普通语言学 讲义2 15页

5.SyntaxDefinitionl(1)Syntaxisthestudyhowsentencesarestructured.l(2)Thestudyofgrammaticalrelationsbetweenwordsandotherunitswithinthesentence.l(3)Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.China:l古代：公羊传，尹文子，东汉许慎的《说文解字》l近代和现代：马建忠的《马氏文通》(1898)，黎锦熙的《新著国语文化》（1924），吕叔湘的《中国文化要略》（1941），王力的《中国现代语法》（1943），高名凯的《汉语语法论》（1948）l当代：邢公畹，刘叔新，马庆株lWordclasses:Classesandfunctions1.1Classes:thetraditionaltermsforwordclassarepartsofspeech:nouns,verbs,adjectives,etc.DefinitionofclassesofwordsSemanticstandardFormal(morphological)standardFunctional(syntactic)standardPrinciplesintheuseofthesestandards:AMeaningplaysanimportantroleinwordclassification,butshouldbeusedalongwithmorphologicalandfunctionalfeatures.BIftherearesomemorphologicalfeatures,usethemfirst.(词法优先)CWhenthereisnomorphologicalfeatures,theclassofawordwillmostlydecidedbyitsfunction.Examples:Nouns:Lyons:Anymemberofaclassofwordsdistinguishedchieflybyhavingpluralandpossessiveendings,byfunctioningassubjectorobjectinaconstruction,andbydesignatingpersons,places,things,statesorqualities.(1977:425)Verbs:Lyons:Anymemberofaclassofwordsthatfunctionasthemainelementsofpredicates,typicallyexpressactionorstates,maybeinflectedfortense,aspect,voiceandmood,andshowagreementwithsubjectorobject.(1977:425)ProblemswiththedefinitionsASomelanguagesdonothaveinflections.BEveninlanguagesthatdohaveinflectionalwordendings,therearemanywords,nounsandverbs,towhichthesedefinitionsdonotapply.ForexampleinEnglish,manynounsdonothavepluralform,andmanycountablenounsdonothaveregularwordendings.CSyntacticalstandardisalsoproblematic.Forexample,apartfromnouns,wordsofmanyotherpartsofspeechmayfunctionassubjectorobject.15\nSomethingmore:Classificationofnouns(Basedon沈家煊1995)1）BasedontheirrelationshipwiththeworldAFirstorderentities(thing)BSecondorderentities(ideas)CThirdorderentities(factsandevents)2)BasedontheirsemanticfeaturesAConcreteBAbstract3)BasedontheirsyntacticfeaturesACountableBuncountable4)BasedontheircognitivefeaturesAThosehavingboundariesBThosehavingnoboundaries1.2FunctionsANominal:aNounphrasesbInfinitivec-ingdClausesBAdjectival:aAdjectivesb-ingphrasesc-edphrasesdInfinitiveePrepositionfClauses1.3Grammatical,psychologicalandlogicalfunctionslGrammaticalA:Subject:It’sraining.B:PredicatelPsychologicalA:Topic:whatisbeingtalkedaboutB:Comment:whatissaidaboutthetopicExample:Janeisadmiredbyallofus.Janewealladmire.Inthesetwosentences,thetermJanehasdifferentgrammaticalfunctions,butistopicinbothsentences.lLogicalfunctionsEntitiesandhappenings.Example:JanetbroughtJuliet.JulietwasbroughtbyJanet.2.Sentences2.1Definingtheterm“sentence”lTraditionalgrammar:Asequenceofwordsexpressingacompletethoughtandisgrammaticallycomplete.15\nlAnotherdefinition:thelargestunitofgrammaticalorganizationwithinwhichpartsofspeech(e.g.nouns,verbs,andverbs)andgrammaticalclassesaresaidtofunction.lTG:S---NPVP2.2TypesofsentenceslGrammaticalA:DeclarativeB:InterrogativeC:ImperativeD:ExclamatorylFunctional:SocialpurposesA:StatementsB:QuestionsC:CommandsD:RequestlStructuralA:SimpleB:CompoundC:ComplexD:EllipticallRhetoricalA:LooseB:PeriodicC:InvertedD:Balanced2.3TransformationslTraditionalgrammar:PoninifromIndia2000yearsago---linkingwordstogether;lStructuralgrammar:L.BloomfieldfromAmericaatthebeginningof20thcentury---hierarchiesofconstructions,ICanalysis;lTGgrammar:NoamChomskyfromAmericain1957---languageuniversal,beinterestedinsimilaritiesofalllanguagesintheworldTransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)lNorm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:l(1957)SyntacticStructure;l(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;l(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;l(1986)Barriersl(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;l(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;l(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry……Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.lLinguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;lLinguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguages15\nratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.lTherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedlChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).TransformationalsyntaxlCategoriesCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)Word-levelcategorieslMajorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.lMinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.PhrasecategoriesandtheirstructureslPhrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).lThestructure:specifier+head+complementlHead----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedlSpecifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadslComplement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrasestructureruleslThegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:lNPà(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.lVPà(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.lAPà(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetolPPà(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.TheXPruleXˉTheoryModelofphrasestructuregrammardevelopedlargelybyR.S.Jacendoffinthe1970sandincorporatedintoGovernmentandBindingTheoryinthe1980s.Essentiallyatheoryofsyntacticcategories,accordingtowhich,foranycategoryX,thereisafixedhierarchyofunits.TheintermediatelevelformedbytheheadandcomplementbetweenwordlevelandphraselevelisrepresentedbythesymbolXˉ.XˉTheorylXPà(Specifier)XˉlXˉàX(complement)Coordinationrule15\nlCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.----Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:lnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;lacategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;lthecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;lthecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.PhraseelementslSpecifierlHeadlcomplementSpecifiersl----Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.Complementsl----Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.Modifiersl----Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.Sentences(theSrule)lSàNPVPInflrealizedbyatenselabelInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryTransformationslAuxiliarymovement(inversion)lDoinsertionlDeepstructure&surfacestructurelWh-movementlMoveαandconstraintsontransformationsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)lInversionàMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.lInversion(revised)àMoveInfltoC.Auxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionlDoinsertion----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.Deepstructure&surfacestructurelDeepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningof15\nthesentence.lSurfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.TheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentWh-movementlConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?lThesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.Wh-movementlWh-movement----Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.lWhatlanguagecanyouspeak?lWhatcanyoutalkabout?Wh-movementlWh-movement----MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)MoveαandconstraintsontransformationslInversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.lNoelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.lSyntaxbeyondthesentence:thetextlThejoiningofsentence.(Whatisatext?)lCo-reference:ThecohesivedevicesinEnglish(Halliday)lSyntaxandinvention:A:SemanticcompatibilityB:ViolationofrealityC:metaphoricalusageoflanguage6.Semantics6.1DefinitionSemanticsisthestudyofmeaning.Thetermmeaningisusedinmanyways,notallofthemequallyrelevanttolanguage.SayingIdidn’tmeantohurthimorexclaimingindignantlyWhatisthemeaningofthis!referstoanintention.AnotherchildmeansasextramouthtofeedorSmokemeansfiresignifiesaninference.TheChinese狗means‘dog’isatranslation.Andsoon.6.2FivemajormeaningtheoriesinthewestlReferential(alsotermedclassicaltheory)Representatives:Aristotle,Russell,WeitgensteinlWeakness:A:manywordsinthelanguagesystemhavenoreferentsinthenonlinguisticworld15\nEntities---nounsActivities---verbsEvents---sentencesB:wehavecasesinwhichthereferentisthesame,butthemeaningaredifferenta:LuXun---theauthorof“thestoryofAhQ”b:Plato---theauthorof“theRepublic”c:morningstar---eveningstarC:whatarethereferentsofverbsandadjectives:a:runb:beautiful,noble…Inthelastanalysis,referenceisnotasemanticquestion,instead,itisapragmaticquestion(Leech,1983).lConceptualRepresentatives:JohnLocke,Hume,洛克休谟：EssayConcerningUnderstanding<人类理解论>“AconceptXprovokesthespeakerutterthewordbook.Onhearingbook,theconceptXisbroughtuptothemindofthehearer.AccordingtoLocke,theconceptXinthemindofthehearerisexactlyrepresentationoftheconceptXinthemindofthespeaker.Then,inthiscase,Xisthemeaningofthewordbook.”1)Theidea:themeaningofawordistheconceptitprovokesinthemind.关于语义三角，请参看《外语与外语教学》94，2期2)Weaknesses:A:thenatureofconceptishardtoclassifyB:subjective3.BehavioristRepresentatives:Skinner,BloomfieldlTheconcept:themeaningofalanguageformis“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”(Bloomfield,1933)lTheclassicalexampleistheJillandJackstory:S---r……s---RlWeaknessesA:responsesmaybedifferentB:displacement4.Usetheory(Wittgenstein)(1889--1951)lTheconcept:themeaningofawordisitsuse(acontextualapproachtomeaning)lWeaknessesnostablemeaning5.SemantictheorylTheconcept:themeaningofasentenceisthesetofconditionsforthepropositionbeingtruee.g.“snowiswhite”istrueifsnowiswhite.lWeaknesses15\nA:narrowinitscoverageB:manysentencesdonothavetruthvalue6.3Kindsofmeaning---afunctionalapproach(hu,143)(Leech,1983)lConceptual:logical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent;ProvidedbythedictionarylConnotative:whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto;ProvidedbytheEncyclopedia.Classification:AUniversalBCulturalCSocialCIndividualEStableFChanginglSocial:whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse;ASocialgroupingBSocialdistanceCSocialsituationlAffective:whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer;ADirectBIndirectCIntonationDColoredwords5)Reflected:whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression;6)Collocative:whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword;7)Thematic:whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasisTheme由Mathesius(1939)提出”OnSo-calledFunctionalPerspective”,他定义为：”Thestartingpointofutterancewhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds”6.4AnalysisofmeaninglComponentialanalysislPredicationanalysislDynamicrelationshiplAmbiguitylInferentialgap,ReferentialmeaningComponentialanalysislComponentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,lMan:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]lBoy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]lWoman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]lGirl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Predicationanalysisl1) Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.15\nl2) Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.l*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.l*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.lWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.PredicationanalysislPredicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).lPredication----theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.lAnargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.lApredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.PredicationanalysislAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:lOne-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,…lTwo-placepredication:like,love,save,bite,beat,…lThree-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,…lNo-placepredication:Itishot.PredicationanalysislTomsmokes.àTOM(SMOKE)lThetreegrowswell.àTREE(GROW)lThekidslikeapples.àKIDS(LIKE)APPLElIsenthimaletter.àI(SEND)HIMLETTERDynamicrelationshiplTheactualsemanticfeaturesarecalleddynamicrelationship.lDifferentwordsinthesamefieldwillshowdifferentmeanings.①VerblJohnhaslonghair.lJohnwearsasweater.lJohncarriesagunThisisarrangedaccordingtointimacyi.e.whatisclosetoJohn..Carryisnot“closenesstothebody.”l②AdjectivelSeveralyounggirlsareintheroom.lSheisayounggirloffour.l③Nounl我家小弟在上幼儿班．l我家小弟今年八十有三了lLanguageassystemA:stabilityB:potentialityC:abstractednesslLanguageasbehavior15\nA:unstableB:actualC:concretelThecontextualbasisfordynamicrelationshipA:contextualsynonymyB:contextualantonymyC:theneedofinferenceAmbiguitylReasonsforambiguityA:Unlimitednumberofmeaningsvs.limitednumberofsymbolsB:Metaphoricalvs.literalmeaningslTypesA:Phonological:withrespecttomedium:onesoundcapableoftwoormorethantwointerpretationse.g.sunandairsonandheirB:Lexical:onelexicalitemwithatleasttwointerpretationslPolysomyandhomonymylInasense,almosteverywordisacaseofpolysomyorhomonymye.g.playhamlet,playMozart,playfire,playfluteC:Grammatical:onesurfacestructurewithatleasttwodeepstructuresunderit.Examples:lFlyingplanescanbedangerous.---ChomskyInferentialgap,ReferentialmeaningInferentialgap(推理空白)；Referentialmeaning(推理意义)Inthecommunicationsomewordsarenotexpressible,hearersshouldmakeaguessfromthesemanticfeatures.Thoseholesmadebytheinexpressiblewordsmustbeclosedbyinference.Theholesmadebytheinferencearecalledinferentialgap.l①Turnthecerealoff.l②Iwantit.③Thepartsweretriedandfoundwanting.④coax:togetsomebodydosomethingbykindnessandpatience(Thespeakerisactive)persuade:tocausesomebodybyreasoningtodosomething(Bothspeakerandhearerareactive)convince:tocausesomebodytorealizeorfeelcertain(Thehearerisactive)ComparedwithChinese:卖唱；卖狗皮膏药；卖乖；卖老6.5synonyms:Twolexicalunitswithasharedmeaningarecalledsynonyms.lClasswork:Drawadiagramaboutthefollowingexpressions:notwet;notdry;wet;moist;dampish;dry1)Dialectalsynonymautumn---fall;lift---elevator;luggage---baggage;flat---apartment;torch—flashlight白薯；红薯；红苕；地瓜；甘薯；番薯；山芋15\n2)Stylisticsynonymstart—begin—commence;kid---child---offspring3)Emotiveandevaluativesynonymcollaborate---accomplice;statesman---politician(commendatory---derogatory)4)Collocationalsynonymaddledeggs;rancidbacon;sourmilk5)Nearsynonymprobably---possibly---likely6.6AntonymylDefinitionA:semanticoppositenessB:incompatibilityC:belongtothesamelexicalfieldD:onetermmaybeantonymoustomorethanone2)Types:A:contradictoriesFeatures:CompleteoccupationAbsolutemutualexclusionFormulaB:conversivesFeatures:MiddleconceptGradableFormulaC:complimentariesFeatures:MutualdependenceSimultaneity3)MarkednessADefinition沈家煊.一个范畴内部存在的某种不对称现象。由TrubetzkoyandJakobson创立。。（《外国语》92年4期“布拉格学派标记理论管窥”）BTypes(accordingtoLyons,1977)a:formal:themarkednessiscarriedbyanextraoradifferentforme.g.friendly---unfriendlyactor---actressb:semantic:themarkednessiscarriedbythepossessionoftheoppositefeaturee.g.man---womanC.Distributional:themarkedtermisdistributionallymorelimitedasinthefollowingsentencepatternsEg.⑴Howoldareyou?⑵Itis5meterswide(long)⑶Everyonemustdohisduty.15\n⑷Manwillconquernature.⑸Hewholaughslastlaughsbest.Inmasculine/feminineopposition,itisalwaysthefemaletermthatismarked,andthemaletermisunmarked.Butinthecaseofnurse,thefemaletermnurseisunmarked,andthemaletermmalenursesmarked.Thiskindofphenomenoniscalledmarkednessreversal.Becauseoftheliberation-movement,theuseofmaletermsasunmarkedtermsisseverelyquestioned,whichresultsinthefollowingusages:Everybodymustdotheirduty.Chairperson.GreenbergpointedoutinLinguisticsisapilotSciencethatnowthemarkednesstheoryhasbecomeoneofthemajorlinguistictheories,itappliesinallaspectsoflanguage.Rangeofapplication:AtenseBnumberCaspectDthemeEstyleForderIfasingleideaorthoughtcanbeexpressedbytwoormoreexpressions,theusualandcommonwayistheunmarked6.7HyponymylDefinition:meaninginclusion;paradigmaticrelationsbetweenageneralandaspecificlexeme.lTerminologyASuperordinateBhyponymCTransitivity补充：胡壮麟在《语篇的衔接与连贯》（1994，上海外语教育出版社）用superordination一词来概括下面四种关系AhyponymyBpart-wholeCcollectivityDconsistency:therelationwherebysomethingismadeupofsomethingelseasintherelationshipbetweenclothesandcotton另有：AcollocationBnon-binaryoppositions6.8Iconsandsymbols(图像与符号)Imitationofnaturecanshowmeanings.Thoseimitationsarecallediconicandthepicturesarecalledicons.戊，斤，炅，旦　山东莒县大汶口，1974）Chinesewordsarecalledpictograph.6.9Phonestheme　(联觉音组):relationshipsbetweenphonesandwordsWeoftenfindwordsclusteringingroupswithavagueresemblanceinsound.Suchaphenomenoniscalledphonestheme._ump:heaviness;bluntness(沉重和粗笨)rump（臀部）;dump（堆存处）;hump（隆起）;mump（嘟哝）;lump（堆）;stump(桩);chump（木块）;thump（重击）;bump（颠簸）-sle;-stle:chaos,disorder15\nhassle(争论);hustle（乱堆）;bustle（奔忙）;tussle（打斗）;wrestle（搏斗）7Pragmatics7.1Definition•Pragmaticsisthestudyhowspeakersusethesentencesofalanguagetoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.(1960s---1970s)(2)Pragmaticsisusuallyconceivedasabranchofsemanticsconcernedwiththemeaningsthatsentenceshaveinparticularcontextsinwhichtheyareuttered.(3)Pragmaticsisthestudyofimplicaturesasopposedtoliteralmeanings.(4)Pragmaticsisthestudyoftruthconditionsofsentences.(5)Pragmaticsisthestudyofsemioticsopposedtosyntax.7.2Pragmaticsvs.semanticsl“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…7.3Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaninglSentencemeaningistheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.lUtterancemeaningisthemeaningofsomethingspokenonaspecificoccasion.Forexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmeanlabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);lanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;lthespeakerisdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp.lNote:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.7.4SpeechacttheoryJohnAustin,Britishphilosopherinthelate50soflastcenturymadethedistinctionsbetweentwotypesofutterances:lConstative:Itisverifiableanditiseithertrueorfalse.E.g.Itisabook.(fact);Thebookisthick.(description)lPerformative:Itisusedtoperformanaction.E.g.Ido.(usedinthemarriageceremony)LateonAustinsetupanothermodel.Whenapersonisspeaking,heisperformingthreeactssimultaneously.lLocutionaryact:syntax;lexicon;phonologylIllocutionaryact:intensionlPerlocutionaryact:result15\nlAnalyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:----(thetelephonerings)----H:That’thephone.(1)----W:I’minthebathroom.(2)----H:Okay.(3)lThisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachother’sillocutionaryacts:l(1)  Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.l(2)  Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.l(3)Acceptingthewife’srefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,I’llanswerit.”JohnSearle,anAmericanphilosopherandlinguistdidhisclassificationofspeechacts.l(1)representatives:stateordescribeorsaywhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.(Istatetoyou)Theearthisaglobe.l(2)directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething---Openthewindow.l(3)commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction---Ipromisetocome.l(4)expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudestowardsanexistingstate---Iamsorryforbeinglate.l(5)declarations:bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething---Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.7.5Cooperativeprinciple(CP)philosopher,logicianPaulGrice(1967)(1)Themaximofquantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).(2)Themaximofquality:Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.(3)Themaximofrelation:Berelevant.(4)Themaximofmanner:avoidobscurity,ambiguity,prolixity,tobebriefandorderly7.6FacetheoryBrown&Levinson(1978)lPositiveface:peoplewanttogetassertionandapprobation.lNegativeface:Whenyougivepositivefacetoothers,thespeakerwillkeephisownface.Donotloseface.7.7Politenessprinciple(PP)Leech(1983)Britishlinguist(1936)(中庸之道thedoctrineofthemean)(1)tactmaxim:minimizecosttoothersmaximizebenefittoothers(2)generositymaxim:minimizebenefittoselfmaximizecosttoself(3)approbationmaxim:minimizepraiseofself　　maximizedispraiseofself(4)modestymaxim:morepraisetoothers15\n　dispraisetoself•agreementmaxim:moreagreementwithothers　disagreementwithself•sympathymaxim:moresympathywithothers　antipathywithself7.8FourcharacteristicsofChineseculture顾曰国（1992）l(1)respectfulness(尊重)l(2)modesty(谦虚)l(3)attitudinalwarmth(态度热情)l(4)refinement(文雅)Gu’sfivemaxims:l(1)respectfulness(尊人)l(2)refinement(文雅)l(3)agreement(求同)l(4)virtue,words,behavior(德，言，行)l(5)address(称呼)Classwork:１Linguisticcontext(1)LeadingQuestionslTeacher:Billie,WhatdoesC-A-Tspell?lBilly:Donˊtknow,sir.lTeacher:Whatdoesyourmotherkeeptocatchmice?lBilly:Atrap,sir.lTeacher:No.Whatanimalisfoundofmilk?lBilly:Thebaby,sir.lTeacher:Youstupid!Whatwasitthatscratchedyoursisterˊsface?lBilly:Mynails,sirlTeacher:Youareputtingmeoutofpatience.Doyouseethatanimalintheyard?Thentellme,whatdoesC-A-Tspell?lBilly:Kitten,sir.l(2)为犹太人哭泣吧，耶路撒冷！l(3)十六岁了才长到一米三，他整天闷闷不乐，都快成拿破仑了。（侏儒情结）l2Situationalcontextl枯木逢春犹再发，人无两度再少年。l为人莫作千年计，三十河东四十西。l3Zerosituationalcontextl今日本店大卖鲜鱼。15