现代语言学自考资料 36页

※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※第一章绪论1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.最新范本,供参考！\nModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.4/Whatislanguage?语言的定义Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Sapiruses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.5/Designfeatures语言的甄别性特征Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.Arbitrariness语言的随意性Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnot最新范本,供参考！\nentirelyarbitrary.Example:differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Productivity语言的创造性Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Duality语言的二重性Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Displacement语言的移位性Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Culturaltransmission语言的文化传递性Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter2Phonology音系学1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage语言的声音媒介Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage(语言的声音媒介).Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.2．Whatisphonetics?什么是语音学？Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Therearethreebranchesofphonetics.Theyare:Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthe最新范本,供参考！\nspeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.3.Organsofspeech发音器官Thepharyngealcavity咽腔thethroatTheoralcavity口腔themouthThenasalcavity鼻腔thenoseTheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinmanyways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynx(喉)beforeitreachesanyofthecavities.Lyingacrosstheglottis(声门)arethevocalcords(声带).Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”.Thespeedofthevibrationdeterminesthepitchofthesound.Thetongueisthemostflexibleintheoralcavity.4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols(字母符号)only,calledbroadtranscription(宽式音标).Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符号),callednarrowtranscription(窄式音标).实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类最新范本,供参考！\na)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants英语辅音的分类按发音方式分Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricative擦音：[f][v][s][z][W][T][s][V][h]Affricate塞擦音：[tF][dV]Liquid流音：[l][r]Nasal鼻音：[m][n][N]Glide滑音：[w][j]按发音部位分Bilabial双唇音：[p][b][m][w]Labiodental唇齿音：[f][v]Dental齿音：[W][T]Alveolar齿龈音：[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]Velar软腭音：[k][g][N]Glottal声门音：[h]B)ClassificationofEnglishvowels英语元音的分类按舌头在口中的位置分：Frontvowel前元音：[i:][i][e][A][a]Centralvowel中元音：[[:][[][Q]Backvowel后元音：[u:][u][R:][R][a:]按口形的大小分：Closevowel闭元音：[i:][i][u:][u]Semi-closevowel半闭元音：[e][[:]Openvowel开元音：[A][a]Semi-openvowel半开元音：[[][R:][Q][R][a:]按唇形是否为圆分Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：[i:][i][e][A][a][[:][[][Q][a:]roundedvowel圆唇元音：[u:][u][R:][R]按语音的长短分Longvowel长元音[i:][[:][a:][u:][R:]Shortvowel短元音[i][e][A][a][[][Q][u][R]在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：[ei][ai][[u][au][Ri][i[][e[][u[]3.Phonology音系学Phonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;最新范本,供参考！\nPhonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.Example:单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。3.Phone,phoneme,andallophone语音（音素）、音位、音位变体Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p//t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p][t].Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.4.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theformeriscalledphonemiccontrast,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。Thelatteriscalledcomplementarydistribution;theyaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.如top中的送气的[p]和stop中不送气的[p]。Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.如[pen]和[ben]。5.Somerulesinphonology几条音系规则最新范本,供参考！\nA)sequentialrules系列规则Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.B)assimilationrules同化规则Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.C)deletionrules省略规则Theruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.3.Suprasegmentalfeatures-stress,tone,intonation超切分特征：重音、声调和语调Distinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.A)Stress重音B)Tone声调C)Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter3Morphology形态学Definition定义Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。1.Morpheme语素Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage语言最小的意义单位。Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.最新范本,供参考！\n语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。1.Typesofmorphemes语素的分类a)Freemorphemes自由语素Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.b)Boundmorphemes黏着语素Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.2.Typesofboundmorphemes黏着语素的分类Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes词根和词缀。Arootisoftenseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名词复数-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示过去时-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示进行时-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名词的所有格Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。实例：Tolerate词根toler-＋词缀-ate最新范本,供参考！\nQuickly自由语素quick＋词缀-lyCarelessness自由语素care＋词缀-less形成的派生词careless＋词缀-nessAffixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixesandsuffixes前缀和后缀Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”.Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestem,theymodify=ythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.1.Morphologicalrules形态学规则Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.2.Typesofcompoundwords复合词的类型Noun+noun名词＋名词如：handbook,sunshineAdjective+noun形容词＋名词如：highway,sweetheartAdjective+noun+ed形容词＋名词＋ed如：white-haired,green=eyedVerb+noun动词＋名词如：pickpocket,drivewayAdverb+noun副词＋名词如：downtown,upgradeNoun+verb名词＋动词如：toothpick,snowfallVerb+adverb动词＋副词如：follow-up,kick-offNoun+adjective名词＋形容词如：world-famous,life-long-ingform+noun-ing形式＋名词如：dining-room,reading-glassesOtherforms其它形式如：go-between,father-in-law,upbringing,have-nots,thank-younote3.Featuresofcompounds1)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.如armchair,follow-up,thunderbird2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：follow-up,crackdown,kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick,snowfall,facelift都是名词而不是动词。3)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.如hotdog,greenhouse等。4)Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethe最新范本,供参考！\nsecondelementreceivessecondarystress.如runningdog重音在running上，表示“走狗”这一-ing形式＋名词的复合词。如重音在dog上，则表示running用来修饰dog，意为“还在跑的狗”。※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter4Syntax句法学1．WhatisSyntax?Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreek.Itliterallymeantarrangement.Itmeansthatsentencesarestructuredaccordingtoaparticulararrangementofwords.Well-arrangedsentencesareconsideredgrammaticalsentences.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.2.Syntaxasasystemofrules句法是规则系统Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsfallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.3.Thebasiccomponentsofasentence句子的构成Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubject（主语）anditspredicate（谓语）whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.Thereferringexpression（被指称的对象）,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,isgrammaticallycalledsubject.Asubjectisusuallyanounoranounphrase.Thepartofsentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.4．Typesofsentence句子的类型a)Thesimplesentence简单句Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.b)Thecoordinatesentence并列句Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausejoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”but””or”.c)Thecomplexsentence复合句Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thatis,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.最新范本,供参考！\n5.Thelinearwordorderofasentence句子的线性词序Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.6.Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence句子的层次结构Thesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature.7.Treediagramsofsentencestructure句子结构树形图Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.8.Lexicalcategories词类Wordsareorganizedintogroupsoflexicalcategories,commonlyknownaspartsofspeech.Alanguagehasmajorandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesthatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosedcategoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesisfixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Englishhasfourmajorlexicalcategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories.主要词类：Noun(N)名词：studentVerb(V)动词：likeAdjective(Adj)形容词：tallAdverb(Adv)副词：loudly次要词类：Determiner(Det)限定词：the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux)助动词：can,do,willPreposition(Prep)介词：in,at,overPronoun(Pron)代词：he,she,us,mineConjunction(Conj)连词：and,or,but,whileInterjection(Int)感叹词：oh,ah,eh9.Phrasalcategories词组类型Fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP).NPandVPareessentialcomponentsofasentence,comprisingthesubjectandpredicate.Importantnote:NPjustcontainanoun,VPjustcontainaverb,PPjustcontainaprepositionandAPjustcontainanadjective.10.Grammaticalrelations语法关系最新范本,供参考！\nThestructuralandlogicalfunctionrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.InEnglishandmanyotherlanguages,thesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.Strictlyspeaking,thisstatementistrueonlyintermsofthestructuralsubject（结构主语）andthestructuralobject（结构宾语）.Thelogicalsubject（逻辑主语）andthelogicalobject（逻辑宾语）mayhavedifferentpositions.11.Phrasalstructurerules短语结构规则Thecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrasestructuralrule,orrewriterule.Example1:S→NPVP.Thearrowisreadas“consistof”,or“isrewrittenas”。Theruleis:asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase.Example2:NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)Anounphraseconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anoptionaldeterminer,anoptionaladjective,anobligatorynoun,anoptionalprepositionalphrase,and/oranoptionalsentence.Example3:VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)AP→A(PP)(S)PP→PNP12.Therecursivenessofphrasestructurerules短语结构规则的循环性Significantly,theserulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Althoughtheserulesarepartoftherulesandregulationsofthegrammar,theysufficetoexplainhowlanguageis“creative”,andhowspeakerswith“finite”mindshavetheabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitesetofsentences.Thatis,therecursivepropertycapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.13.X-bartheoryX标杆理论NP/VP/AP/PPallmustcontainoneobligatoryword,wecallXP.ThismeansthatXPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP/VP/AP/PPandXstandsforN/V/A/P.Therulemodifiedas:XP→(Specifier)X(Complement).14.Syntacticmovementandmovementrules句法位移和移位规则a)NPmovement名词词组位移NP-movementoccurswhenasentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Example:Themanbeatthechild./Thechildwasbeatenbytheman.NotallNP-movementarerelatedtochangingasentencefromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Example:Itseemstheyarequitefitforthejob./Theyseemquitefitforthejob.NP“they”hasmovedfromthesubjectpositionoftheembeddedclausetothematrixclause.最新范本,供参考！\na)WHmovementWH位移WH-movementisobligatoryinEnglishwhichchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.WH-movementissyntacticallyrequiredwhenthesentencechangesfromastatementintoaquestion.b)Othertypesofmovement其它类型的位移（1）Generalquestions(一般疑问句)inEnglishmayalsoinvolvesyntacticmovementwithAUX-movement.AUX-movementisthemovementofanauxiliaryverb,suchasbe/have/do/will/can/should,tothesentence-initialposition.Example:SheisanEnglishprofessor./IssheanEnglishprofessor?（2）Forstylisticpurposes,apost-verbadjectiveinanadverbialclausebeginningwith“though”mayproposetothesentenceinitialposition.Example:Thoughshewassick,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren./Sickthoughshewas,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren.15.D-structureandS-structure深层结构和表层结构Whatsyntacticmovementsuggestsforthestudyofthegrammaristhatasentencestructuremayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation,onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,andtheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationsarecommonlytermedasD-structure(thedeepstructure)andS-structure(thesurfacestructure).Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-structure.Sincesyntacticmovementdoesnotoccurtoallsentences,theD-structureandS-structureofsomesentenceslookexactlythesameatdifferentlevelsofrepresentation.16.Moveα–ageneralmovementrule移动α规则Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,thatis,theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveAlpha.AlphaisaGreeksymbolusedheretorepresentanyconstituent,andwhatMoveAlphasaysis“moveanyconstituenttoanyplace”.Itistoopowerful,sothegrammarshouldincludesomeconditionswhichwillrestrainthemovementpoweroftheruleandwhichwillstimulatethatonly“certainconstituents”canmovetoonly“certainpositions.”17．Theoryofuniversalgrammar普遍语法理论Sinceearly1980sNoamChomskydevelopedatheoryofuniversalgrammar(UG)knowastheprinciple-an-parameterstheory.UGisasystemoflinguisticknowledgeandahumanspecies-specificgiftwhichexistsinthemindorbrainofanormalhumanbeing.UGconsistsofasetofgeneralconditions,orgeneralprinciplesandalsocontainsasetofparameters.18.Generalprinciplesofuniversalgrammar普遍语法的广义原则a)CaseCondition.AsisrequiredbytheCaseConditionprinciple,anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyverborprepositiontotheobjectposition,orbyauxiliarytothesubjectposition.ThetheoryofCaseConditionaccountsforthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.b)AdjacencyCondition.AsisrequiredbyAdjacencyConditionprinciple,aCaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.Thisconditionexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.最新范本,供参考！\n18.Theparametersofuniversalgrammar普遍语法的参数ParametersaresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.Setinoneofthepermissibleways,aparameteracquiresaparticularvalue,forexample,aplusorminusvalue,whichallowsthegrammarofalanguagetobehaveinawayverydifferentfromthatofanotherlanguage.a)UGisbelievedtocontainaparameterwitthevalues(+strictadjacency)and(-strictadjacency)setontheAdjacencyCondition.WithEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe(+strictadjacency)value,whileforFrench-typelanguages,theparameterissettotheother.b)Anotherparameter,theonethatinvolveswordorder,concernsthedirectionalityofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalityParameter.ThisparameteroffersaneatandconsistentaccountforthetypologicaldifferenceinthewordorderwithintheVPcategorybetweenEnglishandJapanese.InEnglish,VP→VNPwhileinJapanese,VP→NPV.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter5Semantics语义学1.Whatissemantics？什么是语义学？Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.2.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)Thenamingtheory命名论ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2)Theconceptualistview意念论Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3)Contextualism语境论Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.4)Behaviorism行为主义论Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.3.Senseandreference意义和所指Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.最新范本,供参考！\n它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。1)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.2)Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.1.Majorsenserelations主要意义关系1）Synonymy同义关系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:a)Dialectalsynonyms–synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.示例：英国英语美国英语AutumnfallLiftelevatorFlatdepartmentWindscreenwindshieldTorchflashlightb)Stylisticsynonyms–synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.示例：Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentStart,begin,commenceKid,child,offspringc)SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.示例：Collaborator合作者/Accomplice同谋者，帮凶Like,love,admire,adore,worshipEconomical,frugal,thrifty,mean,miserly,stingyd)Collocationalsynonyms–synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.Accuse…ofcharge…withrebuke…fore)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms–synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.示例：Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑astound暗示难以置信Escape意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事flee意味匆匆离开最新范本,供参考！\n1）Polysemy多义关系Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.示例：Table2）Homonymy同音/同形异义关系Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.示例：同音异义词：rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace同形异义词：bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.完全同形异义词：fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.3）Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.示例：上义词：flower下义词：rose（玫瑰花）,tulip（郁金香）,carnation（康乃馨）,lily（百合花）,morningglory（牵牛花）上义词：animal下义词：dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bear4）Antonymy反义关系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.a)Gradableantonyms分级反义词Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.示例：Old和young是反义词，但它们代表两个极端，中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式，如middle-aged,mature,elderly.b)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.示例：Male/femalealive/deadc)Relationalopposites关系反义词最新范本,供参考！\nPairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.示例：Wife/husbandfather/sonteacher/pupildoctor/patientbuy/sellabove/below1.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的意义关系1)XissynonymouswithY.X和Y是同义关系示例：X:Heisabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.如果X是真的，Y也是真的，如果X是假的，Y也是假的。2)XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾关系示例：X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.如果X是真的，Y就是假的，如果X是假的，Y就是真的。3)XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)X蕴涵Y(Y是X的蕴涵)示例：X:Johnmarriedablondheiress(女继承人).Y:Johnmarriedablond.蕴涵是一种包含关系。如果X蕴涵Y，X的意义就为Y所包含。4)XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX)X预示Y(Y是X的先决条件)示例：X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.5)Xisacontradiction.X是个矛盾句示例：X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtobachelor.X句子本身自相矛盾，它永远是假的。6)Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在语义上反常示例：X:Thetablehasbadintentions.X在语义上反常，它就是荒唐的。2.Analysisofmeaning1)Componentialanalysis–awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningTheapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.最新范本,供参考！\nOneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.示例：Man和woman这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE这些共同的特征，但在MALE这一特征上不同。Man和boy这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ANIMATE,+MALE这些共同的特征，但在ADULT这一特征上不同。1)Predicationanalysis–awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning述谓结构分析－一种句义分析法Linguistshaveproposeddifferentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.WhatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysisproposedbythelinguistGLeech.Ingrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,anditisanalyzedintosuchgrammaticalcomponentsassubject,predicate,andattribute.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsnasentence.句子的语法形式不影响其语义述谓，下列所有句子具有同样的述谓：Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.Tom,smoke!DoesTomsmoke?这是同一语义述谓TOM(SMOKE)在语法上的多种体现。Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placepredication(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).示例：Thebuildingisnexttothelibrary.(Two-placepredication)Heissnoring.(One-placepredication)Itislate.(No-placepredication)※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※最新范本,供参考！\nChapter6Pragmatics语用学1.Whatispragmatics?什么是语用学？Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Itplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.2.Pragmaticsandsemantics语用学和语义学Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning,buttheyaredifferent.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning,thecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.3.Context语境Contextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.4.Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized,whileutterancemeaningisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.5.Speechacttheory言语行为理论Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50’softhe20thcentury.Accordingtospeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.Accordingtospeechacttheory,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.a)Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntaxlexiconandphonology.b)Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.c)Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtabouttheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Americanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearleclassifiedillocutionaryactsintofivegeneraltypes.Eachtypehasacommon,generalpurpose.最新范本,供参考！\na)representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue示例：Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore./theearthisglobe.b)directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething示例：Openthewindow!/Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?c)commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction示例：Ipromisetocome./Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.d)expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate示例：I’msorryforthemessIhavemade./It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.e)declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething示例：Inowdeclarethemeetingopen./Ifireyou.Importantremark:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint,buttheydifferintheirstrengthorforth.1.Principleofconversation会话原则AmericanphilosopherPaulGriceconcludedthatnaturallanguagehaditsownlogic.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple(CP).Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:在最高原则，即合作原则下，人们在交际中要遵守如下四个准则：a)Themaximofquantity数量准则lMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).lDonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.b)Themaximofquality质量准则lDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.不要说自己认为不真实的话。lDonotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。c)Themaximofrelation关联准则lBerelevant.说话要贴切，有关联。d)Themaximofmanner方式准则lAvoidobscurityofexpression.避免晦涩的词语。lAvoidambiguity.避免歧义。lBebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).说话要简要（避免累赘）。lBeorderly.说话要有条理。ItisinterestingandimportanttonotethatwhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,theydonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Forvariousreasonsthesemaximsareoftenviolated,or“flouted”.MostoftheseviolationsgiverisetowhatGricecalls“conversationalimplicature”.Inotherword,whenweviolateanyofthesemaxims,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.示例1：DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.最新范本,供参考！\n违反数量准则示例2：Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.违反质量准则示例3：Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don’tyouthink?Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?违反关联准则示例4：Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.违反方式准则※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter7HistoricalLinguistics历史语言学1.Thepurposeandsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage研究语言变化的目的和意义Thehistoricalstudyoflanguageisofgreatimportancetoourunderstandingofhumanlanguagesandhumanlinguisticcompetence.Researchesinhistoricallinguisticsshedlightonprehistoricdevelopmentintheevolutionoflanguageandtheconnectionsofearlierandlatervariantsofthesamelanguage,andprovidevaluableinsightsintothekinshippatternsofdifferentlanguages.Thehistoricalstudyoflanguagealsoenablesustodeterminehownon-linguisticfactors,suchassocial,culturalandpsychologicalfactors,interactovertimetotriggerlinguisticchange.2.Thenatureoflanguagechange语言变化的本质Alllivinglanguageschangewithtime.Unlessalanguageisnolongerspokenbythegeneralpublicofasociety,suchasLatin,itschangeisinevitable.Asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic.Languagechangeisextensive,takingplaceinvirtuallyallaspectsofthegrammar.Althoughlanguagechangeisuniversal,inevitable,andinsomecases,vigorous,itisneveranovernightoccurrence.Languagedevelopmentmayberegardedaslinguisticevolutionfromonestagetoanother.3.MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish英语历史发展的主要阶段a)OldEnglish(450-1100)古英语阶段b)MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)中古英语阶段c)ModernEnglish(1500-今)现代英语阶段MostModernEnglishspeakersfindMiddleEnglishonlypartiallycomprehensible,andOldEnglishsimplyunintelligible,justlikeaforeignlanguagehardlyrecognizableasthenativelanguagetheyspeak.OldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhenAnglo-SaxonsinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.最新范本,供参考！\nMiddleEnglishbeganwiththearrivaloftheNormanFrenchinvadersinEngland.MiddleEnglishhadbeendeeplyinfluencedbyNormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar.ModernEnglishisseparatedwithMiddleEnglishwithEuropeanrenaissancemovement.AsBritishinfluencereachedothercontinents,the“BritishEmpire”establishedEnglish-speakingcoloniesinmanypartsoftheworld.EnglishisnowthenativelanguageintheUnitedStates,Canada,AustraliaandNewZealand.1.LinguisticchangeinEnglish英语语言系统的变化Languagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthegrammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.Linguisticchangeoccursinallcomponentsofthegrammar,includingchangesinthesound,morphological,syntactic,lexicalandsemanticsystems.a)soundchange语音变化lVowelsoundchange元音变化ThechangeoccurredattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiod,approximately1400-1600.Thesechangesledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenthephonemicrepresentationsofwordsandmorphemes,thatis,betweenthepronunciationandthespellingsystemofModernEnglish.KnownastheGreatVowelShiftinthehistoryofEnglish,thesechangesinvolvesevenlong,ortense,vowels.RefertoP132ofthetestbookforexamples.lSoundloss语音消失Notonlydidtypesofvowelsoundschange,butsomesoundssimplydisappearedfromthegeneralpronunciationofEnglish.lSoundaddition语音增加WhilesomesoundswerelostinthecourseofthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish,othersoundswereadded.Soundadditionincludesthegainorinsertionofasound.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.RefertoP134ofthetextbookforexamples.lSoundmovement语音移位Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovement,knownasmetathesis,involvesareversalinpositionoftwoadjoiningsoundsegments.b)Morphologicalchange形态变化lAffixloss词缀消失lAffixaddition词缀增加c)Syntacticchange句法变化lRuleloss规则消失消失的规则包括：1》Morphosyntacticruleofadjectiveagreement.Therulestipulatedthattheendingsofadjectivesmustagreewiththeheadnounincase,number,andgender.2》OldEnglishsyntaxcontainedadouble-negationrule,whichwouldnegateasentencewithbothnegatorsof“ne”(“not”)and“nǽfre”(“never”).lRuleaddition规则增加最新范本,供参考！\n增加的规则有：1》Particlemovementrule.实例：Johnthrewouttheballthroughthewindow.其中throwout中的小品词out可以移位Johnthrewtheballoutthroughthewindow.2》AnothersyntacticrulegaininEnglishconcernsthedistinctionbetweenauxiliaryverbsandmainverbs.InmodernEnglishthesyntacticbehaviorofauxiliaryverbsdiffersfromthatofmainverbsinthatonlyauxiliaryverbscanbefrontedininterrogativesentences.lRulechange规则变化发生变化的规则有：1》Anegativesentencecouldbeformedbymerelyadding“not’attheendofanaffirmativesentencepriortoShakespeare’stime.2》Languagesvaryintheorderofthesubject,theverbandtheobject.a)Lexicalchange词汇变化lLexicalloss词汇消失lLexicaladdition词汇增加ThehistoryofEnglishlexicalexpansionisonethatischaracterizedwithheavyborrowingandwordformation.AlthoughEnglishhasborrowedmostheavilyfromFrench,otherlanguagesasLatinandGreekhavealsomadetheircontributions.Inadditiontoborrowing,newwordshavemadetheirentryintoEnglishviawordformationrulessuchascompounding,derivation,acronymformation,blending,abbreviation,clipping,back-formation,andcoinage.b)Semanticchange语义变化lSemanticbroadening语义扩大化lSemanticnarrowing语义狭义化lSemanticshift语义演变1.LanguageFamily语系Languagefamilyisagroupofhistorically(orgenetically)relatedlanguagesthathavedevelopedfromacommonancestrallanguage.Forexample,mostofthelanguagesofEurope,Persia,andthenorthpartofIndiabelongtotheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily,andtheyhavethesameoriginknownasProto-Indo-European.2.ClassifyinggeneticallyrelatedlanguagesItisestimatedthatoverfivethousandlanguagesarespokenintheworldtoday.Thereareabout30languagefamilieswithfourmainones:theIndo-EuropeanFamily,theSino-TibetanFamily,theAustronesianFamily,andtheAfroasiaticFamily.世界上大概有五千多中语言，30个语系，其中最重要的4个语系是：印欧语系、汉藏语言、澳斯特罗尼亚语系和非亚语系。TheIndo-Europeanfamilyhasamembershipofabout150languages.TheSino-Tibetanfamilyconsistsofabout300EastAsianlanguages.TheAustronesianFamilycomprisesupto1000differentlanguagesscatteredoveronethirdoftheSouthernHemisphere.TheAfroasiaticFamilyismadeupofabout250languagesspreadacrossthenorthernpartofAfricaandwesternAsia.EnglishisbelongedtotheIndo-EuropeanFamily.最新范本,供参考！\nManyseeminglydifferentlanguagesareactuallygeneticallyrelatedassistersorcousinsofabiglanguagefamilyandhavedevelopedfromacommon,possibly“dead”,ancestrallanguage.Historicallinguistshavetoidentifyandclassifyfamiliesofrelatedlanguagesinagenealogicalfamilytree,andtoreconstructtheprotolanguage.Alanguagefamilyisestablishedbytheuseofamethodknownascomparativereconstruction.Byidentifyingandcomparingsimilarlinguisticformswithsimilarmeaningsacrossrelatedlanguages,,historicallinguistsreconstructtheprotoforminthecommonancestrallanguage.Workonthesystematicform-meaningresemblanceincognates,wordsthathavedescendedfromacommonsource,liesatthecoreofcomparativereconstruction.1.TheIndo-EuropeanlanguagefamilyTheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamilyisthefirstandmostwidelyinvestigatedlanguagefamilyoftheworld.ThediscoveryofIndo-EuropeanbeganwiththeworkofBritishscholarSirWilliamJones.In1822,theGermanscholarJacobGrimmspecifiedinhistreatisetheregularsoundcorrespondencesamongSanskrit,Greek,Latin,andtheGermaniclanguages.Grimm’smajorcontributiontohistoricallinguisticsishisexplanationoftherelationshipsamongcognatesintermsofasoundshift,thesystematicmodificationofaseriesofphonemes.Becausethesesoundchangesweresostrikinglyregularandlaw-like,theybecamecollectivelyasGrimm’sLaw.2.Thecausesoflanguagechange语音变化的原因a)Soundassimilation语音的同化Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Assimilationprocessesarephonologicalchangesduetophysiologicalmechanisms.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundismadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology-thelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.Anotherexampleofsoundassimilationinvolvesvowelnasalization.Anotherexampleofsoundassimilationthatresultsinmorpho-logicalandlexicalchangesisthe/k/soundasintheword“key”.b)Rulesimplificationandregularization规则的简化与统一Rulesimplificationandregularizationinvolvesexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.c)Internalborrowing内部借用Anotherkindofchangethatismotivatedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemoryiscalledinternalborrowing.d)Elaboration规则的细化Ruleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.Languageseemstomaintainabalanceinexpressivenessandgrammaticalelaborationovertime.Ifaparticulargrammaticalfeatureislostasaresultof,say,achangeinthephonologicalsystem,someotherfeaturemaybeaddedinanothercomponentofthegrammar,suchasinthesyntax.e)Sociologicaltriggers社会因素Linguisticshavebecomeincreasinglyawareofsociologicaltriggersforlanguagechange.Radicalsocio-politicalchangessuchaswars,invasions,occupation,colonialization,andlanguageplanningandstandardizationpoliciesleadtovigorouslanguagechanges.f)Culturaltransmission文化传播Althoughanewgenerationhastofindawayofusingthelanguageofthepreviousgeneration,it最新范本,供参考！\nhastofindexpressionsthatcanbestcommunicatetheviewsandconceptsofthetimeandthechangedandever-changingsociallife,andre-createthelanguagesofthecommunity.Manyyoungspeakershavethedesiretosounddifferentfromtheoldergeneration.a)Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar儿童语法接近成年人语法Childrenacquiretheirnativelanguagenotthroughformalinstructionofgrammaticalrules.Childrenusuallyconstructtheirpersonalgrammarsbythemselvesandgeneralizerulesfrothelinguisticinformationtheyhear.Theyareexposedtodiverselinguisticinformation.Childrenhaveastrongdesiretosimplifyandregularizegrammaticalrules,particularlywhentheyseeadultsusecertainrulesoptionally.Insuchcases,achangeinthegrammaroccurs.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter8Socio-linguistics社会语言学1.Whatissocio-linguistics?什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontexts.2.Languagevariation语言变异a)Speechcommunity言语社区Insociolinguisticstudies,speakersaretreatedasmembersofsocialgroups.Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledspeechcommunity.Aspeechcommunitythusdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity(whichmayhaveasfewmembersasafamilyorasmanymemberasacountry),andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeechcommunityisthatthemembersofthegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlinguisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyrelatedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.b)Speechvariety言语变体Speechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Aspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.Consideredamoreneutralterm,speechvarietyissometimesusedinsteadofstandardlanguage,vernacularlanguage,dialect,pidgin,creole,etc.Speechvariationmovesonascaleofthenationallanguage,dialect,andindividualwaysofcommunication.Sociolinguistsareparticularlyinterestedintheretypesofspeechvariety,ordialects,namely,regionaldialects,sociolectsorsocialdialects,andfunctionalspeechvarietiesknownasregisters.Thetermdialect,asatechnicalterminlinguistics,carriesnovaluejudgmentandsimplyreferstoadistinctformoflanguage.c)Regionalvariation地域变异Regionalvariationisspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernibleanddefinable.Themostdistinguishablelinguisticfeatureofaregionaldialectisitsaccent.Oftenspeakersofthesamelanguagebutofdifferentregionaldialectsofthelanguagehaveaverydifficulttimecommunicating.Onewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguagestandardizationknownaslanguageplanning.d)Socialvariation社会变异最新范本,供参考！\nSocialvariationgivesrisetosociolectswhicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategorieswhichreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalandethnicbackground,aswellastheirsexandage.a)Stylisticvariation文体变异Therearedifferencesassociatedwiththespeechsituation:whoisspeakingtowhomaboutunderwhatcircumstancesforwhatpurpose.Stylisticvariationinaperson’sspeech,orwriting,usuallyrangesoncontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.Stylecanalsorefertoaparticularperson’suseofspeechorwritingatalltimes,ortoawayofspeakingorwritingataparticularperiodoftime,e.g.,Dickens’style,Hemingway’sstyle.b)Idiolectalvariation个人言语变异Whenanindividualspeaks,whatisactuallyproducedisauniquelanguagesystemofthespeaker,expressedwithintheoverallsystemofaparticularlanguage.Suchapersonaldialectisreferredtoasidiolect.Idiolectis,thus,apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual’sspeech.1.StandardandnonstandardlanguageThestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.Thestandardlanguageofmanycountriesisalsodesignatedasthenationalorofficiallanguage.许多国家的标准语同时被指定为全国语或官方语。Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvernacular,languages.不同于标准语的变体叫做非标准语，其发音、语法和词汇明显有别于公认的标准。Alldialectsofalanguageareequallyeffectiveinexpressingideas.标准语和非标准语无优劣之分。2.Diglossiaandbilingualism双言与双语现象a)Diglossia双言现象Diglossiadescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.Usually,oneismorestandardvarietycalledthehighvariety,orH-variety,whichisusedformoreformalorseriousmatter,suchasspeechesmadeingovernment,themedia,school,orchurch.Andtheotherisanon-prestigevarietycalledthelowvariety,orL-variety,whichisusedincolloquialandotherinformalsituations,suchasconversationswithfamilyorfriends,orinstructionsgiventoservants,waiters,orworkmen.Oftenthehighvarietyisregardedasaliterarystandardcalledaclassicallanguage,whereasthelowvarietyremainsalocalvernacular.b)Bilingualism双语现象Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.Atypicalexampleofabilingualcommunityisanethnic最新范本,供参考！\nghettowheremost,ifnotall,ofitsinhabitantsareeitherimmigrantsorchildrenofimmigrants.Bilingualismalsooccurstocountrieswhichhavedesignatedtwoofficiallanguagesfornationorregionaluse.Perfectbilingualism,howeverisuncommon.Abilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.1.Ethnicdialect少数民族方言a)BlackEnglish黑人英语――少数民族方言个案研究BlackEnglishisanethnicvarietyoftheEnglishlanguage.Itisspokenmostlybyalargesectionofnon-middle-classAmericanBlacks.BlackEnglishisstigmatizedas“badEnglish”,apurelysocialattitudethathasnolinguisticbasis.Likeothervarieties,BlackEnglishhassomevocabularyofitsown.Ithasanumberofdistinctivefeaturesinitsphonological,morphologicalandsyntacticsystemswhicharerule-governedandsystematic.黑人英语与标准英语的区别的具体内容见课本182－184页。b)ThesocialenvironmentofBlackEnglish黑人英语的社会环境TheassumptionthatBlackEnglishis“geneticallyinferior”,“deficient”,and“incomplete”,issimplyungrounded.ThedistinctivefeaturesofBlackEnglishpersistnotforracialreasons,butforsocial,educational,andeconomicreasons.Racialdiscrimination,accompaniedbysocialisolation,intensifiedsomedialectaldifferencesbetweenBlackEnglishandStandardEnglish.2.Socialdialect社会方言a)Educationvarieties教育变体Socialdialects,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.Thespeakersofasocialdialectusuallyshareasimilarsocialbackground.Manydifferencesinlanguagesusepersistforeducationalreasons.Itis,therefore,importanttoknow,forexample,whetheragroupofspeakerssharesimilareducationalbackgrounds.b)Agevarieties年龄变体Thewaylanguageisusedcorrelateswiththeageofindividualspeakers.Theimportanceofageasasocialfactorinlanguagevariationisstrikinglydemonstratedbychildren’slanguageasitdevelopswithage.Whilesomedifferencesinpronunciationarefoundtocorrelatewithdifferentgenerationofspeakers,themoststrikingdifferencesarelexical.c)Gendervarieties性别变体Variationinlanguageuseisalsoassociatedwiththesexofindividualspeakers.Sex-preferentialdifferentiationintermsofspeechvarietiesofmalesandfemalesexistsinallnaturallanguageacrosstheword.Inparticular,theintentionalorunintentionaluseofsexistlanguageinspeechorwritingreflectsgender-biasedculturaltraditionsinmanysocieties.d)Registervarieties语域变体Registersarelanguagevarietiesappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,forthatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.Aformalsituationmayconditionaformalregister,characterizedbyformal,standardlexicalitemsandgrammaticalrules,andspeechpatterns;whileaninformalsettingmaybereflectedinalessformalregisterthatexhibitsmorecausalvocabulary,nonstandardgrammaticalfeatures,andstigmatizedspeechpatterns.e)Addressterms称谓语Onespecificaspectofsituationaluseoflanguageisthatofaddresstermusage.Anaddressterm,oraddressform,referstothewordorwordsusedtoaddresssomebodyinspeechorwriting.Itisapparentthatthewayinwhichpeopleaddressoneanotherusuallydependsontheirage,sex,最新范本,供参考！\nsocialgroup,andpersonalrelationship.TheEnglishsystemoffrequentlyusedaddresstermsincludesfirstname,lastname,title+lastname,titlealone,andkinterm.a)Slang俚语Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimebyraciness.Thecentralcharacteristicofslangcomesfromthemotiveforitsuse:adesirefornovelty,forvividemphasis,formembershipinaparticulargrouporclassofpeople,orforbeingupwiththetimesoralittleahead.Althoughslangisoftenveryvividandexpressive,thetermslanghastraditionallycarriedanegativeconnotation:itisdeemedtobeundesirableinformalstyleoflanguage.Mostslangtermscomeandgolikefadsandfashion,onlyfewremainandbecomeacceptablelanguagebythewholesociety.b)Linguistictaboo禁忌语Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.Insociolinguistics,taboo,orratherlinguistictaboo,denotesanyprohibitionontheuseofparticularlexicalitemstorefertoobjectsoracts.Aslanguageuseiscontextualizedinparticularsocialsettings,linguistictaboooriginatesfromsocialtaboo.Whenanactistaboo,referencetothisactmayalsobecometaboo.Taboowordsandexpressionsreflecttheparticularsocialcustomsandviewsofaparticularculture.c)Euphemism委婉语EuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordeuphemismos,meaning“tospeakwithgoodwords.”Aeuphemism,then,isamild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter9Psycholinguistics心理语言学1.Thebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage语言的生理基础a)ThecaseofPhineasGage盖奇案例OneafternooninSeptember1848,atragedyhappedtoGage.AhugemetalrodhadgonethroughthefrontpartofGage’sbrain,buthislanguageabilitieswereunaffected.Thepointofthisamazingcaseisthat,ifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefront.b)Thehumanbrain人的大脑Thehumanbrainisthemostcomplicatedorganofthebody.Lyingundertheskull,thehumanbraincontainsanaverageoftenbillionnervecellscalledneurons.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralcortex.Thecortexisthedecision-makingorganofthebody,receivingmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandinitiatingallvoluntaryaction.Manyofthecognitiveabilitiesthatdistinguishhumansfromothermammals,suchassophisticatedreasoning,linguisticskills,andmusicalability,arebelievedtoresideinthecortex.Thebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledhemispheres,oneontherightandoneontheleft.Thesehemispheresareconnectedliketwinsrightdownthemiddlebyanumberofinterconnectingnervepathways.最新范本,供参考！\nIngeneral,therighthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,theleftsideofthebody,whereasthelefthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,therightsideofthebody.a)Brainlateralization大脑的侧化Thelefthemispherehasprimaryresponsibilityforlanguage,whiletherighthemispherecontrolsandspatialskillsaswellastheperceptionofnonlinguisticsoundsandmusicalmelodies.Thelocalizationofthecognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledlateralization.Becauseeachcerebralhemispherehasuniquefunctionalsuperiority,itismoreaccuratetoconceiveofthehemispheresascomplementarilyspecialized.Theprocessoflateralizationisbelievedtobematurational.Thatis,brainlateralizationisgeneticallyprogrammed,buttakestimetodevelop.1.Linguisticlateralization语言侧化a)Lefthemisphericdominanceforlanguage左半球的语言优势Linguisticlateralizationintermsoflefthemisphericdominanceforlanguageisfoundtoexistinanoverwhelmingmajorityofhumanbeings.Althoughbothrightandlefthemispheresarelateralizedcomplementarilyinmanyaspectsofhumancognitiveandperceptualactivities,languagefunctionsarebelievedtobelateralizedprimarilyinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.Researchhasshownthatdifferentaspectsoflanguageprocessingappeartobemorecharacteristicofthelefthemispherethantheother.b)Dichoticlisteningresearch两耳分听实验Evidenceinsupportingoflateralizationforlanguageinthelefthemispherecomesfromresearchesindichoticlisteningtasks.Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Abasicassumption,thus,wouldbethatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Bymeansofdichoticlisteningtask,wecananalyzethecharacteristicsofincomingstimuliprocessedbytheindividualhemisphere.Researchshowsthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocessingallsounds,butonlyforthosethatarelinguisticinnature,thusprovidingevidenceinsupportoftheviewthattheleftsideofthebrainisspecializedforlanguageandthatitiswherelanguagecentersreside.2.Thelanguagecenters语言中枢a)Broca’sarea布罗卡区In1861,aFrenchmannamedPaulBrocafoundthedamagetoaspecificareaofthebrainresultsinspeechproductiondeficit.ThisareawasnowknownasBroca’sarea.LanguagedisorderresultingfromadamagetoBroca’sareainthebrainrevealsword-findingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.b)Wernicke’sarea韦尼克区In1874,ayoungGermanCarlWernickefoundanotherdifferentareaofthelefthemispherenow最新范本,供参考！\nknownasWernicke’sarea.ThedamagetoWernick’sareawillresultinspeechcomprehensiondeficit.a)Theangulargyrus角形脑回AngulargyrusliesbehindWernicke’sarea.Itisthelanguagecenterresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversa.Thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,andforthecomprehensionofwrittenlanguage,allofwhichrequireconnectionsbetweenvisualandspeechregions.b)Languageperception,comprehensionandproduction语言的感知、理解与表达Thebrainactivityinvolvedinhearing,understandingandthensayingawordwouldfollowadefinitepattern.Whenwelisten,thewordisheardandcomprehendedviaWernicke’sarea.ThissignalthentransferredtoBroca’sareawherepreparationsaremadetoproduceit.Asignalisthensenttothemotorareacontrollingthevocaltracttophysicallyarticulatetheword.Whenwespeak,wordsaredrawnfromWernicke’sareaandsenttoBroca’sarea,whichdeterminesthedetailsoftheirformandpronunciation.Theappropriateinstructionsarethensenttothemotorarea.1.Thecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition语言习得关键期a)Thecriticalperiodhypothesis关键期假设Thecriticalperiodhypothesisreferstoaperiodinone’slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasily,swiftly,andwithoutexplicitinstruction.Itisgenerallythoughtthatthedevelopmentoflateralizationinthebrainmaybeconnectedtothelanguagelearningabilitiesofchildreninthatcriticalagefrotheacquisitionofthefirstlanguagecoincideswiththeperiodofbrainlateralization.Itisbelievedthatlanguageacquisitionbeginsataboutthesametimeaslateralizationdoesandisnormallycomplete,asfarastheessentialsareconnected,bythetimethattheprocessoflateralizationcomestoanend.Itbecomesprogressivelymoredifficulttoacquirelanguageaftertheageatwhichlateralizationiscomplete.b)ThecaseofGenieandthedegenerationoflanguagefacultywithage吉妮案例与语言机制的退化ThecaseofGenieconfirmsthecriticalperiodhypothesis.AsafeconclusionthatwecandrawfromGenie’scaseforthemomentisthatthelanguagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiodandconsequently,mostlinguisticskillscannotdevelop.2.Languageandthought语言与思维a)Earlyviewsonlanguageandthought有关语言与思维关系的一些早期观点Earlyviewsonlanguageandthoughtincludetwocontrastingviews:mentalistandempiricist.Mentaliststatedthatlanguageandthoughtwerethesamething.Thinkinginvolvedthesamemotoractivitiesusedinspeaking.Thatis,whenwe“thinkaloud”,itiscalledspeech;whenwe“speakcovertly”,itiscalledthinking.Empiricistarguedthatmankindcouldnothavethesamelanguagesandthatlanguageswerebutsignsofpsychologicalexperience.b)TheSapir-Whorfhypothesis萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设最新范本,供参考！\nTheAmericananthropologist-linguistEdwardSapirandhisstudentBenjaminLeeWhorfproposedasweeping,two-prongedhypothesisconcerninglanguageandthought.Whorfproposedfirstthatallhigherlevelsofthinkingaredependentonlanguage.Orputitmorebluntly,languagedeterminesthought,hencethestrongnotionoflinguisticdeterminism.Becauselanguagesdifferinmanyways,Whorfalsobelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,thatis,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground,hencethenotionoflinguisticrelativism.Iffollowsfromthisstrongversionofthehypothesisthatthereisnorealtranslationandthatitisimpossibletolearnthelanguageofadifferentcultureunlessthelearnerabandonshisorhereownmodeofthinkingandacquiresthethoughtpatternsofthenativespeakersofthetargetlanguage.a)ArgumentsagainsttheSapir-Whorfhypothesis对萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设的批判lWordsandmeaning.Itiswidelyacceptedthatthevocabularyofalanguageconsistsofnothingmorethanmeaninglesslabelswhicharemanipulatedbylanguageuserstoelicitemotionalreactionsorbehavioralresponses,toimpartinformationortodirectthelistener’sattention.Themeaningofawordorphrasedependslargelyonthecommunicativecontext.Asthecontextofawordorsentencechanges,itseffectandmeaningalsochange.lGrammaticalstructure.ThesyntacticsystemofalanguageandtheperceptualsystemofthespeakersofthatlanguagedonothavethekindofinterdependentrelationshipthattheSapir-Whorfhypothesisclaimedtohave.Manygrammaticalfeaturesofalanguagearepurelysuperficialaspectsoflinguisticstructure.lTranslation.Anothermajorargumentagainstthehypothesiscomesfromthefactthatsuccessfultranslationbetweenlanguagescanbemade.ThetranslationargumentissupportedbytheveryfactthatconceptualuniquenessofalanguagesuchasHopicannonethelessbeexplainedinEnglish.lSecondlanguageacquisition.Iflanguageshavedifferentconceptualsystems,thensomeonewhospeaksonelanguagewillbeunabletolearntheotherlanguagebecausehelackstherightconceptualsystem.However,sincepeoplecanlearnradicallydifferentlanguages,thoselanguagescouldn’thavedifferentconceptualsystems.lLanguageandworldviews.Thelanguagesystemdoesnotnecessarilyprovidespecificsofone’sworldviews.Ontheonehand,peoplespeakingthesamelanguagemayhavedifferentworldviews,includingpolitical,social,religious,scientificandphilosophicalviews.Ontheotherhand,peoplespeakingdifferentlanguagesmaysharesimilarpolitical,social,religious,scientificorphilosophicalviews.Moreover,onelanguagecandescribemanydifferentworldviews,asisevidentinthecaseofsuccessfultranslation.语言与世界观。语言体系并不一定能影响一个人对世界的看法。一方面，说同一语言的b)Understandingtherelationoflanguageandthought对语言与思维关系的再认识lMajorfunctionsoflanguage语言的主要功能Languageprovidesameansfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtandinparticular,asservingtwomajorfunctions,namely,interpersonalcommunicationandintrapersonalcommunication.语lThedevelopmentandblendingoflanguageandthought语言与思维的发展和融合Althoughlanguageandthoughtaretwodifferentsystemsthatdevelopalongtwodifferentroutes,partofthelanguagesystemisactuallypartofthethoughtsystem.Thethoughtandlanguagesystemsarejoinedthroughmeaningandideas.最新范本,供参考！\nlThinkingwithoutlanguage脱离语言的思维Thereareoccasionswhenonecanthinkwithoutlanguage,justasonemayspeakwithoutthinking.Peoplemaycommunicatetheirfeelingsorthoughtsvianonverbalsignalssuchasfacialexpressions,gestures.lLanguageasaconventionalcodingsystemtoexpressthought语言－表达思维的约定俗成的编码系统RecallthatinChapter1,wedefinedlanguageasasystemofarbitrarycodesusedforhumancommunication.Whatthatmeansisthattherelationshipbetweenthecodingsystemoflanguageontheonehandandtheconceptualizingsystemofthoughtontheotherisconventionalratherthangenetic.Forsomehistoricalreasonsthatarenotcompletelyunderstood,naturallanguageshavedevelopedintodifferentcodingsystems,inspiteofthefactthatallhumansshareageneralconceptualizingcapacity.However,aparticularcodingsystemcomprisesaparticularsetofarbitraryverbalsymbolswhichdonotarisefrom,nordotheygivebirthto,aparticularconceptualsystem.lThewaysinwhichlanguageaffectsthought语言影响思维的方式Althoughlanguageisnotalwaysanecessaryconditionforthought,theuseofitisindispensabletothecontent,direction,andelaborationofparticularthoughts.WhilewerejectthestrongversionoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,itsweakerversionisgenerallyacceptedbymostscholars.Werecognizethatlanguagedoesnotsomuchdeterminethewaywethinkasitinfluencesthewayweperceivetheworldandrecallthings,andaffectstheeasewithwhichweperformmentaltasks.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter10LanguageAcquisition语言习得1.Firstlanguageacquisition第一语言习得a)Thebiologicalbasisoflanguageacquisition语言习得的生物基础Languageacquisitionisageneticallydeterminedcapacitythatallhumansareendowedwith.Humanisbiologicallyprogrammedtoacquireatleastonelanguage.Anychildwhoiscapableofacquiringsomeparticularhumanlanguageiscapableofacquiringanyhumanlanguagespontaneouslyandeffortlessly.b)Languageacquisitionastheacquisitionofgrammaticalrules语言习得即语法规则的习得Languageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthegrammaticalsystemoflanguage.Itdoesn’tmeanthateveryspecificruleallowedbythegrammaticalsystemofalanguagemustbeacquired.Whatisactuallyacquiredbyyoungchildrenaresomegeneralprinciplethatarefundamentaltothegrammaticalityofspeech.c)Theroleofinputandinteraction语言输入与交流的作用Althoughhumanbeingsaregeneticallypredeterminedtoacquirelanguage,thisgeneticpredispositionisnotasufficientconditionforlanguagedevelopment.Forlanguagetobe最新范本,供参考！\neventuallyacquired,childrenmustbeprovidedwithanappropriatelinguisticenvironmentwhichtheyhaveaccesstolanguagedataandopportunitiestointeractwiththeinput.a)Theroleofinstruction语言教学的作用Forthevastmajorityofchildren,languagedevelopmentoccursspontaneouslyandrequireslittleconsciousinstruction.Infact,parentsoftenfailintheirattempttoteachchildrengrammaticalrules.b)Theroleofcorrectionandreinforcement纠错与强化的作用Correctionandreinforcementarenotkeyfactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment.Reinforcementhasbeenfoundtooccurusuallyinchildren’spronunciationorreportingofthetruthfulnessofutterances,ratherthaninthegrammaticalityofsentences.c)Theroleofimitation模仿的作用Selectiveimitationsuggeststhatchildrendonotblindlymimicadultspeechinaparrotfashion,butratherexploititinveryrestrictedwaytoimprovetheirlinguisticskills.Thepointisthatimitationplaysatbestaveryminorroleinthechild’smasteryoflanguage.1.Stagesoffirstlanguageacquisition第一语言习得的发展阶段a)Theprelinguisticstage前语言阶段Theearliestsoundsproducedbyinfantscannotbeconsideredearlylanguage.Thenoisessuchascriesandwhimpersofthenewborninalllanguagecommunitiessoundthesame.Suchnoisesareb)Theone-wordstage独词句阶段Atsomepointinthelatepartofthefirstyearortheearlypartofthesecondyear,thebabblingstagegraduallygiveswaytotheearliestrecognizablestageoflanguage,oftenreferredtoastheone-wordstage.Children’sone-wordutterancesarealsocalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.One-wordutterancessometimesshowanoverextensionorunder-extensionofreference.Typically,childrenusethesamewordforthingsthathaveasimilarappearance.c)Thetwo-wordstage双词句阶段Ingeneral,thetwo-wordstagebeginsroughlyinthesecondhalfofhechild’ssecondyear.Atthisstage,childrenareheardutteringtwo-wordexpressionsinavarietyofcombinations;expressacertainvarietyofgrammaticalrelations.Inaddition,thelanguageatthisstagebeginstoreflectthedistinctionbetweensentencetypes,suchasnegativesentences,imperativeandquestions.d)Themultiwordstage多词句阶段Betweentwoandthreeyearsold,childrenbegintoproducelongerutteranceswithmorecomplexgrammaticalstructures.Whenachildstartsstringingmorethantwowordstogether,theutterancesmaybetwo,three,four,orfivewordsorlonger,hencethemultiwordstage.Theearlymultiwordutterancestypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexical最新范本,供参考！\ncategoriesas“to”,“the”,“can”.Thesemultiwordutterancesareusuallythe“substantive”or“content”wordsthatcarrythemainmessage.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestyleoflanguagefoundintelegrams,utterancesatthisacquisitionstageareoftenreferredtoastelegraphicspeech.Althoughtheylackgrammaticalmorphemes,telegraphicsentencesarenotsimplywordsthatarerandomlystrungtogether,butfollowtheprinciplesofsentenceformation.Asthistypeoftelegram-formatspeechincreases,anumberofgrammaticalmorphemesbegintoappearinchildren’sspeech,suchas“-s”,“-ed”andprepositions.Itisnormallyassumedthatbytheageoffive,withanoperatingvocabularyofmorethan2000words,childrenhavecompletedthegreaterpartofthelanguageacquisitionprocess.1.Thedevelopmentofthegrammaticalsystem语法体系的发展a)Thedevelopmentofphonology音系学的发展It’ssuggestedthatevenbeforechildrenmasterthephonemiccontrastsoftheirlanguage,theybegintodevelopthearticulatorymovementsneededtoproducethesedistinctionsinspeech.Astheydeveloptheirnativelanguage,childrenmustmasterasystematicsetofpatternsandlearnhowtofitgivensoundsintothosepatterns.Childrenfirstacquirethesoundsfoundinalllanguagesoftheworld,nomatterwhatlanguagetheyareexposedto,andinlaterstageacquirethe“moredifficult”sounds.Ithasbeennotedthatcertainsoundsthatoccurinbabblingarelostwhenchildrenbegintospeakthelanguage,andthenreappearatalaterstage.b)Thedevelopmentofsyntax句法的发展Aschildrenproducesentencesthatmoreandmorecloselyapproximatetheadultgrammar,theybegintousefunctionalwordsaswellasinflectionalandderivationalmorphemesofthelanguage.c)Thedevelopmentofmorphology词形的发展Children’searlywordsaresimplyabunchofbarestemswithoutaffixes.Bythetimetheyaregoingbeyondthetelegraphicstage,children’sbegintoincorporatesomeoftheinflectionalmorphemeswhichindicatethegrammaticalfunctionofnounsandverbsused.–ing/-s/-ed.d)Thedevelopmentofvocabularyandsemantics词汇与语义的发展Itisestimatedthatduringthefirsttwoyears,achildhaveaverylimitedvocabularyrangingfrom50to100words.Atthisstage,thesemanticreferentofawordexpands.Overgeneralizationcanbeobservedinchildren’sacquisitionofthesemanticsystem,astheyacquiremoreandmorewords,the“over-generalized”meaningnarrowsdown.Bytheageoftwoandahalfyears,children’svocabularyisexpandingrapidlyandtheyareactuallyinitiatingmoretalks.Byfive,children’sutterancesaverageabout4.6wordspersentence,andtheirvocabularyincreasesbyabouttwentywordseachday.Six-7800Eight-17600(28000ifderivedformsincluded)最新范本,供参考！\nIngeneral,childrenhavevirtuallyacquiredthebasicfabricoftheirnativelanguageattheageoffiveorsix.Itisagreedthatthepre-schoolyearsareacrucialperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition.1.Secondlanguageacquisition第二语言习得a)Acquisitionandlearning习得与学习Acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.Learning,however,isdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.b)Transferandinterference转移与干扰Naturally,learnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirL1knowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Thisisknownaslanguagetransfer.Transfercanbepositiveornegative.Presumably,positivetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisidenticalwith,orsimilarto,atargetlanguagepattern.Conversely,negativetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisdifferentfromthecounterpartpatternofthetargetlanguage.Negativetransferisaprocessmorecommonlyknownasinterference.Inordertoidentifytheareasoflearningdifficulty,aninter-lingualcontrastiveprocedurecalledContrastiveAnalysiswasdeveloped.Itwasfoundthatalargeproportionofgrammaticalerrorscouldnotbeexplainedbymothertongueinterference.Manyactualerrorsareattributabletoovergeneralizationinsteadofnegativetransfer.c)ErroranalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopment错误分析与第二语言习得的自然发展轨道TheErrorAnalysisapproachshowsthattherearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewaysinwhichdifferentL2learnersacquireanewlanguage.Alargeproportionofdevelopmental-typeerrorsinlearners’L2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.EvidencefromanumberofmorphemeandlongitudinalstudiesalsolendsupportfortheclaimthatL2learnersfollowbroadlysimilarroutes,althoughminordifferencesexistduetovariablelearnerfactorsandlearningsituations.d)Inter-languageandfossilization语际语与语言僵化现象SLAisviewedasaprocessofcreativeconstruction,inwhichalearnerconstructsaseriesofinternalrepresentationsthatcomprisesthelearner’sinterimknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,knownasinter-language,thatis,thelanguagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLA.Specifically,inter-languageconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguisticsystemsin-betweenandyetdistinctformthelearner’snativeandtargetlanguage.Itrepresentsthelearner’stransitionalcompetencemovingalongalearningcontinuumstretchingfromone’sL1competencetothetargetcompetence.Learner’sinter-languagefossilizedsomewayshortoftargetlanguagecompetencewhiletheinternalizedrulesystemcontainedrulesthataredifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguagesystem.Thefossilizationofthelearner’sinter-languageisbelievedtobeamajorsourceofincorrectformsresistanttofurtherinstruction.最新范本,供参考！\na)Theroleofinput语言输入的作用ItisevidentthatSLAtakesplaceonlywhenthelearnerhasaccesstoL2inputandtheopportunitytointeractwiththeinput.b)Theroleofformalinstruction正规教学的作用Agreatnumberofadultslearnasecondlanguagethroughformalinstruction.Formalinstructionoccursinclassroomswhenattemptsaremadetoraiselearner’sconsciousnessaboutthenatureoftargetlanguagerulesinordertoaidlearning.AlthoughitisfoundthatformalinstructionhardlyaffectsthenaturalrouteofSLA,itdoesprovideopportunitiestoreceivecomprehensibleinput,andinsodoingenablestheclassroomlearnertoperformawiderangeoflinguistictasksthanthenaturalisticlearnerandtherebyacceleratestherateofacquisition.Studiessuggestthatformalinstructionmaynoteasilyinfluenceaparticulartypeoflanguagetask,suchascasualandspontaneousconversation,butitmayhelplearnersperformothertypesoftasks,suchasthoseassociatedwithplannedspeech,writingorcareer-orientedexamination.c)Individuallearnerfactors学习者的个人因素Itisknownthatthereisnouniformwayinwhichlearnersacquiretheknowledgeofasecondlanguage.Thereareanumberoffactorspertainingtothelearnerthatpotentiallyinfluencethewayinwhichasecondlanguageisacquired.Thelearnerfactorsincludeage,aptitude,motivation,personality,andcognitivestyle.【本文档内容可以自由复制内容或自由编辑修改内容期待你的好评和关注，我们将会做得更好】最新范本,供参考！