英语语言学语用学 101页

Chapter8Pragmatics(1)\nTeachingProgramWhatisPragmatics?ThemainbranchesofPragmaticsThenatureofPragmaticsMeaningandContextDeixis(Deictic)\n1999年4月朱镕基在MIT演讲时说：1947年我在清华大学上学时，清华被称为中国的MIT。教科书大部分来自MIT……我当时就憧憬有一天能来MIT学习，拿一个学位，但是，校长先生请不要误会，我绝对不是要个荣誉的学位。……如果我要学位，一定要经过考试，答辩。\nA:你不戴眼镜的时候很漂亮。B:那我戴眼镜的时候很丑了。\nWhatispragmatics?Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowlanguageisusedtocommunicatewithinitssituationalcontext.意会大于言传。语用学要解释为什么“意会大于言传”。找出其中的规律。找出语言运用的规律。\n1.Itdealswithhowspeakersusedlanguageinwayswhichcannotbepredictedfromlinguisticknowledgealone.2.Itdealswithhowlistenersarriveattheintendedmeaningofspeakers.3.Itdealswiththegeneralprinciplesfollowedbyhumanbeingswhentheycommunicatewithoneanother.\nDiscussionQuestions:1.Girl:Todayismybirthday.Boy:……2.A:Icouldeatanox.B:……3.A:Doyouknowwhatthatwordmean?B:Don’tyouhaveadictionary?4.A:CanIhelpyou?B:……\n１．传统语言学感到棘手的一系列现象，如暗示，含蓄，修辞格等都可以通过语用理论得到解释。Pragmaticsconcernsallthe‘aspectsofmeaningthatcannotbepredictedbylinguisticknowledgealoneandtakesintoaccountknowledgeaboutthephysicalandsocialworld.’1）A:Icouldeatanox.B:Dinnerwillbereadyinaminute.2）A:Thisismyonlywife.B:……天长地久有时尽，此恨绵绵无绝期（白居易《长恨歌》）\n2．语用学是对语义学的补充和发展。如：逻辑连接词，话语小品词等不好解决。SemanticsandPragmaticsarecomplementarytoeachother.1）A:Howlonghaveyouknownhim?B:Well,Ishouldsayabout5years.2)A:Howdoyoulikethisdress?B:Well,thecolorisnice.\n3．语用研究成果帮助了功能主义者，反过来又促进了自身的发展。1）Peterboughtacar.2)ItwasPeterwhoboughtacar.3)ItwasacarthatPeterbought.4)WhatPeterboughtwasacar.\nII.ThemainbranchesofPragmatics:Cross-culturalpragmatics跨文化语用学Societalpragmatics社会语用学Cognitivepragmatics认知语用学\n1.Cross-culturalpragmatics受文化影响的社交语用现象：A:Yourhandwritingisreallyexcellent.B:No,…Oh,really?Thankyou.Gotoworkhappily,andcomebacksafely.Goodluck!Careful!Mindyourself!\n2)Societalpragmatics社会语用学语言的使用与交际的场合，都要讲究语用。GuangzhouRestaurant----EatinginGuangzhou,weareNumberOne.(ChinaDaily)GuangzhouRestaurant----ifyouhadachancetoeatoutinGuangzhou,itwillbeyourfirstchoice.\n3.Cognitivepragmatics认知和交际关系的一系列问题。A:Doyouwantsomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.\nIII.ThenatureofPragmatics1.Illustratesthefactwhenthesentencescannotactuallystated2.Illustratesthefactwecandothingsaswellassaythings.3.Illustratesthefactthatthelistenerscandeterminetheeffectofwhatissaid.4.Illustratesthefactthatacorrectanswertoaquestionisunnecessary.5.Illustratesthefactthatspeakersdon’talwaysmeanexactlywhattheysay.\nI.Whatisitspragmaticmeaning?A:Youareafool?B:Whatdoyoumean?1)Speaker’smeaning：verbalcommunicationmeaning.A.Canyoutellmethetime?B.Yes,Ican.\n2)UtterancemeaningEvenJohnlikesMary.祥林嫂，你又来了。（鲁迅：《祝福》）Someofhisnovelsareinteresting.3)Contextualmeaning语境义A:Doyouwantsomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.\n语用学是一门科学地研究语言使用的学科。Pragmaticsisthestudyoflanguageuseandlinguisticcommunication.Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowutteranceshavemeaninginsituations.\nStudent:IsProf.Plagin?Assisstant:Well,thelightsarestilloninhisoffice.Student1:So,didyoulikemyparty?Student2:Ohyes,itwasgreat!(thinks:Itwasinfactdeadboring…)\nPragmaticsbroadlydefined:thestudyoflanguagefromthepointofviewoftheusers,especiallyofthechoicestheymake,theconstraintstheyencounterinusinglanguageinsocialinteraction,andtheeffectstheiruseoflanguagehasontheotherparticipantsinanactofcommunication(Crystal1997:301)\n语用学的崛起是语义研究的发展和延伸的结果，是对意义的研究。它所研究的不是抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，而是语言在一定的语境中使用时体现出来的具体的意义。语用学和语义学被视为语言系统两个不同的组成部分，既相互独立又相互补充。\nSemanticsPragmaticsrelationshipsinsidebetweenlang.&thethelanguageworldabstractconcrete,entity\nII.MeaningandContext:语用研究中的两个基本概念-----意义和语境Leech:语义语用都研究意义，但处于两个不同的层面。语义学研究的句子的意义时回答“X表达什么意义”的问题，语用学研究的话语意义时回答“你说X想表达什么意义”。\n1．Meaning:语言文字本身固有的属性，内在的固定的，不受外界因素影响（时间，地点等）Adoghere.犬科哺乳动物。语用不同：小心有狗。弄清句子意义，何时，何地，何种情况，有何目的。Itiscoldinhere.目的：关窗，开暖气，借衣服…(不存在字面上。)\nLeech:MeaningofSemantics1)说话人要表达某种意义的愿望，这种意义可能在字面上表明，也可能不表明。2)听话人对这种意义的理解可能要依赖语境。3)意义是行为的结果，不存在于静态之中，它涉及作用（说话人对听话人的某种效果）和互动作用。\n2.Context:Contextcansupportarangeofmeanings.Whenaformisusedinaneliminatesthemeaningspossibletothatcontextotherthanthosetheformcansignal:thecontexteliminatesfromconsiderationthemeaningspossibletotheformotherthanthosethecontextcansupport.(Hymes,1962)\nJohnislikeafisha)Heswimswell.b)Hecandrinkalotofbear.c)Heisascoldasafish.)Hewenttotownyesterday.(Ifthehearerhascommittedsomecrime,andheisaninspector.Itmaymean:Becareful,youmaybefoundout.)\nAcontextispsychologicalconstruct,asubsetofthehearer’sassumptionsabouttheworld.Acontext…isnotlimitedtoinformationabouttheimmediatephysicalenvironmentortheimmediatelyprecedingutterances:expectationsaboutthefuture,scientifichypothesesorreligiousbeliefs,anecdotalmemories,generalculturalassumptions,beliefsaboutthementalstateofthespeaker,mayallplayaroleininterpretation.(SperberandWilson1995:15-6)\n使用语言进行交际离不开一定的客观条件和背景。语言活动总是在特定时间，空间，情景，人之间进行的。语境很重要。\n对所使用的语言的掌握语言知识对语言交际上文的了解百科全书的知识（常识）背景特定文化的社会规范语境知识特定文化的会话规则语言外知识　　　　　交际时间，地点情景　交际主题知识　　交际的正式程度交际参与者的相互关系相互知识\nIII.Deixis(Deictic)指示词，指示语Deixis：Therelationbetweenthelanguageandtheimmediateinteractionalcontextofuse.Thetermorawordorphrasewhichdirectlyrelatesanutterancetoatime,place,orpersons.\nGivemeahandout.a.astudentintheclassroomb.abeggaronthestreetc.apersonintheshop\n“Othello”Iago和Cassio的谈话SheispersuadedIwillmarryher,outofherownloveandflattery,notoutofmypromise…Shewashereevennow;shehauntsmeineveryplace.Iwast’otherdaytalkingonthesea-bank…Shefallsmethusaboutmyneck.\n1)Persondeixis:人称指示（you,he,sheetc.）Facetofacecommunicationinvolvesanumberofsocialactorswhoserolesunderliethebasicthree-folddistinctionbetweenfirstperson,thedeicticcentrealongthesocialdimension,secondpersonoraddressee受话人,andthirdpersonorothers.\nThomasgivesanexample:A.Theoldmanthinkshe’sinlovewithhisdaughter.B.(Appalled)GoodGod!We’reoutofourdepthhere.Wecouldnotunderstand.A.No,no,no---hehasn’tgotadaughter---theoldmanthinkshe’sinlovewithhisdaughter.B.Theoldmanis?A.Hamlet,inlovewiththeoldman’sdaughter,theoldmanthinks.B.Ha!It’sbeginningtomakesense!Unrequitedpassion!\n2)Placedeixis:地点指示(here,there,right,left,etc.)A:Iwanttogetout,notin.B:Ok,it’sthisway.3)Timedeixis:时间指示(now,then,next,etc.)YesterdayIdefendedmyPhDthesis.I’mplanningapartynow.I’llstartlookingforajobtomorrow.Justasecond.\nJFKvisitedBellagioin1963.hespentonenightattheVillaSerbelloni,wherehisroomisnowreferredtoasthe‘Kennedyroom’.Fouryearsearlier,in1959,thispropertyhadbeenbequeathedbythelateEllaWalker,PrincipessadellaTorreeTasso,totheRockefellerFoundation.Hewasmurderedlaterthatyear.\n4）Attitudinaldeixis：态度指示法语：tu,vous德语：du,Sie荷兰语：jij,U西班牙语：tu,Usted中文:您，你；老人家，老头\nDebby:Goanywheretoday?Dan:Yes,wewentdowntoComo.Upbybus,andbackbyhydrofoil.Debby:Anythingtoseethere?Dan:PerhapsnotthemostinterestingofItaliantowns,butIt’sworththetrip.Debby:ImightdothatnextSaturday.Jane:WhatdoyoumeanwhenyousayperhapsnotthemostinterestingofItaliantowns?Jack:Hemeanscertainlynotthemostinteresting…Dan:Justtryingtobepolite...\nWhenyouusethedeixis,youshouldhaveaclearpointofreference.参照点Putthepianohere.No,nothere,buthere.不是这个，也不是这个；就是这个，就是这个家伙抢了我的钱包。\n1.Giveusexamplesabout“speechisanaction”.E.g.1.InamethisshipNo.1GreatMarch.2.AttentionPlease.2.Whatistheovertoneofthespeech?Giveussomeexamplesandillustratethem.\nPragmaticsII\nTeachingProgram:I.SpeechActTheory1)Locution2)Illocution3)PerlocutionII.Thecooperativeprinciple\nI.SpeechActTheory言语行为理论Utterancecanbeusedtoperformanact.J.Austinbelieves:languageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings;itisoftenusedtodothings,toperformacts.\nWhenDebbysaid:Goanywheretoday?,shedoessth.Whatshedoesiscalled‘askingaquestion’.Thistypeofact,structurallycorrespondingtosentences,iscalledSpeechAct.用于回答语言是怎样用于“行”而不是用于“指”。体现了“言”则“行”这一语言观。\nAustinandSearledistinguish:Performatives&Constatives①Performatives:施为句（言有所为）Theutteringofthesesentencesis(oratleastisapartof)thedoingoftheaction.1）‘‘Ido.”2)“InamethisshipElizabeth.”3)“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”4)“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”\nTheprinciplesforperformatives:Therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.说话者必须具备实施某一行为条件的人。Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.说话人对实施行为必须抱有诚意。Therelevantpeoplemustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.说话人对自己所说的话不能反悔。\n②Constatives:表述句（言有所述）言有所述的句子是可以验证的。真假Itisdescribedwhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.1)Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.2)I’llshowyouthepicture.\n2、施为句的句法形式：第一人称单数做主语用一般现在时，陈述语气，主动语态，可以插入therebyhereby(以此，特此)如：Ipromise…,Iobject…,Iagree…,Iswear…I+VP\n3、提出著名的言语行为三分说Austin虽然提出了言有所为，言有所述的区别，但这一区别不尽令人满意。他无法找到区别句法形式的标准。更重要的是他发现了言有所为的三个条件同样适用言有所述对话语。\na.AllJohn’schildrenarebald,butJohnhasnochildren.自相矛盾的不恰当的言有所述Ibequeathmywatchtoyou,butIhaven’tgotawatch.言有所述必须有陈述和描述对象。b.Thatcatisonthemat,butIcan’tbelieveit.Ipromisetobethere.ButIhavenointentionofbeingthere.不符合言有所为的条件。说话人必须相信所说的话。AlltheguestsareFrenchandsomeofthemaren’t.他发现言有所为的三个条件同样适应言有所述。\nV.Austin的新模式：ThetheoryoftheIllocutionact1)Locution言内行为；以言述事发话行为（说话表达字面意义）Thesound,word,sentencethespeakerproduced.“说话行为本身，”语音，音节，单词，短语，句子等。这一行为并不能构成语言交际，但实施此行为同时，又实施了一个言外行为和言后行为。\nI.IllocutionaryActTheory:言语行为理论Searle:Themeaningisdefinedintermsofwhatspeechactsspeakersperformrelativetohearers.主要研究“以言行事行为”。\n2)Illocution言外行为；以言行事行事语力Askingoransweringaquestion,givingsomeinformationoranassuranceorawarning,announcingaverdictoranintention,pronouncingsentencesmakinganappointmentoranappealoracriticism,makinganidentificationorgivingadescriptionetc.Insecondsense,tosaysth.istodosth.\n3)Perlocution言后行为；以言成事取效行为Thepartoftheactperformedbyspeakerorbymeansoflocutionaryact.言后行为说话带来的后果，通过言语行为使听话人受到警告，接受规劝，不去做某事，或去做某事。（言语带来的后果和变化）语用研究更注重言后行为。\ne.g.Thereisawaspinyourear.Locution:thespeakersaidthisutteranceIllocution:heperformstheactofwarningPerlocution:itmaycausethehearertopanic,scream,andscratchwildlyatyourear.Causingtheseemotionsandactionsofyoursistheperlocutionofthisutterance,ortheperlocutionaryactthespeakerperformsbymakingthisutterance.\ne.g.Afteryou!(saidtosomeonewishingtogothroughthesamedoorasthespeaker.)Locution:thespeakersaidthisutteranceIllocution:GivingwayPerlocution:Causingtheheartosmile,bow,extendhishand,andsay“No,afteryou.”\ne.g.Aparrotsays“Fire”Locution:yes.(aphonicactisinvolved)Illocution:No.Perlocution:Itcouldbe.Ifsomeonedidn’trealizeitwasaparrotspeaking,andtooktheutteranceseriously.\nShesaidtome‘Shoother!’.Sheurged(oradvised,ordered,…)metoshoother.Shepersuadedmetoshoother.\nHesaidtome,’youcan’tdothat’.Heprotestedagainstmydoingit.Hepulledmeup,checkedme.Act:Heannoyedme.\nLOCUTIONILLOCUTIONPERLOCUTION说意向力结果内在于话语？在讲话人的完全控制下不总是在讲时，意向力就很明显讲完之后，听话人作出反应不可说“尝试”，如果这样，就等于不让他说话。尝试执行某一行为有些是行事/取效（有时难分）Claiming,denying,prediction,mockingPersuading,hurting,distracting\nGenerallyspeaking,theillocutionaryactinherentinanutteranceisintendedbythespeaker,isunderhisfullcontrol,andifitisevident,itissoastheutteranceismade,whereastheperlocutionaryactperformedthroughanutteranceisnotalwaysintendedbythespeaker,isnotunderhisfullcontrol,andisusuallynotevidentuntilaftertheutteranceismade.\nWecansaythatthespeakeristryingtocarryoutaperlocutionaryact,butnottheillocutionaryact.Ifitistotalkofaspeaker“trying”tocarryoutillocutionaryact,thereisastrongimplicationthatoneisbeingactuallypreventedfromspeaking.\n\nI.IllocutionaryActTheory:言语行为理论Searle:Themeaningisdefinedintermsofwhatspeechactsspeakersperformrelativetohearers.主要研究“以言行事行为”。\nSearle发展完善Austin的言语行为理论。1)Verdictives:裁决型陈述某种发现。E.g.assess,estimate,diagnose,takeit,interpretasetc.2)Exercitives:行使型行使权力，施加影响，压力等：e.g.appoint,order,warn,adviseetc.\n3)Commissives:承诺型说话人对未来行为的许诺：e.g.promise,undertake,side,withetc.4)Behavitives:行为型表明说话者所采取的态度：e.g.apologize,commend,congratulate,challengeetc.5)Expositives:阐述型话语在交际中的作用：e.g.Iconclude,Iillustrate,Iassume,Iagreeetc.\n1.Thecooperativeprinciple会话的合作原则CPMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Grice认为说话和听话人之间存在一种默契，双方都应该遵守的原则。\nMan:doesyourdogbite?Woman:No.(Themanreachesdowntopetthedog.Thedogbitestheman’shand.)M:Ouch!Hey!Yousaidyourdogdoesn’tbite.W:Hedoesn’t.Butthat’snotmydog.\n2.Fourcategoriesofmaxims:合作原则体现为四条准则：1)Quantity:数量a.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequiredb.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.数量规定信息量不应少，也不应多。\nHusband:Wherearethecarkeys?Wife:Theyareonthetableinthehall.(Quality:truthfully,Quantity:rightamountofinformation;relevance:directlyaddressedherhusband’sgoal)\n2)Quality:质量Tosaytrutha.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.b.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.\n3)Relation:Berelevant说话要切题，不说无关的话。\n4)Manner:方式Beperspicuous要清晰a.Avoidobscurityofexpression避免晦涩b.Avoidambiguity.c.Bebrief.简洁d.Beorderly.有序*John:Ilovemywifeverymuch,howaboutyou?Simon:Iloveyourwifeverymuchasyoudo.(SimondisobeystheCP.)\n3．Violationofthemaxims准则的违背CPanditsmaximswillnotbefollowedbyeverybodyallthetime.Peopledoviolatethemandtelllies.会话含义的产生及特点：如果遵守这四条准则，便可以进行高效，合理的交际。这样的语言合乎形式逻辑。但会话有时会违反这项准则，准则的违背。\nViolationofthemaxims准则的违背1）说话人不愿意遵循合作原则，不愿意继续交际。2）说谎，找托词。3）违反数量，质量准则。\n*A:IsHarrysleepingwithSally?B:Mylipsaresealed.*A:…umIlivedinuhacountrywherepeoplesometimesneedtofleethatcountry.B:Uh,wherewasthat?A:It’sacountryinAsiaandIdon’twanttosayanymore.(radiochatshow:host)\n*A:Whereisyourmother?B:Sheiseitherinthehouseoratthemarket.违背数量原则*A:Whattimeisitnow?B:Well,accordingtothisclockit’saquartertofour.*A:WhereisJohn?B:SomewhereinthesouthofFrance.Quantity\n*BoysareboysandWariswar.Quantity*A:Mrs.Xisanoldbag.(attheparty)B:Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthissummer,hasn’tit?*A:Smithdoesn’tseemtohavegirlfriendthesedays.B:He’sbeendrivingtoNewYorkeveryweekend.B违背了relationmaxim\n*男：我好像在哪里见过您，您贵姓？女：我姓我父亲的姓。男：那您父亲姓什么呢？女：当然姓我祖父的姓了。男：您做什么工作的？女：干“四化”的。男：您家住在哪里？女：地球上。男：您家有几口人？女：和我家自行车一样多。男：那么您家有几辆自行车？女：每人一辆。\nII.美国哲学家CMorris和RCarnap他们在对符号学的研究中介绍了pragmatics这一术语。符号学是系统地研究语言符号和非语言符号的学科。他们总结了语言符号的逻辑----哲学研究方法，划分出了符号学研究的三个分支：符号关系学semiotics、语义学semantics、和语用学pragmatics。\nSemiotics符号关系学:Studiestherelationshipofsignstoothersigns.研究符号之间的形式关系。\nSemantics语义学：dealswiththerelationshipofsignstotheobjectstowhichsignsareapplicable.符号与符号所代表的事物之间的关系。\nPragmatics语用学：studieswhateverrelationstherearebetweensignsandtheirusersorinterpreters.研究符号与符号解释者之间的关系。从语用到语义到符号经历了逐步抽象化的过程。反之又经历了具体化的过程。\nIII.DirectandIndirectspeechacts直接及间接言语行为Directspeechacts:thereisadirectrelationshipbetweenastructureandafunction.Indirectspeechacts:Thereisanindirectspeechactbetweentheastructureandafunction.a.It’scoldoutside.b.Iherebytellyouabouttheweather.c.Iherebyrequestofyouthatyouclosethedoor.\nSearle：通过实施另一种语言行为来间接实施某一种言语行为。间接言语造成的原因：\nA:What’sthedatetoday?B:It’sDec.18th2006.A:It’smybirthday.(Whynotbringmeapresent?)A:Let’sgotothemoviestonight.B:Ihavetostudyforanexam.\na.Moveoutoftheway!b.DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV?c.You’restandinginfrontoftheTV.d.You’dmakeabetterdoorthanawindow.a.Couldyoupassthesalt?b.Wouldyouopenthis?\nVI.Griceconversationalimplicature会话含义理论Thesecondmajortheoryinpragmaticsisthetheoryofconversationalimplicature,proposedbyanotherOxfordphilosopherHerbertPaulGrice.日常会话中人们交谈时表达的意义分两种：1）说话人表达的字面意义。直截了当2）说话人表达的含蓄意义。含蓄隐晦：规则性；非规则性\na.规则性:单词，词语本身规约意义决定。Heisasportsman,therefore,heisstrong.b.非规则性:非规则性的含蓄和说话人的词语时间界定，以话语内容为基础，但表达的内容无疑要多于话语义。Whatdidyousay?言外之意\n(1)A.Canyoutellmethetime?B.Well,themailhasalreadycome.(2)A.AreyougoingtoJohn’sbirthdayparty?B.I’veheardMaryisgoing.\nVII．Characteristicsofimplicature会话含义的特点：1）Calculability可推导性Thespeakertrytoconveyconversationalimplicaturesandhearersareabletounderstandthemsuggeststhatimplicaturesarecalculable.Theycanbeworkedoutinthebasisofsomepreviousinformation.\na.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Thepresupposition:Idon’tquitelikecreaminmycoffee.前提b.Heisamachine.效率高，任劳任怨，勤奋，或冷漠，机械古板，缺少灵活性。列车员：三号车厢里有一名神经病人正在大吵大闹，他自称是拿破仑。车长：不要害怕，下站是滑铁卢。\n2）Non-Detachability不可分离性Theconversationalimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontent.Thereforeitispossibletouseasynonymandkeeptheimplicatureintact.会话含义依附于话语义。A:Didyourtreatmentforstammeringwork?B:Shesellsseashellsontheseashore.A:Howamazing!B:.yew,b-b-butth-th-that’snots-s-somethingIv-v-veryoftenw-w-wanttos-s-say.\n3）Non-Conventionality非规约性Entailmentsisconstantinallcontexts.衍推是规约意义的一部分theimplicatureisindeterminate,whichvarieswiththecontext.Man:Wouldyouliketoinvitemeupforacoffee?Woman:Oh…I’mafraidtheplaceisinaterriblemess…\n4）Cancellability可取消性:通过增加句子可以消除原来的含义。Theconversationalimplicaturereliesonanumberoffactors:theCP,thelinguisticandsituationalcontexts.Theimplicaturescanbecancelledbyadditionalclauses.朱镕基讲话\n\nVIII.RelevanceTheory(1986Sperber&Wilson)Everyactofostensive明示communicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.Communicationisnotsimplyamatterofencodinganddecoding.Italsoinvolvesinference.推理\n1)Anassumptionisrelevantinacontextifandonlyifithassomecontextualeffectinthatcontext.设想具有语境效应时2)Anassumptionisrelevanttoanindividualatagiventimeifandonlyifitisrelevantinoneormoreofthecontextsavailabletothatindividualatthattime.设想在语境中具有关联性时才有关联。3)Aphenomenonisrelevanttoanindividualifandonlyifoneormoreoftheassumptionsitmakesmanifestisrelevanttohim.某个现象显影的设想与某个体相关才有关联。\n三、Post-GriceanTheory1、1972Horn荷恩提出两原则：数量原则；关系原则关系原则倾向于常规理解（stereotypicalinterpretations）:根据常规关系扩展话语内容，理解话语义。a.Hehashadafewdrinkstoomany.喝醉b.A.What’sthetime?B.Thepostmanhasalreadycome.常规时间c.举头望明月，低头望故乡。　想家不团圆2、1984Levinson三原则数量关系语用分工Levinson认为Horn两原则过宽泛，又提出了三原则\nAparodyofafamiliarpuzzle:Oneday,Johnwentshoppingwithhismother.Onthewaytheircarwashitbyatruckandhismotherwaskilled.Johnwasseriouslyinjuredandtakentoahospitalinanambulance.Oneofthenursesintheemergencyroomwasstartled,andcried,“Oh,myGod,that’smyson!”Whowasthisnurse?