges.f)Culturaltransmission文化传播Althoughanewgenerationhastofindawayofusingthelanguageofthepreviousgeneration,it\nhastofindexpressionsthatcanbestcommunicatetheviewsandconceptsofthetimeandthechangedandever-changingsociallife,andre-createthelanguagesofthecommunity.Manyyoungspeakershavethedesiretosounddifferentfromtheoldergeneration.a)Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar儿童语法接近成年人语法Childrenacquiretheirnativelanguagenotthroughformalinstructionofgrammaticalrules.Childrenusuallyconstructtheirpersonalgrammarsbythemselvesandgeneralizerulesfrothelinguisticinformationtheyhear.Theyareexposedtodiverselinguisticinformation.Childrenhaveastrongdesiretosimplifyandregularizegrammaticalrules,particularlywhentheyseeadultsusecertainrulesoptionally.Insuchcases,achangeinthegrammaroccurs.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter8Socio-linguistics社会语言学1.Whatissocio-linguistics?什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontexts.2.Languagevariation语言变异a)Speechcommunity言语社区Insociolinguisticstudies,speakersaretreatedasmembersofsocialgroups.Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledspeechcommunity.Aspeechcommunitythusdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity(whichmayhaveasfewmembersasafamilyorasmanymemberasacountry),andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeechcommunityisthatthemembersofthegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlinguisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyrelatedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.b)Speechvariety言语变体Speechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Aspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.Consideredamoreneutralterm,speechvarietyissometimesusedinsteadofstandardlanguage,vernacularlanguage,dialect,pidgin,creole,etc.Speechvariationmovesonascaleofthenationallanguage,dialect,andindividualwaysofcommunication.Sociolinguistsareparticularlyinterestedintheretypesofspeechvariety,ordialects,namely,regionaldialects,sociolectsorsocialdialects,andfunctionalspeechvarietiesknownasregisters.Thetermdialect,asatechnicalterminlinguistics,carriesnovaluejudgmentandsimplyreferstoadistinctformoflanguage.c)Regionalvariation地域变异Regionalvariationisspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernibleanddefinable.Themostdistinguishablelinguisticfeatureofaregionaldialectisitsaccent.Oftenspeakersofthesamelanguagebutofdifferentregionaldialectsofthelanguagehaveaverydifficulttimecommunicating.Onewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguagestandardizationknownaslanguageplanning.d)Socialvariation社会变异\nSocialvariationgivesrisetosociolectswhicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategorieswhichreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalandethnicbackground,aswellastheirsexandage.a)Stylisticvariation文体变异Therearedifferencesassociatedwiththespeechsituation:whoisspeakingtowhomaboutunderwhatcircumstancesforwhatpurpose.Stylisticvariationinaperson’sspeech,orwriting,usuallyrangesoncontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.Stylecanalsorefertoaparticularperson’suseofspeechorwritingatalltimes,ortoawayofspeakingorwritingataparticularperiodoftime,e.g.,Dickens’style,Hemingway’sstyle.b)Idiolectalvariation个人言语变异Whenanindividualspeaks,whatisactuallyproducedisauniquelanguagesystemofthespeaker,expressedwithintheoverallsystemofaparticularlanguage.Suchapersonaldialectisreferredtoasidiolect.Idiolectis,thus,apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual’sspeech.1.StandardandnonstandardlanguageThestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.Thestandardlanguageofmanycountriesisalsodesignatedasthenationalorofficiallanguage.许多国家的标准语同时被指定为全国语或官方语。Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvernacular,languages.不同于标准语的变体叫做非标准语，其发音、语法和词汇明显有别于公认的标准。Alldialectsofalanguageareequallyeffectiveinexpressingideas.标准语和非标准语无优劣之分。2.Diglossiaandbilingualism双言与双语现象a)Diglossia双言现象Diglossiadescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.Usually,oneismorestandardvarietycalledthehighvariety,orH-variety,whichisusedformoreformalorseriousmatter,suchasspeechesmadeingovernment,themedia,school,orchurch.Andtheotherisanon-prestigevarietycalledthelowvariety,orL-variety,whichisusedincolloquialandotherinformalsituations,suchasconversationswithfamilyorfriends,orinstructionsgiventoservants,waiters,orworkmen.Oftenthehighvarietyisregardedasaliterarystandardcalledaclassicallanguage,whereasthelowvarietyremainsalocalvernacular.b)Bilingualism双语现象Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.Atypicalexampleofabilingualcommunityisanethnic\nghettowheremost,ifnotall,ofitsinhabitantsareeitherimmigrantsorchildrenofimmigrants.Bilingualismalsooccurstocountrieswhichhavedesignatedtwoofficiallanguagesfornationorregionaluse.Perfectbilingualism,howeverisuncommon.Abilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.1.Ethnicdialect少数民族方言a)BlackEnglish黑人英语――少数民族方言个案研究BlackEnglishisanethnicvarietyoftheEnglishlanguage.Itisspokenmostlybyalargesectionofnon-middle-classAmericanBlacks.BlackEnglishisstigmatizedas“badEnglish”,apurelysocialattitudethathasnolinguisticbasis.Likeothervarieties,BlackEnglishhassomevocabularyofitsown.Ithasanumberofdistinctivefeaturesinitsphonological,morphologicalandsyntacticsystemswhicharerule-governedandsystematic.黑人英语与标准英语的区别的具体内容见课本182－184页。b)ThesocialenvironmentofBlackEnglish黑人英语的社会环境TheassumptionthatBlackEnglishis“geneticallyinferior”,“deficient”,and“incomplete”,issimplyungrounded.ThedistinctivefeaturesofBlackEnglishpersistnotforracialreasons,butforsocial,educational,andeconomicreasons.Racialdiscrimination,accompaniedbysocialisolation,intensifiedsomedialectaldifferencesbetweenBlackEnglishandStandardEnglish.2.Socialdialect社会方言a)Educationvarieties教育变体Socialdialects,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.Thespeakersofasocialdialectusuallyshareasimilarsocialbackground.Manydifferencesinlanguagesusepersistforeducationalreasons.Itis,therefore,importanttoknow,forexample,whetheragroupofspeakerssharesimilareducationalbackgrounds.b)Agevarieties年龄变体Thewaylanguageisusedcorrelateswiththeageofindividualspeakers.Theimportanceofageasasocialfactorinlanguagevariationisstrikinglydemonstratedbychildren’slanguageasitdevelopswithage.Whilesomedifferencesinpronunciationarefoundtocorrelatewithdifferentgenerationofspeakers,themoststrikingdifferencesarelexical.c)Gendervarieties性别变体Variationinlanguageuseisalsoassociatedwiththesexofindividualspeakers.Sex-preferentialdifferentiationintermsofspeechvarietiesofmalesandfemalesexistsinallnaturallanguageacrosstheword.Inparticular,theintentionalorunintentionaluseofsexistlanguageinspeechorwritingreflectsgender-biasedculturaltraditionsinmanysocieties.d)Registervarieties语域变体Registersarelanguagevarietiesappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,forthatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.Aformalsituationmayconditionaformalregister,characterizedbyformal,standardlexicalitemsandgrammaticalrules,andspeechpatterns;whileaninformalsettingmaybereflectedinalessformalregisterthatexhibitsmorecausalvocabulary,nonstandardgrammaticalfeatures,andstigmatizedspeechpatterns.e)Addressterms称谓语Onespecificaspectofsituationaluseoflanguageisthatofaddresstermusage.Anaddressterm,oraddressform,referstothewordorwordsusedtoaddresssomebodyinspeechorwriting.Itisapparentthatthewayinwhichpeopleaddressoneanotherusuallydependsontheirage,sex,\nsocialgroup,andpersonalrelationship.TheEnglishsystemoffrequentlyusedaddresstermsincludesfirstname,lastname,title+lastname,titlealone,andkinterm.a)Slang俚语Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimebyraciness.Thecentralcharacteristicofslangcomesfromthemotiveforitsuse:adesirefornovelty,forvividemphasis,formembershipinaparticulargrouporclassofpeople,orforbeingupwiththetimesoralittleahead.Althoughslangisoftenveryvividandexpressive,thetermslanghastraditionallycarriedanegativeconnotation:itisdeemedtobeundesirableinformalstyleoflanguage.Mostslangtermscomeandgolikefadsandfashion,onlyfewremainandbecomeacceptablelanguagebythewholesociety.b)Linguistictaboo禁忌语Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.Insociolinguistics,taboo,orratherlinguistictaboo,denotesanyprohibitionontheuseofparticularlexicalitemstorefertoobjectsoracts.Aslanguageuseiscontextualizedinparticularsocialsettings,linguistictaboooriginatesfromsocialtaboo.Whenanactistaboo,referencetothisactmayalsobecometaboo.Taboowordsandexpressionsreflecttheparticularsocialcustomsandviewsofaparticularculture.c)Euphemism委婉语EuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordeuphemismos,meaning“tospeakwithgoodwords.”Aeuphemism,then,isamild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter9Psycholinguistics心理语言学1.Thebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage语言的生理基础a)ThecaseofPhineasGage盖奇案例OneafternooninSeptember1848,atragedyhappedtoGage.AhugemetalrodhadgonethroughthefrontpartofGage’sbrain,buthislanguageabilitieswereunaffected.Thepointofthisamazingcaseisthat,ifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefront.b)Thehumanbrain人的大脑Thehumanbrainisthemostcomplicatedorganofthebody.Lyingundertheskull,thehumanbraincontainsanaverageoftenbillionnervecellscalledneurons.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralcortex.Thecortexisthedecision-makingorganofthebody,receivingmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandinitiatingallvoluntaryaction.Manyofthecognitiveabilitiesthatdistinguishhumansfromothermammals,suchassophisticatedreasoning,linguisticskills,andmusicalability,arebelievedtoresideinthecortex.Thebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledhemispheres,oneontherightandoneontheleft.Thesehemispheresareconnectedliketwinsrightdownthemiddlebyanumberofinterconnectingnervepathways.\nIngeneral,therighthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,theleftsideofthebody,whereasthelefthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,therightsideofthebody.a)Brainlateralization大脑的侧化Thelefthemispherehasprimaryresponsibilityforlanguage,whiletherighthemispherecontrolsandspatialskillsaswellastheperceptionofnonlinguisticsoundsandmusicalmelodies.Thelocalizationofthecognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledlateralization.Becauseeachcerebralhemispherehasuniquefunctionalsuperiority,itismoreaccuratetoconceiveofthehemispheresascomplementarilyspecialized.Theprocessoflateralizationisbelievedtobematurational.Thatis,brainlateralizationisgeneticallyprogrammed,buttakestimetodevelop.1.Linguisticlateralization语言侧化a)Lefthemisphericdominanceforlanguage左半球的语言优势Linguisticlateralizationintermsoflefthemisphericdominanceforlanguageisfoundtoexistinanoverwhelmingmajorityofhumanbeings.Althoughbothrightandlefthemispheresarelateralizedcomplementarilyinmanyaspectsofhumancognitiveandperceptualactivities,languagefunctionsarebelievedtobelateralizedprimarilyinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.Researchhasshownthatdifferentaspectsoflanguageprocessingappeartobemorecharacteristicofthelefthemispherethantheother.b)Dichoticlisteningresearch两耳分听实验Evidenceinsupportingoflateralizationforlanguageinthelefthemispherecomesfromresearchesindichoticlisteningtasks.Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Abasicassumption,thus,wouldbethatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Bymeansofdichoticlisteningtask,wecananalyzethecharacteristicsofincomingstimuliprocessedbytheindividualhemisphere.Researchshowsthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocessingallsounds,butonlyforthosethatarelinguisticinnature,thusprovidingevidenceinsupportoftheviewthattheleftsideofthebrainisspecializedforlanguageandthatitiswherelanguagecentersreside.2.Thelanguagecenters语言中枢a)Broca’sarea布罗卡区In1861,aFrenchmannamedPaulBrocafoundthedamagetoaspecificareaofthebrainresultsinspeechproductiondeficit.ThisareawasnowknownasBroca’sarea.LanguagedisorderresultingfromadamagetoBroca’sareainthebrainrevealsword-findingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.b)Wernicke’sarea韦尼克区In1874,ayoungGermanCarlWernickefoundanotherdifferentareaofthelefthemispherenow\nknownasWernicke’sarea.ThedamagetoWernick’sareawillresultinspeechcomprehensiondeficit.a)Theangulargyrus角形脑回AngulargyrusliesbehindWernicke’sarea.Itisthelanguagecenterresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversa.Thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,andforthecomprehensionofwrittenlanguage,allofwhichrequireconnectionsbetweenvisualandspeechregions.b)Languageperception,comprehensionandproduction语言的感知、理解与表达Thebrainactivityinvolvedinhearing,understandingandthensayingawordwouldfollowadefinitepattern.Whenwelisten,thewordisheardandcomprehendedviaWernicke’sarea.ThissignalthentransferredtoBroca’sareawherepreparationsaremadetoproduceit.Asignalisthensenttothemotorareacontrollingthevocaltracttophysicallyarticulatetheword.Whenwespeak,wordsaredrawnfromWernicke’sareaandsenttoBroca’sarea,whichdeterminesthedetailsoftheirformandpronunciation.Theappropriateinstructionsarethensenttothemotorarea.1.Thecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition语言习得关键期a)Thecriticalperiodhypothesis关键期假设Thecriticalperiodhypothesisreferstoaperiodinone’slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasily,swiftly,andwithoutexplicitinstruction.Itisgenerallythoughtthatthedevelopmentoflateralizationinthebrainmaybeconnectedtothelanguagelearningabilitiesofchildreninthatcriticalagefrotheacquisitionofthefirstlanguagecoincideswiththeperiodofbrainlateralization.Itisbelievedthatlanguageacquisitionbeginsataboutthesametimeaslateralizationdoesandisnormallycomplete,asfarastheessentialsareconnected,bythetimethattheprocessoflateralizationcomestoanend.Itbecomesprogressivelymoredifficulttoacquirelanguageaftertheageatwhichlateralizationiscomplete.b)ThecaseofGenieandthedegenerationoflanguagefacultywithage吉妮案例与语言机制的退化ThecaseofGenieconfirmsthecriticalperiodhypothesis.AsafeconclusionthatwecandrawfromGenie’scaseforthemomentisthatthelanguagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiodandconsequently,mostlinguisticskillscannotdevelop.2.Languageandthought语言与思维a)Earlyviewsonlanguageandthought有关语言与思维关系的一些早期观点Earlyviewsonlanguageandthoughtincludetwocontrastingviews:mentalistandempiricist.Mentaliststatedthatlanguageandthoughtwerethesamething.Thinkinginvolvedthesamemotoractivitiesusedinspeaking.Thatis,whenwe“thinkaloud”,itiscalledspeech;whenwe“speakcovertly”,itiscalledthinking.Empiricistarguedthatmankindcouldnothavethesamelanguagesandthatlanguageswerebutsignsofpsychologicalexperience.b)TheSapir-Whorfhypothesis萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设\nTheAmericananthropologist-linguistEdwardSapirandhisstudentBenjaminLeeWhorfproposedasweeping,two-prongedhypothesisconcerninglanguageandthought.Whorfproposedfirstthatallhigherlevelsofthinkingaredependentonlanguage.Orputitmorebluntly,languagedeterminesthought,hencethestrongnotionoflinguisticdeterminism.Becauselanguagesdifferinmanyways,Whorfalsobelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,thatis,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground,hencethenotionoflinguisticrelativism.Iffollowsfromthisstrongversionofthehypothesisthatthereisnorealtranslationandthatitisimpossibletolearnthelanguageofadifferentcultureunlessthelearnerabandonshisorhereownmodeofthinkingandacquiresthethoughtpatternsofthenativespeakersofthetargetlanguage.a)ArgumentsagainsttheSapir-Whorfhypothesis对萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设的批判lWordsandmeaning.Itiswidelyacceptedthatthevocabularyofalanguageconsistsofnothingmorethanmeaninglesslabelswhicharemanipulatedbylanguageuserstoelicitemotionalreactionsorbehavioralresponses,toimpartinformationortodirectthelistener’sattention.Themeaningofawordorphrasedependslargelyonthecommunicativecontext.Asthecontextofawordorsentencechanges,itseffectandmeaningalsochange.lGrammaticalstructure.ThesyntacticsystemofalanguageandtheperceptualsystemofthespeakersofthatlanguagedonothavethekindofinterdependentrelationshipthattheSapir-Whorfhypothesisclaimedtohave.Manygrammaticalfeaturesofalanguagearepurelysuperficialaspectsoflinguisticstructure.lTranslation.Anothermajorargumentagainstthehypothesiscomesfromthefactthatsuccessfultranslationbetweenlanguagescanbemade.ThetranslationargumentissupportedbytheveryfactthatconceptualuniquenessofalanguagesuchasHopicannonethelessbeexplainedinEnglish.lSecondlanguageacquisition.Iflanguageshavedifferentconceptualsystems,thensomeonewhospeaksonelanguagewillbeunabletolearntheotherlanguagebecausehelackstherightconceptualsystem.However,sincepeoplecanlearnradicallydifferentlanguages,thoselanguagescouldn’thavedifferentconceptualsystems.lLanguageandworldviews.Thelanguagesystemdoesnotnecessarilyprovidespecificsofone’sworldviews.Ontheonehand,peoplespeakingthesamelanguagemayhavedifferentworldviews,includingpolitical,social,religious,scientificandphilosophicalviews.Ontheotherhand,peoplespeakingdifferentlanguagesmaysharesimilarpolitical,social,religious,scientificorphilosophicalviews.Moreover,onelanguagecandescribemanydifferentworldviews,asisevidentinthecaseofsuccessfultranslation.语言与世界观。语言体系并不一定能影响一个人对世界的看法。一方面，说同一语言的b)Understandingtherelationoflanguageandthought对语言与思维关系的再认识lMajorfunctionsoflanguage语言的主要功能Languageprovidesameansfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtandinparticular,asservingtwomajorfunctions,namely,interpersonalcommunicationandintrapersonalcommunication.语lThedevelopmentandblendingoflanguageandthought语言与思维的发展和融合Althoughlanguageandthoughtaretwodifferentsystemsthatdevelopalongtwodifferentroutes,partofthelanguagesystemisactuallypartofthethoughtsystem.Thethoughtandlanguagesystemsarejoinedthroughmeaningandideas.\nlThinkingwithoutlanguage脱离语言的思维Thereareoccasionswhenonecanthinkwithoutlanguage,justasonemayspeakwithoutthinking.Peoplemaycommunicatetheirfeelingsorthoughtsvianonverbalsignalssuchasfacialexpressions,gestures.lLanguageasaconventionalcodingsystemtoexpressthought语言－表达思维的约定俗成的编码系统RecallthatinChapter1,wedefinedlanguageasasystemofarbitrarycodesusedforhumancommunication.Whatthatmeansisthattherelationshipbetweenthecodingsystemoflanguageontheonehandandtheconceptualizingsystemofthoughtontheotherisconventionalratherthangenetic.Forsomehistoricalreasonsthatarenotcompletelyunderstood,naturallanguageshavedevelopedintodifferentcodingsystems,inspiteofthefactthatallhumansshareageneralconceptualizingcapacity.However,aparticularcodingsystemcomprisesaparticularsetofarbitraryverbalsymbolswhichdonotarisefrom,nordotheygivebirthto,aparticularconceptualsystem.lThewaysinwhichlanguageaffectsthought语言影响思维的方式Althoughlanguageisnotalwaysanecessaryconditionforthought,theuseofitisindispensabletothecontent,direction,andelaborationofparticularthoughts.WhilewerejectthestrongversionoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,itsweakerversionisgenerallyacceptedbymostscholars.Werecognizethatlanguagedoesnotsomuchdeterminethewaywethinkasitinfluencesthewayweperceivetheworldandrecallthings,andaffectstheeasewithwhichweperformmentaltasks.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter10LanguageAcquisition语言习得1.Firstlanguageacquisition第一语言习得a)Thebiologicalbasisoflanguageacquisition语言习得的生物基础Languageacquisitionisageneticallydeterminedcapacitythatallhumansareendowedwith.Humanisbiologicallyprogrammedtoacquireatleastonelanguage.Anychildwhoiscapableofacquiringsomeparticularhumanlanguageiscapableofacquiringanyhumanlanguagespontaneouslyandeffortlessly.b)Languageacquisitionastheacquisitionofgrammaticalrules语言习得即语法规则的习得Languageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthegrammaticalsystemoflanguage.Itdoesn’tmeanthateveryspecificruleallowedbythegrammaticalsystemofalanguagemustbeacquired.Whatisactuallyacquiredbyyoungchildrenaresomegeneralprinciplethatarefundamentaltothegrammaticalityofspeech.c)Theroleofinputandinteraction语言输入与交流的作用Althoughhumanbeingsaregeneticallypredeterminedtoacquirelanguage,thisgeneticpredispositionisnotasufficientconditionforlanguagedevelopment.Forlanguagetobe\neventuallyacquired,childrenmustbeprovidedwithanappropriatelinguisticenvironmentwhichtheyhaveaccesstolanguagedataandopportunitiestointeractwiththeinput.a)Theroleofinstruction语言教学的作用Forthevastmajorityofchildren,languagedevelopmentoccursspontaneouslyandrequireslittleconsciousinstruction.Infact,parentsoftenfailintheirattempttoteachchildrengrammaticalrules.b)Theroleofcorrectionandreinforcement纠错与强化的作用Correctionandreinforcementarenotkeyfactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment.Reinforcementhasbeenfoundtooccurusuallyinchildren’spronunciationorreportingofthetruthfulnessofutterances,ratherthaninthegrammaticalityofsentences.c)Theroleofimitation模仿的作用Selectiveimitationsuggeststhatchildrendonotblindlymimicadultspeechinaparrotfashion,butratherexploititinveryrestrictedwaytoimprovetheirlinguisticskills.Thepointisthatimitationplaysatbestaveryminorroleinthechild’smasteryoflanguage.1.Stagesoffirstlanguageacquisition第一语言习得的发展阶段a)Theprelinguisticstage前语言阶段Theearliestsoundsproducedbyinfantscannotbeconsideredearlylanguage.Thenoisessuchascriesandwhimpersofthenewborninalllanguagecommunitiessoundthesame.Suchnoisesareb)Theone-wordstage独词句阶段Atsomepointinthelatepartofthefirstyearortheearlypartofthesecondyear,thebabblingstagegraduallygiveswaytotheearliestrecognizablestageoflanguage,oftenreferredtoastheone-wordstage.Children’sone-wordutterancesarealsocalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.One-wordutterancessometimesshowanoverextensionorunder-extensionofreference.Typically,childrenusethesamewordforthingsthathaveasimilarappearance.c)Thetwo-wordstage双词句阶段Ingeneral,thetwo-wordstagebeginsroughlyinthesecondhalfofhechild’ssecondyear.Atthisstage,childrenareheardutteringtwo-wordexpressionsinavarietyofcombinations;expressacertainvarietyofgrammaticalrelations.Inaddition,thelanguageatthisstagebeginstoreflectthedistinctionbetweensentencetypes,suchasnegativesentences,imperativeandquestions.d)Themultiwordstage多词句阶段Betweentwoandthreeyearsold,childrenbegintoproducelongerutteranceswithmorecomplexgrammaticalstructures.Whenachildstartsstringingmorethantwowordstogether,theutterancesmaybetwo,three,four,orfivewordsorlonger,hencethemultiwordstage.Theearlymultiwordutterancestypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexical\ncategoriesas“to”,“the”,“can”.Thesemultiwordutterancesareusuallythe“substantive”or“content”wordsthatcarrythemainmessage.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestyleoflanguagefoundintelegrams,utterancesatthisacquisitionstageareoftenreferredtoastelegraphicspeech.Althoughtheylackgrammaticalmorphemes,telegraphicsentencesarenotsimplywordsthatarerandomlystrungtogether,butfollowtheprinciplesofsentenceformation.Asthistypeoftelegram-formatspeechincreases,anumberofgrammaticalmorphemesbegintoappearinchildren’sspeech,suchas“-s”,“-ed”andprepositions.Itisnormallyassumedthatbytheageoffive,withanoperatingvocabularyofmorethan2000words,childrenhavecompletedthegreaterpartofthelanguageacquisitionprocess.1.Thedevelopmentofthegrammaticalsystem语法体系的发展a)Thedevelopmentofphonology音系学的发展It’ssuggestedthatevenbeforechildrenmasterthephonemiccontrastsoftheirlanguage,theybegintodevelopthearticulatorymovementsneededtoproducethesedistinctionsinspeech.Astheydeveloptheirnativelanguage,childrenmustmasterasystematicsetofpatternsandlearnhowtofitgivensoundsintothosepatterns.Childrenfirstacquirethesoundsfoundinalllanguagesoftheworld,nomatterwhatlanguagetheyareexposedto,andinlaterstageacquirethe“moredifficult”sounds.Ithasbeennotedthatcertainsoundsthatoccurinbabblingarelostwhenchildrenbegintospeakthelanguage,andthenreappearatalaterstage.b)Thedevelopmentofsyntax句法的发展Aschildrenproducesentencesthatmoreandmorecloselyapproximatetheadultgrammar,theybegintousefunctionalwordsaswellasinflectionalandderivationalmorphemesofthelanguage.c)Thedevelopmentofmorphology词形的发展Children’searlywordsaresimplyabunchofbarestemswithoutaffixes.Bythetimetheyaregoingbeyondthetelegraphicstage,children’sbegintoincorporatesomeoftheinflectionalmorphemeswhichindicatethegrammaticalfunctionofnounsandverbsused.–ing/-s/-ed.d)Thedevelopmentofvocabularyandsemantics词汇与语义的发展Itisestimatedthatduringthefirsttwoyears,achildhaveaverylimitedvocabularyrangingfrom50to100words.Atthisstage,thesemanticreferentofawordexpands.Overgeneralizationcanbeobservedinchildren’sacquisitionofthesemanticsystem,astheyacquiremoreandmorewords,the“over-generalized”meaningnarrowsdown.Bytheageoftwoandahalfyears,children’svocabularyisexpandingrapidlyandtheyareactuallyinitiatingmoretalks.Byfive,children’sutterancesaverageabout4.6wordspersentence,andtheirvocabularyincreasesbyabouttwentywordseachday.Six-7800Eight-17600(28000ifderivedformsincluded)\nIngeneral,childrenhavevirtuallyacquiredthebasicfabricoftheirnativelanguageattheageoffiveorsix.Itisagreedthatthepre-schoolyearsareacrucialperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition.1.Secondlanguageacquisition第二语言习得a)Acquisitionandlearning习得与学习Acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.Learning,however,isdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.b)Transferandinterference转移与干扰Naturally,learnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirL1knowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Thisisknownaslanguagetransfer.Transfercanbepositiveornegative.Presumably,positivetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisidenticalwith,orsimilarto,atargetlanguagepattern.Conversely,negativetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisdifferentfromthecounterpartpatternofthetargetlanguage.Negativetransferisaprocessmorecommonlyknownasinterference.Inordertoidentifytheareasoflearningdifficulty,aninter-lingualcontrastiveprocedurecalledContrastiveAnalysiswasdeveloped.Itwasfoundthatalargeproportionofgrammaticalerrorscouldnotbeexplainedbymothertongueinterference.Manyactualerrorsareattributabletoovergeneralizationinsteadofnegativetransfer.c)ErroranalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopment错误分析与第二语言习得的自然发展轨道TheErrorAnalysisapproachshowsthattherearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewaysinwhichdifferentL2learnersacquireanewlanguage.Alargeproportionofdevelopmental-typeerrorsinlearners’L2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.EvidencefromanumberofmorphemeandlongitudinalstudiesalsolendsupportfortheclaimthatL2learnersfollowbroadlysimilarroutes,althoughminordifferencesexistduetovariablelearnerfactorsandlearningsituations.d)Inter-languageandfossilization语际语与语言僵化现象SLAisviewedasaprocessofcreativeconstruction,inwhichalearnerconstructsaseriesofinternalrepresentationsthatcomprisesthelearner’sinterimknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,knownasinter-language,thatis,thelanguagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLA.Specifically,inter-languageconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguisticsystemsin-betweenandyetdistinctformthelearner’snativeandtargetlanguage.Itrepresentsthelearner’stransitionalcompetencemovingalongalearningcontinuumstretchingfromone’sL1competencetothetargetcompetence.Learner’sinter-languagefossilizedsomewayshortoftargetlanguagecompetencewhiletheinternalizedrulesystemcontainedrulesthataredifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguagesystem.Thefossilizationofthelearner’sinter-languageisbelievedtobeamajorsourceofincorrectformsresistanttofurtherinstruction.\na)Theroleofinput语言输入的作用ItisevidentthatSLAtakesplaceonlywhenthelearnerhasaccesstoL2inputandtheopportunitytointeractwiththeinput.b)Theroleofformalinstruction正规教学的作用Agreatnumberofadultslearnasecondlanguagethroughformalinstruction.Formalinstructionoccursinclassroomswhenattemptsaremadetoraiselearner’sconsciousnessaboutthenatureoftargetlanguagerulesinordertoaidlearning.AlthoughitisfoundthatformalinstructionhardlyaffectsthenaturalrouteofSLA,itdoesprovideopportunitiestoreceivecomprehensibleinput,andinsodoingenablestheclassroomlearnertoperformawiderangeoflinguistictasksthanthenaturalisticlearnerandtherebyacceleratestherateofacquisition.Studiessuggestthatformalinstructionmaynoteasilyinfluenceaparticulartypeoflanguagetask,suchascasualandspontaneousconversation,butitmayhelplearnersperformothertypesoftasks,suchasthoseassociatedwithplannedspeech,writingorcareer-orientedexamination.c)Individuallearnerfactors学习者的个人因素Itisknownthatthereisnouniformwayinwhichlearnersacquiretheknowledgeofasecondlanguage.Thereareanumberoffactorspertainingtothelearnerthatpotentiallyinfluencethewayinwhichasecondlanguageisacquired.Thelearnerfactorsincludeage,aptitude,motivation,personality,andcognitivestyle.