10专升本 语言学导论 287页

ACourseonLinguisticsforStudentsofEnglish--ZhaoFenglan1\nTheGoalsforthisCourseTogetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication……;Toprepareforthefutureresearchwork.2\nTheRequirementsforthiscourseClassattendanceClassroomdiscussionFulfillmentoftheassignmentExamination3\nReferenceBooks戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。Fromkin,V.&R.Rodman,(1998),AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,Ranehart&Winston,Inc.4\nChapterTwoLanguage5\n1.Whatislanguage?6\nLanguagecanmeanwhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)thewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeare’slanguage,Luxun’slanguage)aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)atoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)asetofrules.(rule-governed)7\n1Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的语音符号体系。8\n2Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett)Humanlanguagehasitsowndefiningfeatureswhichdistinguishitfromanyanimalcommunicationsystems.9\n2.1well-organizedsystemoflinguisticsymbolsHumanlanguagecanbedefinedasasystematizedcombinationofspeechsoundswhichhavemeaningsforallthemembersofagivencommunity.Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare10\n2.2DualityofstructureLowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.11\n2.3Arbitrariness----Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crash,bang,….Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang…)Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…12\n2.4Productivity/creativity----Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedskillswhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires13\n2.5Displacement----Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.14\n2.6TransferabilityLanguagehastwoforms:spokenandwritten.Eithercanbetransferredorinterchangedintotheother.15\n2.7Culturaltransmission----Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.16\n2.8LinearityLanguageislinearinsequence.Linguisticsymbolsoccurinalinearorder.Forexample,theEnglishwordlanguageshouldnotbewrittenas“ngaaluge”,andtheChinesewords“桌子”shouldnotbewrittenas“子桌”.Becausealllinguisticsymbolsareorganizedincertainordersorcombinedaccordingtoordersorrules.17\n3.LanguageuniquetohumanbeingsHumanbeingspossestheabilityofacquiringlanguage.Animalslackthisendowment.Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.18\n4.Linguisticcompetenceandlinguisticperformance(Chomsky)Competence----anativespeaker’slinguisticknowledgeofhislanguagePerformance----isequaltoallnormalspeakersofalllanguages.Buthowaspeakeruseshisnativelanguagesishislanguagebehavior,alsocalledlp.Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.19\n5.Socialfunctionsoflanguage1acommunicativemeans2themeansforconceptualthinkingandrecognitionoftheworld3thevehicleandtransmitterofculture20\n6languageandthehumanbrain1structureofthehumanbrain2functionsofthebrain21\n7conceptualthinkingofthedeaf-muteDeaf-mutecanthinkconceptuallytoo.22\n8originoflanguage1ByGod2bymanPooh–poohtheortyBow-bowtheoryDing-dongtheoryYo-he-hotheory3evolution23\n9animalcommunicationsystems24\nChapterOne.Whatislinguistics?1----Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageorthescienceoflanguage.----Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.25\n2ThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsTheoretical(general,intralinguistic)linguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsUseoflinguistics(extralinguistic)AppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguisticsNerolinguisticsMathematicalpragmatics……26\nTheoreticallinguisticsPhonetics----speechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.Phonology----soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology----theformofwordsSyntax----therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics----themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse----Pragmatics)27\nUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguistics----linguisticsandlanguageteachingSociolinguistics----socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics----linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylistics----linguisticandliterature28\n3ApproachesoflanguageSynchronicstudy---descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy---descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)29\n4GrammarGrammaris,inabroadsense,thescienceofthestructureofalanguageandboththesyntacticandsemanticrulesofitsgenerallyaccepteduse.30\nkindsofgrammarDescriptivegrammar:Anyonewhospeaksalanguageknowsthegrammarofthelanguage,whichissaidtoexistinthemindsofitsspeakers.Thedescriptionofalanguageshouldbeanactualmodelofthespeaker’slinguisticknowledge.Itdoesnottellhowthespeakersshouldspeak,butratherthandescribestheirbasiclinguisticknowledge,explainshowitispossibleforthemtospeakandunderstandandalsoexplainswhatitistheyknowaboutthelanguage.31\nPrescriptivegrammar:itrepresentthecorrectformsthatalleducatedpeopleshoulduseinspeechandwriting.Itprescribestherulesorprinciplesofthegrammarratherthandescribesthem.32\nPedagogicalgrammar:itisusuallytaughtinclassroom,anditisagrammaticaldescriptionofalanguagespeciallydesignedasanaidtoteachingthatlanguagetonativeorforeignlearners.33\nUniversalgrammar:introducedbyNoamChomskyandthefollowers,andtheytrytostudythegeneralpropertiesoflanguage-theuniversalpropertiesfoundinalllanguages-andthespecificpropertiesofanindividuallanguage,andprovideabetterunderstandingofthenatureofhumanlanguageandtocontributetotheunderstandingthehumanmind,andfindoutthelawsofalanguage,thelawscommontoalllanguagesandtheuniversalpropertiesoflanguages.34\n5SchoolsoflinguisticsTraditionalgrammarschoolEuropeanstructuralistschoolTheAmericanstructuralistschoolThetransformational–generativeschoolPragueschooltheLondonschoolTheGenevaschoolMoscowschoolthemodernfunctionalschool35\nChapter3PhoneticsLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds----soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.36\nPhonetics----thescientificstudyofspeechsounds,whichareusedbyallhumanlanguagesorbyaparticularlanguagetorepresentmeanings,iscalledp.Itstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.[p]bilabial,stop.37\n1phoneticalphabetAlphabeticspellingsystemPhoneticalphabet:internationalphoneticalphabet(IPA)AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.38\nPhonetictranscription:Broadtranscription----usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.Pitistranscribedas[pit],andspitistranscribedas[spit].Narrowtranscription----usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.aspirated[p]inpit,transcribedas[phit]andunaspirated[p]inspit,transcribedas[spit].39\n2consonantsandvowelAconsonant40\nThreebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics----fromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphonetics----fromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.41\nArticulatoryphonetics42\nSpeechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngealcavity----thethroat;Theoralcavity----themouth;Nasalcavity----thenose.43\nThediagramofspeechorgansLipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavity44\nOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds----AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription----usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.Pitistranscribedas[pit],andspitistranscribedas[spit].Narrowtranscription----usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.aspirated[p]inpit,transcribedas[phit]andunaspirated[p]inspit,transcribedas[spit].45\nInbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]isusedforthesound[l]inthethreewordsleaf[l:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild].The[l]in[li:f],occuringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[l],nodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bi:ld]iscalleddark[l]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritics[～]isusedtoindicateit.46\n3).Broadtranscription:phonemiconlythesoundscontrastingwordsinmeaning–dictionary4).Narrowtranscription:phonetic•furtheranddetailed–slightdifferences/p/top[thp]/stop[stp]/k/act[k0t]/class[kl:s]/l/let[let]/play[ploei]/tell[te∼]•[t]&[th],[k]&[k0],[l],[lo]&[∼]→allophones(non-distinctive)/t//k//l/→phonemes(distinctive)47\nVocalorgans:likeamusicalinstrumentinitiatorofair-stream–lungsproducerofvoice–vocalcordsresonatingcavities–nose,mouth,pharynx48\nVocalcords:•air-stream→modification→speechsounds↑↗↑↖lungslarynxvocalresonatingcordscavitiesfunctions:closedtightly→air-streamblockednarrowpassage→pressureofair→vibrate→voicedwideopen→freeair-stream→novibrationvoicelessResonatingcavities:(=bodyofinstrument)pharynxnasalcavityoralcavity49\nSomemajorarticulatoryvariables----dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:Voicing----voiced&voicelessNasality----nasal&non-nasalAspiration-----aspirated&unaspirated50\nClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds----Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:VowelsConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.51\nClassificationofconsonants----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:ThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulation52\nThemannerofarticulation1)stop/plosive--/p,b,t,d,k,g/--oral+nasal2)nasal--/m,n,ɧ/--oral3)fricative--/f,v,θ,ð,s,z,ʃ,ӡ,,h/4)affricate--/tʃ,dӡ/--plosive+fricative5)lateral--/l/--bladeoftongue6)approximant--/r,l,w,j/liquidsglides53\nTheplaceofarticulationplacesofarticulation:1)bilabial--/m,b,p,w/--twolips2)dental--/θ,ð/--tonguetip+upperteeth3)labiodental--/f,v/--lowerlip+upperteeth4)alveolar--/t,d,n,l,s,r,z/--tonguetip+alveolar5)palatal--/j/--fronttongue+hardpalate6)palato-alveolar--/ʃ,ӡ,tʃ,dӡ/--tongueblade+alveolar7)velar--/k,g,ɧ/--backoftongue+softpalate8)glottal--/h/--vocalcords54\nTheplaceofarticulationBilabial;Labiodental;Dentalorinterdental;Alveolar;Palatoalveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.55\nDescription:byphoneticfeaturesvoicingplacesofarticulationmannersofarticulation/t/voicelessalveolarstop/v/voicedlabiodentalfricative56\nThedescriptionofEnglishconsonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelarGlottalStopsorplosivesVL[p][t][k]VD[b][d][g]Frica-tivesVL[f][θ][s][ʃ][h]VD[v][ð][z][ӡ]Affri-catesVL(tʃ)[tʃ]VD(dӡ)[dӡ]NasalsVD[m][n][ɧ]LiquidsVD[l],[r]GlidesVD[w][j]57\n58\nClassificationofvowels----Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:Monophthongsorpure/singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowels59\nMonophthongsorpure/singlevowels----Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:frontvowels:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B];centralvowels:[E:],[E],[Q];backvowels:[u:],[u],[C:],[C],[B:].60\nAccordingtotheopennessofthemouthClose:[I:],[I],[u:],[u].Semi-close:[e],[E:];Semi-open:[E],[C];Open:[A],[B],[C],[B:],[Q];61\nThediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:62\nAccordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliproundingrounded:[u:],[u],[C:],[C];unrounded:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B],[E:],[E],[Q],[B:].63\nAccordingtothelengthofthevowelslong:[I:],[E:],[u:],[C:],[B:]short:[I],[e],[Z],[A],[E],[Q],[B],[u],[C].64\nDiphthongs/glidingvowels[ei],[ai],[aU],[EU],[Ri],[iE],[ZE],[UE].65\nExercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeAglide:onewaryolkrush66\nUnderlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:AfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasaltrainbangleaflimbAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate:racksuchridgebooze67\nUnderlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:Acentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfather68\nDescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither69\nPhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.70\nPhonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.71\nPhone,phoneme,allophone72\nPhoneAphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].73\nPhonemeAphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].hill:billbig:bitpet:pat/h/,/b/,/g/,/t/,/e/,//--thesmallest→phonemes74\nAllophoneAllophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.75\nPhonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.76\nPhonemiccontrastPhonemiccontrast----differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].77\nComplementarydistributionComplementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].78\ne.g.[ph],[th],[kh]neveroccurafter[s],[p],[t],[k]neveroccurinitially,onlyafter[s]clear[l]occursonlybeforeavowelvoiceless[lo]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonantdark[∼]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant→complementarydistributioncontrastivedistribution[ph]&[p]allophonesof--/p/[kh]&[k]--/k/[th]&[t]--/t/[l],[lo]&[∼]--/l/79\nMinimalpairMinimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.80\nMinimalpairs/sets:wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesoundwhichoccursinthesameplace.(cf.P25)e.g.pinpinpinboottapbinpenpingboatpad/p/&/b/candistinguish“pin”from“bin”,socan/i/&/e/,/n/&//and/u:/&/ou/.→distinctive→contrastive→differentphonemesContrastivedistribution&complementarydistributiondifferentphonemessamephoneme→allophonesneveroccurinthesameposition81\nSomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionrule82\nSequentialrulesSequentialrules----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.83\nSequentialrulesIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)  thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)  thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)  thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*[N]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄语……”84\nAssimilationruleAssimilationrule----assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolar[In]inconceivablevelar[IN]inputbilabial[Im]85\nAssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊changNa跳啊tiaowa……86\nDeletionruleDeletionrule----ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.87\nSuprasegmentalfeaturesSuprasegmentalfeatures----thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonation88\nSyllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.[mAn].Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.But[l],[n]and[m]mightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism”.89\nStressWordstressSentencestress90\nWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:im5port;in5crease;re5bel;re5cord…noun:5import;5increase;5rebel;5record…91\nWordstressSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:5blackbird;5greenhouse;5hotdog…nounphrase:black5bird;green5house;hot5dog…92\nWordstressThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbag…doer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5plane…93\nSentencestressSentencestress----therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.94\nToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)95\nIntonationWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.”96\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonations----Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.97\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsb)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“Johndidn’tcomebecauseofMarry”Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn’tcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”98\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsc)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.99\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsd)Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone----matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone----politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.100\nChapter3MorphologyMorphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.101\nOpenclasswordandclosedclasswordOpenclasswords----contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀…”inChinese.Closedclasswords----grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.102\nMorpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning---Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism103\nAffixPrefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.104\nFreemorpheme&boundmorphemeFreemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.105\nAllomorphSomemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:map----maps[s]dog----dogs[z]watch----watches[iz]mouse----mice[ai]ox----oxen[n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.106\nDerivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemeDerivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesapplescarsb)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/John’s107\nSomeothertermsRootStemBase108\nRootArootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”…109\nStemAstemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesiralbe”inundesirables110\nBaseAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.111\nThedifferencebetweenroot,stem&baseAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireinundesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;Undesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;Desirableinundesirableisonlyabase.112\nMorphologicalrulesTherulesthatgoverntheformationofwords,e.g.the“un-+----”rule.unfairunthinkableunacceptable…Compoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.landladyrainbowundertake…113\nCompoundsNouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)Verbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)Adjectivecompoundsmaneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)Prepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)114\nSomepointsaboutcompoundsWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.115\nChapter4Syntax116\nWhatissyntax?----abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.在语言学上，它是研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则，或者简单地说，是研究句子的构造。117\nCategoriesCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)118\nWord-levelcategoriesMajorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.119\nThecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredeterminedMeaningInflectionDistributionNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.120\nPhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresPhrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads121\nPhrasestructurerulesThegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.122\nSpecifierXComplementHeadXPTheXPruleNote:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.123\nX’TheoryXP(Specifier)X’X’X(complement)X(head)complementspecifierXP(Phraselevel)X’124\nCoordinationruleCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.----Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.125\nPhraseelementsSpecifierHeadcomplement126\nSpecifiers----Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.127\nComplements----Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationabutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.128\nModifiers----Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.129\nSentences(theSrule)SNPVPSNPVPNPDetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence130\nSNPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection(dubbed‘Infl’)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(theSrule)131\nInflrealizedbyatenselabelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidence132\nInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidence133\nTransformationsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionDeepstructure&surfacestructureWh-movementMoveαandconstraintsontransformations134\nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.Inversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.CCPSDetNInflVthetrainwillarriveNP135\nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)CPSCNPInflDetNInflVWillthetrainearrive136\nDoinsertionDoinsertion----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.CPCSNPInflVPBirdsflyCPCPCCSSInflNPInflVPNPInflVPBirdsdoflyDobirdseflyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3137\nDeepstructure&surfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.约翰容易讨好Johniseagertoplease.约翰急于讨好Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.138\nDeepstructure&surfacestructureConsideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.139\nDeepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.深层结构是指一个结构体的句法属性的抽象表述，即不同成分之间的结构关系(例如潜主语和动词、动词和宾语之间的关系）的潜在层面。Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，于人们实际发送、接收的结构组织是相符合的。Deepstructure&surfacestructure140\nTheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements141\n短语结构部分---深层结构---转换部分---表层结构---形态音系学部分深层结构:语义部分表层结构：音系部分142\nWh-movementConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.143\nWh-movementWh-movement----Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguagecanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?144\nWh-movementWh-movement----MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)CPVPVNPwonthegameSNPInflePstNPCWho145\nMoveαandconstraintsontransformationsInversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.Noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.146\nChapter5SemanticsSemantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.Whatismeaning?----Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.147\nSomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningNamingtheory(Plato)TheconceptualistviewContextualism(Bloomfield)Behaviorism148\nNamingtheory(Plato)Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix…3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred…149\nTheconceptualistviewTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.150\nOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/objectintheworldofexperienceThought/reference/concept151\nOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.152\nThecontextualismMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.153\nBehaviorismBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.ThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_________r--------s_________R154\nLexicalmeaningSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.155\nNote:Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.156\nMajorsenserelationsSynonymyAntonymyPolysemyHomonymyHyponymy157\nSynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…158\nSynonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,…4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,…159\nAntonymyGradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…Complementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…Relationalopposites----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,…160\nGradableantonymsGradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…161\nComplementaryantonymsComplementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…162\nPolysemyPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.……163\nHomonymyHomonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…164\nNote:Apolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymologyoftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.165\nHyponymyHyponymy----thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.166\nHyponymySuperordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,…Superordinate:furnitureHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,…167\nSenserelationsbetweensentences(1)  XissynonymouswithY(2)  XisinconsistentwithY(3)  XentailsY(4)  XpresupposesY(5)  Xisacontradiction(6)  Xissemanticallyanomalous168\nXissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.169\nXisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.170\nXentailsYX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.171\nXpresupposesYX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.Paulhasgivenupsmoking.Pauloncesmoked.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.172\nXisacontradiction*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.*Theorphan’sparentsareprettywell-off.173\nXissemanticallyanomalous*Themanispregnant.*Thetablehasbadintentions.*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.174\nAnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysisPredicationanalysis175\nComponentialanalysisComponentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Woman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]176\nPredicationanalysis1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.177\nPredicationanalysisPredicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).Predication----theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.178\nPredicationanalysisAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:One-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,…Two-placepredication:like,love,save,bite,beat,…Three-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,…No-placepredication:Itishot.179\nPredicationanalysisTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)Thetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)Thekidslikeapples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEIsenthimaletter.I(SEND)HIMLETTER180\nChapter6Pragmatics----thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.----thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.181\nSomebasicnotionsinPragmaticsContextPragmaticsvs.semanticsSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningCorrectnessvs.appropriateness182\nContextContext----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.….183\nPragmaticsvs.semanticsSemantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…184\nSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning----Sentencemeaning:Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;havingadyadicrelationasin:WhatdoesXmean?----utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;havingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyX?185\nForexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmeanabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;thespeakerisdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp.Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.186\nCorrectnessvs.appropriateness*“Johnplaygolf”----grammaticallyincorrect;?“GolfplayedJohn”----logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.Note:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)187\nSpeechacttheorySpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”188\nTwotypesofutterancesConstatives(叙述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(施为句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.189\nSomeExamplesofPerformatives“Ido”“InamethisshipElizabeth.”“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”190\nAustin’snewmodelofspeechacts----AccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Thelocutionaryact----anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);Theillocutionaryact----anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact----anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.191\nForexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer’sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.----Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.192\nAnalyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:----(thetelephonerings)----H:That’thephone.(1)----W:I’minthebathroom.(2)----H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachother’sillocutionaryacts:(1)Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.(2)Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.(3)Acceptingthewife’srefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,I’llanswerit.”193\nSearle’sclassificationofspeechacts(1969)Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布)194\nAssertives/representatives----Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.Ithinkthefilmismoving.I’mcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.…195\nDirectives----Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.Openthewindow,please.Yourmoneyoryourlife!…196\nCommissives----Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.…197\nExpressives----Expressingthespeaker’spsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.I’msorryforbeinglate.Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.…198\nDeclarations----Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Youarefired.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.…199\nNote:(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.Note:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!200\nPrincipleofconversation(PaulGrice)Cooperativeprinciple(CP)----AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.201\nFourmaximsofCPThemaximofquality----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.----Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.----Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation----Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner----Avoidobscurityofexpression.----Avoidambiguity.----Bebrief.----Beorderly.202\nConversationalimplicatureInrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.203\nViolationofMaximofquality----A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?----B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.I’mafraidIhavetoprepareforit.----A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?----B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltonight.----A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?----B:Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.204\nViolationofmaximofquantityAtapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“I’mRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried…”“Wariswar.”“Girlsaregirls.”----A:WhenisSusan’sfarewellparty?----B:Sometimenextmonth.205\nViolationofmaximofrelation----A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?----B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.----A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.----B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?----A:Whattimeisit?----B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.206\nViolationofmaximofmanner----A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?----B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.207\nPolitenessprinciple(Leech)208\nChapter7LanguagechangeSoundchangeMorphologicalandsyntacticchangeVocabularychange209\nMorphologicalandsyntacticchangeChangein“agreement”ruleChangeinnegationruleProcessofsimplificationLossofinflections210\nVocabularychangeAdditionofnewwordsLossofwordsChangesinthemeaningofwords211\nAdditionofnewwordscoinage(创新词)clippedwords(缩略词)blending(紧缩法)acronyms(词首字母缩略词)back-formation(逆构词法)functionalshiftborrowing212\nCoinage----Anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose,e.g.walkmanKodakXeroxFordBenzToyota213\nClippedwords----Theabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.gym—gymnasiummemo—memorandumdisco—discothequefridge—refrigerator214\nBlending----Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.smog—smoke+fogmotel—motor+hotelcamcorder—camera+recorder215\nAcronyms----Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.CBS----ColumbiaBroadcastingsystemISBN----InternationalStandardBookNumberWTOWHOPLAAIDSUNESCOAPECOPECCADSARS216\nBack-formation----Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.editeditorhawkhawkerbegbeggarbaby-sitbaby-sitter217\nFunctionalshift----Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.Nounverb:toknee,tobug,totape,tobrake…Verbnoun:ahold,aflyby,areject,aretreat…Adj.verb:tocool,tonarrow,todim,toslow…Adj.noun:adaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossible…218\nBorrowing----Whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.ThefollowingaresomeoftheloanwordsinEnglish(seemoreinP100-101).LatinbonuseducationexitGermanbeerwaltzquartzChineseteakowtowsampanRussiansputnikcommissarvodkaArabiczeroalgebraalcohol219\nLossofwordsWordscanbelostfromalanguageastimegoesby.Thefollowingwords,takenfromRomeoandJuliet,havefadedoutoftheEnglishlanguage.BeseemtobesuitableWottoknowGyveafetterWhereforewhy220\nChangesinthemeaningofwordsWideningofmeaningNarrowingofmeaningMeaningshift221\nWideningofmeaningHoliday:[+specific]holyday[+general]anyrestdayTail:[+specific]tailofahorse[+general]tailofanyanimal222\nNarrowingofmeaninghound:anydogaspecialkindofdoggirl:youngpersonofeithersexyoungpeopleoffemalesexdeer:anyanimalaparticularkindofanimalmeat:foodediblepartofananimalcorn:grainaparticulargrain223\nMeaningshiftinn:asmall,oldhotelorpubwell-known,nicehotelnice:ignorant(1000yearsago)good,finelust:pleasurewithnegativeandsexualovertonessilly:happynaïve,foolish224\nSomerecenttrendsMovingtowardsgreaterinformalityTheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnology225\nTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologySpacetravelComputerandinternetlanguageEcology226\nCausesofthelanguagechangeTherapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;Moreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;“Economyofmemory”resultsingrammarsimplification;Regularizationofexceptionalpluralformsprovidesanotherexampleforanalogicalchange.227\nChapter8LanguageandsocietySociolinguistics----asub-fieldoflinguiststhatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.228\nTherelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety----Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Languageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)Theuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuser’ssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)Language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)Asasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalic[r]).229\nSpeechcommunityandspeechvarietySpeechcommunity----thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Speechvarietyorlanguagevariety----anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.230\nTwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudiesMacrosociolinguistics,i.e.abird’s-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety;Microsociolinguistics,i.e.aworm’s-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.231\nVarietiesoflanguageDialectalvarietiesRegisterDegreeofformality232\nDialectalvarietiesRegionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.).Sociolectisalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.(e.g.ReceivedPronunciation)Languageandgender(e.g.intonation,lexicon)Languageandage(Lexicaldifference:icebox----fridge,wireless----boombox)Idiolect----apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations(e.g.Hemingway,Luxun).Ethnicdialect----asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).233\nTemporaldialectThekindoflanguageweuseisalsodeterminedbythetimewelivein,andthiskindofvarietyisusuallyreferredtoas“temporaldialect”.Forexample,oldEnglish,middleEnglishandmodernEnglish.Dialect:traditionally,disrestrictedtothatkindoflgwhichshowsvariationinspace.Today,avarietyoflg,spokeninonepartofacountry(regionaldialect),ofbypeoplebelongingtoaparticularsocialclass(socialdialectorsociolect),oftemporalspace(temporaldialect).234\nAccent:aparticularwayofspeakingwhichtellsthelistenersomethingaboutthespeaker’sbackground235\nRegisterRegister,inarestrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoone’soccupation.Inabroadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Hallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourse.236\nThreesocialvariablesFieldofdiscourse:whatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)andsubjectmatter(aboutwhat)ofcommunication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)Tenorofdiscourse:theroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)Modeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline…)237\nCookingrecipebooks:Field:cookingTenor:instructingMode:writtentobereadLectureonhistory:Field:historyTenor:teacher-studentMode:oral238\nDegreeofformality----Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.Frozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.----Note:Differentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological(P121).239\nStandarddialectThestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.240\n普通话1956年2月6日，国务院发出关于推广普通话的指示，把普通话的定义增补为“以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言、以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的现代汉民族共同语。”这个定义从语音、词汇、语法三个方面明确规定了普通话的标准，使得普通话的定义更为科学、更为周密了。其中，“普通话”三字的涵义是“普遍”和“共通”的意思。“普通话”一词开始以明确的内涵被广泛应用。普通话的语法以鲁迅、茅盾、冰心、叶圣陶等人的著名现代白话作品为规范，并且还必须是这些现代白话文中的“一般的用例”。目前，普通话以《现代汉语规范词典》为准。241\nPidginandCreoleApidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.242\nBilingualismandDiglossiaInsomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.AccordingtoFerguson(1959),diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.243\nChapter9Languageandculture244\nWhatisculture?Inabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.245\nTherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureThesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdifferentculturalbackground,e.g.theword“dog”.Languageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeople’sattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.Culturealsoaffectsitspeople’simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.Ontheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;ontheother,language,asaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.246\nSapir-WhorfhypothesisEdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.SapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople’sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.247\nStrongversion&weakversionStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;Weakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.----ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:Thereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.MorethaninWhorf’sdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.248\nLinguisticevidenceofculturaldifferencesDenotativemeaning----ameaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary.Connotativemeaning----ameaningorideasuggestedbyawordorthinginadditiontotheformalmeaningornatureofthewordorthing.Iconicmeaning----theimageoriconinvokedinmindbyaword.Forexample,“rose”.249\nSomeculturaldifferencesinlanguageuseGreetingsandtermsofaddressThanksandcomplimentsColorwordsPrivacyandtaboosRoundingoffnumbersWordsandcultural-specificconnotationsCultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphor250\nThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearningLearningaforeignlanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguage’sculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.251\nCulturaloverlapCulturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Forexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suchas“Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?”252\nCulturaldiffusionThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomenonisknownasculturaldiffusion.Onetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords.Thepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandacceptingconceptsfromothercultures.Theattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism)253\nInterculturalcommunicationInterculturalorcross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.)Incross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialattentiontothesignificantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentperspectivessuchaslanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardstime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligiousbeliefthatcancausefrustrationsincommunicationsandcontacts.254\nChapter10LanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisition----referstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.255\nTheoriesofchildlanguageacquisitionAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisition(Skinners)Aninnatistviewoflanguageacquisition(Chomsky)AninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment256\nAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisitionTraditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.ImitationRecognitionReinforcementTheinadequacyofbehavioristviewliesinexplaininghowchildrenacquirecomplexlanguagesystem.(SeeexamplesinP144)257\nAninnatistviewoflanguageacquisitionAccordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition,humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.258\nAninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionTheinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Integratedwiththeinnatistview,theinteractionistfurtherclaimsthatthemodifiedlanguagewhichissuitableforthechild’scapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.(motherese)259\nCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment1)     Languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.(theacquisitionofperfecttenseandtheconceptofpresentrelevance)2)     Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.(theacquisitionofnegativeform)260\nLanguageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhypothesisTwoimportantfactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.Inbehavioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacks.Theinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildren’sinternalprocessingofthelanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.Theinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildren’scomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.261\nCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)----EricLennebergarguesthattheLAD,likeotherbiologicalfunctions,workssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime----aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictor’sandGenie’scases)262\nStagesinchildlanguagedevelopmentPhonologicaldevelopmentVocabularydevelopment1)Under-extension2)Over-extension3)PrototypetheoryGrammaticaldevelopment1)Telegraphicspeech(2)2)Sentencesofthreemainelements(2.5)Pragmaticdevelopment263\nAtypicaldevelopmentAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotraumaorinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:HearingimpairmentMentalretardationautismstutteringAphasiaDyslexiaanddysgraphia264\nChapter11SecondLanguageAcquisitionSecondLanguageAcquisition----formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.Distinguishsecondlanguage&foreignlanguage265\nConnectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisitionThefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackclothforperceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).SLAisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition.Interlanguage266\nContrastiveanalysis(CA)(1960s)Positivetransfer----facilitatetargetlanguagelearningNegativetransfer----interfereorhindertargetlanguagelearningItisbelievedthatdifferencesbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewouldposedifficultiesinsecond/foreignlanguagelearningandteaching,e.g.*Totouchthesociety.*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.267\nShortcomingsofCATheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyofthepredictionsofthetargetlanguagelearningdifficultyformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiveanalysisturnedouttobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupthatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“differences”and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts.268\nErroranalysis(EA)Thecontrastiveapproachtolearners’errorshasshednewlightonpeople’sattitudes:theerrorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypothesesaboutthelanguagetobelearnt.Twomainsortsoferrors:Interlingualerrors&intralingualerrors269\nInterlingualerrors----Interlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a. Substitutionof[t]for[W]and[d]for[T]:threetree,thisdis.b. Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepship,meetmit270\nIntralingualerrors----Theintralingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Twotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:overgeneralization&cross-association271\nOvergeneralizationOvergeneralization----theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.Walked,watched,washed…*rided,*goed,*doed,*eated…Janeadvisemetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janehopedmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.272\nCross-associationCross-associationreferstothephenomenonthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.Other/another,much/many,stalagmite/stalactite…Itmayalsooccursatalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.273\nErrors&mistakesErrors----unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；Mistakes----eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).274\nInterlanguage(S.PitCorder&LarrySelinker)Interlangauge----learners’independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Whatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.275\nCharacteristicsofinterlanguageInterlanguagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeabilityandfossilization.Fossilization----aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.276\nTheroleofnativelanguagein2ndlanguagelearningLanguagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)Mentalistsarguedthatfewerrorswerecausedbylanguagetransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.Threeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransfer:Alearner’spsychologyPerceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistanceActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage277\n2ndlanguagelearningmodelsandinputhypothesisBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement,a“nurture”position;Thementalistsortheinnativistsshifttoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.Thesocialinteractionistsarguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.278\nKrashen’sInputHypothesisKrashenmakeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.Heputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivingcomprehensibleinput.Hedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:“i”representslearners’currentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisan“i+1”.Krashenmistookinputandintake,thusreceivecriticism.279\nIndividualdifferencesLanguageaptitudeMotivationLearningstrategiesAgeofacquisitionPersonality280\nLanguageaptitudeLanguageaptitudereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearner’sgeneralintelligence.JohnCarrollidentifiedsomecomponentsoflanguageaptitude:PhonemiccodingabilityGrammaticalsensitivityInductivelanguagelearningabilityRotelearningability281\nMotivationMotivationcanbedefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Ithasastrongimpactonhiseffortsinlearningasecondlanguage.Generallyfourtypesofmotivationshavebeenidentified:InstrumentalmotivationIntegrativemotivationResultativemotivationIntrinsicmotivation282\nLearningstrategiesLearningstrategiesarelearners’conscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.AccordingtoChamot(1986)&Oxford(1990),threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:Cognitivestrategies----analyzing,synthesisandinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.Metacognitivestrategies----planning,monitoringandevaluatingone’slearning.Affect/socialstrategies----thewayslearnersinteractwithotherspeakers.Cohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.283\nAgeofacquisitionTheCriticalPeriodHypothesisRecentstudiessupportthehypothesisthatintermsoflearningachievementandgrammaticalitytheyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.284\nPersonalityIntermsofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalrules,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners(asinthecaseofLiyang:CrazyEnglish).285\nSLA&itspedagogicalimplications286\nChapter12LanguageandBrain287