语言学重点概念总结 6页

lDesignfeatures（定义特征）:thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguagesofanimals.Synchronic（共时的）:saidofanapproachthatstudieslanguageatatheoretical“point”intime.Diachronic（历时的）:saidofthestudyofdevelopmentoflanguageandlanguagesovertime.Prescriptive（规定式）:tomakeanauthoritarianstatementaboutthecorrectnessofaparticularuseoflanguage.Descriptive（描写式）:tomakeanobjectiveandsystematicaccountofthepatternsanduseofalanguageorvariety.Competence（语言能力）:unconsciousknowledgeofthesystemofgrammaticalrulesinalanguage.对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:thelanguageactuallyusedbypeopleinspeakingorwriting.人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。Langue（语言）:thelanguagesystemsharedbya“speechcommunity”.一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。Parole（言语）:theconcreteutterancesofaspeaker.说话人实际说的话语。lPhonology（音系学）：thestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguage.Itaimstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（国际音标）:asetofstandardphoneticsymbolsintheformofachart(theIPAchart),designedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationsince1888.Ithasbeenrevisedfromtimetotimetoincludenewdiscoveriesandchangesinphonetictheoryandpractice.CardinalVowels（基本元音）:asetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.Assimilation（同化现象）:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound,atermoftenusedsynonymouslywith“coarticulation”.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,itiscalledregressive”assimilation”;theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressive”assimilation”.MaximalOnsetPrinciple（最大节首原则）:aprinciplefordividingthesyllablewhenthereisaclusterofconsonantsbetweentwovowels,whichstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.\nlMorpheme（语素）:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Inflection（屈折变化）:isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixessuchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcasestowhichtheyareattached.Derivation（派生词）:isthemostcommonword-formationprocesstobefoundintheproductionofnewEnglishwords.ItisaccomplishedbymeansofalargenumberofaffixesofEnglishlanguage,andshowstherelationshipbetweenrootsandaffixes.Boundmorpheme（黏着语素）:refertothosewhichcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Freemorpheme（自由语素）:refertothosewhichmayoccuraloneorwhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.Grammaticalword（语法词）:refertothosewhichmainlyworkforconstructinggroup,phrase,clausecomplex,oreventext,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns.Grammaticalwordsservetolinktogetherdifferentcontentparts.Lexicalword（词汇词）:refertothosewhichmainlyworkforreferringtosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Lexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage.Closed-class（封闭类）:AwordthatbelongstotheCLOSED-CLASSisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimited,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,andothers.Onecannoteasilyaddordeduceanewmember.Open-class（开放类）:isonewhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Whennewideas,inventions,ordiscoveriesemerge,newmembersarecontinuallyandconstantlybeingaddedtothelexicon.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbsareallopen-classitems.lSyntax（句法）:thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.Co-occurrence（共现）:Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Endocentric（向心结构）:endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,whichservesasadefinableCenterorHeadofthewhole.Exocentric（离心结构）:exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”\ninsidethegroup.Subordination（从属关系）:referstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.Coordination（并列）:acommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Cohesion:referstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,thatdefineitasatext.lSynonymy（同义关系）:synonymyisthetechnicalnameforoneofthesenserelationsbetweenlinguisticunits,namelythesamenessrelation.Semanticcomponents（语义成分）:semanticcomponents,orsemanticfeatures,aresemanticunitssmallerthanthemeaningofaword.Forexample,themeaningofthewordboymaybeanalysedintothreecomponents:HUMAN,YOUNGandMALE.lPsycholinguistics（心理语言学）:psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Asaninterdisciplinaryacademicfieldbasedonpsychologyandlinguistics,psycholinguisticsinvestigatesthesixfollowingsubjects:languageacquisition,languagecomprehension,languageproduction,languagedisorders,languageandthought,andcognitivearchitectureoflanguage,Themostimportantresearchsubjectsareacquisition,comprehensionandproduction.Languageacquisition（语言习得）:languageacquisitionisoneofthecentraltopicsinpsycholinguistics.Acquiringafirstlanguageissomethingeverychilddoessuccessfully,inamatterofafewyearsandwithouttheneedforformallessons.Fourphasesareidentifiedandacknowledgedintheprocessoflanguageacquisition:holophrasticstage,two-wordstage,three-wordutterances,and,fluentgrammaticalconversationstage.cohortmodel（集群模型）:ThecohortmodelisasupposeddoctrinedealingwiththespokenwordrecognitionpostulatedbyMarslen-WilsonandWelshin1990,itissuggestedthatthefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.Thesecandidatescompetewithoneanotherforactivation.Asmoreacousticinputisanalyzed,candidatesthatarenolongerconsistentwiththeinputdropoutoftheset.Thisprocesscontinuesuntilonlyonewordcandidatematchestheinput;thebestfittingwordmaybechosenifnosinglecandidateisaclearwinner.interactivemodel（交互模型）:Theinteractivemodelholdsthatinrecognizingthespokenwordshigherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Lexicalknowledgecanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.Thereisinteractivityintheformoflexicaleffectsontheperceptionofsublexicalunits.\nIncertaincases,listeners’knowledgeofwordscanleadtotheinhibitionofcertainphonemes;inothercases,listenerscontinueto“hear”phonemesthathavebeenremovedfromthespeechsignalandreplacedbynoise.serialmodel（串行模型）:Serialmodelproposesthatthesentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowstheconstraintsofalanguage’sgrammarwithremarkablespeed.Serialmodeldescribeshowtheprocessorquicklyconstructsoneormorerepresentationsofasentencebasedonarestrictedrangeofinformationthatisguaranteedtoberelevanttoitsinterpretation,primarilygrammaticalinformation.Anysuchrepresentationisthenquicklyinterpretedandevaluated,usingthefullrangeofinformationthatmightberelevant.parallelmodel（并行模型）:Parallelmodelemphasizesthatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Parallelmodeldescribeshowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatlistenersandreadersintegrategrammaticalandsituationalknowledgeinunderstandingasentence.figure-groundalignment（图形-背景关系）:Figure-groundalignmentseemstoapplytospacewiththegroundastheprepositionalobjectandtheprepositionexpressingthespatialrelationalconfiguration.Italsoappliestohumanperceptionofmovingobjects.Sincethemovingobjectistypicallythemostprominentone,becauseitismoving,itistypicallythefigure,whiletheremainingstimuliconstitutetheground.basiclevelcategory（基本层次范畴）:Basiclevelcategoryisthemosteconomicallevelatwhichyoucanfindthemostrelevantinformation.Theinformationonourinteractionswithobjectsintherealworldarestoredatthislevel.Itisatthislevelthatweconjureupthegeneralgestaltofthecategory.imageschema（意象图式）:Imageschemaisarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.Metaphor（隐喻）:Metaphorinvolvesthecomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.It’softendescribedintermsofatargetdomainandasourcedomain.Thetargetdomainistheexperiencebeingdescribedbythemetaphorandthesourcedomainisthemeansthatweuseinordertodescribetheexperience.Metonymy（转喻）:Metonymyisafigureofspeechthathastodowiththesubstitutionofthenameofonethingforthatofanother.lCommunicativeCompetence（交际能力）:isasociolinguisticruleputforwardbyDellHymesincontrastwiththe“competence”vs.“performance”dichotomyintheoreticlinguistics.ContextofSituation（语境理论）:isaframeworkputforwardbyFirth.Thistheoryhasthefollowingelements(Firth,1950:43-44[Palmer,1981:53-54]).\nA.Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:persons,personalities:(i)Theverbalactionoftheparticipants.(ii)Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants.B.Therelevantobjects.C.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.EthnographyofCommunication（交际民族学）:isanauthoritativeresearchframeworkofourtimeinalinguisticstudyofsocialandculturalfactors(Hymes,1962).SpeechCommunity（话语群体）:referstoagroupofpeoplewho“sharenotonlythesamerulesofspeaking,butatleastonelinguisticvarietyaswell.”(Hymes,1972:52)SPEAKING:isamnemonicwayofsummarizingcertaincomponentsofspeechwhichmakepossiblethedescriptionandanalysisofcommunicativebehavior:S=Situation（场景）,P=Participants（参与者）,E=Ends（目的）,A=Actsequence（相关形式与内容）,K=Key（语气）,I=Instrumentalities（语式）,N=Norms（准则）,andG=Genres（体裁）.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis（萨丕尔--沃尔夫假设）:isatheoreticassumptionwhichsuggeststhatourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers'uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Inaloosesense,thistermcanbeinterchangeablyusedwithlinguisticrelativityandlinguisticdeterminism.VariationistLinguistics（语言变体）:isatheoreticframeworkadvancedbyWilliamLabovtostudyhowlanguagevariationandchangetakeplaceindifferentsocialcontextsorgeographicdistrictsundertheinfluenceofsocialfactorssuchaseconomics,education,class,gender,style,andsoon.Themethoditusesisbasicallyquantitative,butqualitativeinstrumentshaverecentlybeenintroducedinthisbranchoflinguisticresearchforabetterdescriptionandexplanationofthedatacollected.lperformative（施为句）:Aperformativeisasentencelike“InamethisshiptheQueenElizabeth”,whichdoesnotdescribethingsandcannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteringofaperformativesentenceis,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.Verbslike“name”areknownasperformativeverbs.locutionaryact（发话行为）:Thelocutionaryactistheordinaryactweperformwhenwespeak,i.e.wemoveourvocalorgansandproduceanumberofsounds,organizedinacertainwayandwithacertainmeaning.Forexample,whensomebodysays“Morning!”,wecouldsayheproducedasound,wordorsentence—“Morning!”perlocutionaryact（取效行为）:Theperlocutionaryactconcernstheconsequentialeffectsofalocutionuponthehearer.Bytellingsomebodysomethingthespeakermaychangetheopinionoftheheareronsomething,ormisleadhim,orsurprisehim,orinducehimtodosomething,etc.Whetherornottheseeffectsareintendedbythespeaker,theycanberegardedaspartoftheactthatthespeakerhasperformed.illocutionaryact（行事行为）:Theillocutionaryactistheactperformedintheperformingofalocutionaryact.Whenwespeakwenotonlyproducesomeunitsoflanguagewithcertainmeanings,butalsomakeclearour\npurposeinproducingthem,thewayweintendthemtobeunderstood,ortheyalsohavecertainforcesasAustinpreferstosay.Intheexampleof“Morning!”wecansayithastheforceofagreeting,oritoughttohavebeentakenasagreeting.cooperativeprinciple（合作原则）:ThisistheprinciplesuggestedbyGriceabouttheregularityinconversation,whichreads“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged”.Therearefourcategoriesofmaximsunderit,namely,quantitymaxims,qualitymaxims,relationmaxim,andmannermaxims.conversationalimplicature（会话含义）:Thisisatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.Inthissense,implicatureiscomparabletoillocutionaryforceinspeechacttheoryinthattheyarebothconcernedwiththecontextualsideofmeaning,or言外之意inChinese.entailment（衍推）:Thisisalogicalrelationshipbetweentwosentencesinwhichthetruthofthesecondnecessarilyfollowsfromthetruthofthefirst,whilethefalsityofthefirstfollowsfromthefalsityofthesecond.Forexample,when“Isawaboy”istrue,“Isawachild”isnecessarilytrue;andif“Isawachild”isnottrue,“Isawaboy”willnotbetrueeither.lthird-personnarrator（第三人称叙述者）:Ifthenarratorisnotacharacterinthefictionalworld,heorsheisusuallycalledaTHIRD-PERSONNARRATOR,becausereferencetoallthecharactersinthefictionalworldofthestorywillinvolvetheuseofthethird-personpronouns,he,she,itorthey.Thistypeofnarratorisarguablythedominantnarratortype.i-narrator（第一人称叙述者）:Thepersonwhotellsthestorymayalsobeacharacterinthefictionalworldofthestory,relatingthestoryaftertheevent.InthiscasethecriticscallthenarratoraFIRST-PERSONNARRATORorI-NARRATORbecausewhenthenarratorreferstohimselforherselfinthestorythefirstpersonpronounIisused.First-personnarratorsareoftensaidtobe“limited”becausetheydon'tknowallthefactsor“unreliable”becausetheytrickthereaderbywithholdinginformationortellinguntruths.Thisoftenhappensinmurderandmysterystories.lconcordance（共现索引）:sortingthedatainsomeway,forexample,alphabeticallyonwordsoccurringintheimmediatecontextoftheword.corpus（语料库）:acollectionoflinguisticdata,eithercompiledaswrittentextsorasatranscriptionofrecordedspeech.Themainpurposeofacorpusistoverifyahypothesisaboutlanguage,forexample,todeterminehowtheusageofaparticularsound,word,orsyntacticconstructionvaries.