语言学资料 phonetics and phonology 9页

Chapter2PhoneticsandPhonologyuTeachingObjectivesüToknowthedifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonologyüTohavesomeideasabouttheclassificationofEnglishconsonantsandvowelsüTounderstandsomeimportantconceptsinphonologyuTimeArrangementüAltogether3periods.2.1ThePhonicMediumofLanguageSpeechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasisthanwriting.Languageisprimarilyspoken.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhenthereareneeds.Languageisfirstperceivedthroughitssounds.Thusthestudyofsoundsisofgreatimportanceinlinguistics.Naturally,linguistsarenotinterestedinallsoundsthathumansarecapableofproducing;theyareconcernedwiththosesoundsthatareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.Thesesoundsarenotonlylimitedinnumber,butalsouniversaltosomeextent.Thelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage,andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.2.2Phonetics2.2.1DefinitionandScopeuPhoneticsisthescientificstudyofthephonicmediumoflanguageandisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsoundsuGenerally,thestudyofphoneticsiscomposedofthe3separatebranches:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.---aritculatoryphonetics:studythesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview,i.e.,howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoproducethesounds.Italsodealswiththeidentificationandclassificationofindividualsounds.---acousticphonetics:focusontheanalysisandmeasurementofsoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromoneperson9\ntoanother.---auditoryphonetics:studythesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,i.e.,howthesoundsareperceived(感知)bythehearer.uThe3branchesarecloselyrelatedtoeachother.Speechsoundscannotbedivorcedfromtheorgansthatarticulatethemandasoundwavedoesnotexistinisolationfromthesourcethatgeneratesit.Alltheapproachesareindispensabletoanunderstandingofphonetics.uInthispartwe’llfocusonarticulatoryphoneticsandatthesametimemakesomereferencetotheacousticpropertiesofsoundswhennecessary.2.2.2VocalOrgans/ArticulatoryApparatus(p.16)Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedin3importantareas:thepharyngealcavity–thethroat,theoralcavity–themouth,andthenasalcavity–thenose.Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthelarynx,andinthesecavitiesinvariousways.Suchmodificationresultsfromkindofinterferencewiththemovementoftheairstream.ØThepharyngealcavity---whenvocalcordsarerelaxedandfoldedbackateachsidetoletairflowthroughfreelyandsilentlywithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarevoiceless.---whenvocalcordsareheldtogethertightlysothattheairstreamvibratesthematdifferentspeedswhileforcingitspassagethroughthem,thevibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoicing,whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.ØTheoralcavity---thegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundhere.---ofallthespeechorgansinthiscavity,thetongueisthemostflexibleandisresponsibleformorevarietiesofarticulation.[k][g][j][t][d][][]---apartfromthetongueandtheroofofthemouth,obstructioncanbecreatedbetweentheupperteethandthelowerlipandbetweenthelips[f][v][p][b]ØThenasalcavity---whenthepassageofairtothemouthisclosedsothatairisallowedtoexitthroughthenose,thesoundspronouncearenasalized.[m][n][]2.2.3TranscriptionofSounds（p.17）üWiththeneedforastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription,theInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)cameintobeingin1888,9\nwhosebasicprincipleisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentspeechintheformofsegments,orindividualspeechsounds.üAssomespeechsoundsproduceddifferonlyinsomedetailedaspects,theIPAprovidesitsuserswithanothersetofsymbolscalleddiacritics,whichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutthefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemaypossiblydo.üThustherearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds:broadtranscription--thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyandnarrowtranscription--thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.üBroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Narrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.üExample1:[l]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],health[hel]andplay[plei]–differ[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,---aclear[l]清晰音,nodiacriticisneeded[l]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,---adark[l]模糊音---innarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[~]isused[l]in[hel],followedbythedentalsoundandaffectedbyit,---adental[l]---innarrowtranscriptionthediacriticisused[l]in[plei],followingavoicelessplosive(p),--adevoiced[l]清音化---innarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[0]isused.üExample2:[p]in[pit]and[spit][p]in[pit],pronouncedwithastrongpuffofair---aspirated[p]---[phit][p]in[spit],pronouncedwithawithheldpuffofair---unaspirated[p]---[spit]üExample3:playbroad[plei]narrow[]aspiration,devoicingtenthbroad[ten]narrow[]aspiration,nasalization,dentalization2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishsounds2.2.4.1EnglishConsonants(24/28)p.18Aninitialclassificationwilldividethespeechsoundsintotwobroadcategories:vowelsandconsonants,Inthepronunciationofconsonantstheairthatcomesfromthelungsmeetswithobstructioninonewayoranother.Traditionallinguiststhinktherearealtogether28consonants.Butmodernlinguisticsbelievethatthereare24consonants,notincluding/tr/,/dr/,/ts/,/dz/becausetheyarenot9\nconsideredasindependentsounds,buttheconsonantclusters.Consonantsareusuallyclassifiedaccordingtotheirplaceofarticulationandmannerofarticulation.---intermsofmannerofarticulation:6stops/plosives;9fricatives;2affricates;2liquids(alateral&aretroflex)3nasals;2glides/semivowels;(trillsinsomeregionalaccents）---intermsofplaceofarticulation:4bilabials;2labiodentals;2dentalsounds;7alveolarsounds;5palatalsounds;3velarsounds;1glottal2.2.4.2EnglishVowels(20/25)p.20Asintheproductionofvowelstheairstreammeetswithnoobstruction,theycannotbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorplaceofarticulationasconsonants.Othercriteriahavetobefoundfortheirclassification.1)Opennessofthemouth(close,semi-close,semi-open,open)2)Positionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)3)Degreeofliprounding/shapeoflips(rounded,unrounded)4)Lengthofthevowel(long,short)5)Pureorgliding(monophthong,diphthong,triphthong)Diphthongs–Avowelsoundthatglidesfromonequalitytoanother:8Triphthongs--avowelsoundthatglidessuccessivelythroughthreequalities:59\n2.3Phonology2.3.1PhonologyandPhoneticsSimilarity:researchobjects----thespeechsoundsDifference:researchapproachesandfocusesPhonetics–generalstudyofallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguagesabouthowtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology–abouthowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowtheyareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.2.3.2Phone,Phoneme,andallophoneuPhoneandphonemeAphoneisAphonemeisAphoneticunit,concreteAphonologicalunit,abstractOneofmanypossiblesoundsNotanyparticularsound,butrepresentedorheardorproducedinlanguagesrealizedasacertainphoneThesmallestidentifiableunitThesmallestcontrastiveunitdistinguishingfoundinastreamofspeech,notbetweenmeaningsofwordsinthesoundnecessarilydistinguishmeaningsystemofaparticularlanguage.Pronouncedinadefinedway.Pronouncedinoneormoreways,dependingonthenumberofallophones.RepresentedbetweenbracketsRepresentedbetweenslashesbyconvention.E.g.[b],[j],[o]byconvention.E.g./b/,/j/,/o/uAllophones---differentphonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironment.---variantsofaphonemewhichdonotchangethemeaningwithsubstitution---Forexample,/p/à[phi:k]&[spi:k]/t/à[thi:k]&[sti:k]/l/à[li:k]&[fi:l]&[hel]&[milk]9\n---Distinctivefeatures(p.24):thefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes;shownintheformofabinaryopposition,onlyoneoftwovalues[+]or[-];e.g.:/p/à-syllabic+consonantal–sonorant+anterior–coronal-voiced–nasal构成音节的响音前面的舌尖音的/i:/à+syllabic–consonantal+sonorant+high–back–round+continuant响音：allvowels+consonants/l/,/m/,/n/,//,/r/,/w/,/j/2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair(p.24)ØPhonemiccontrast---formedbytwodistinctivephonemesØComplementarydistribution---Allophonesofthesamephonemedonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution.Thatis,theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironmentsandtheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.ØMinimalpair---abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.---aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs:2differentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestringsàthe2soundcombinationsformingaminimalpairàthe2soundsrepresentingdifferentphonemes.morethan2soundcombinationsàconstitutingaminimalsettogether.---Thiswayappliesbothtotheconsonantsandvowels---E.g.:pill&bill,bill&kill,kill&till,till&pillàminimalpairspill,bill,kill,tillàaminimalset(identicalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonant)à/p/,/b/,/k/,/t/phonemesbeat,bet,boot,but,bait,bite,boatàaminimalset(identicalexceptforthevowel)à/i:/,/e/,/u:/,//\/,/ei/,/ai/,/eu/phonemes2.3.4Phonologicalrules(p.25)2.3.4.1SequentialruleslThephonemesofalanguagecannotnotstrungtogetherinanyrandomordertoform9\nwords.Thephonologicalsystemdetermineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.e.g.:/b/,/l/,/i/,/k/p.25lIfawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenextsoundmustbeavowel.lIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowing3rules;(1)Thefirstphonememustbe/s/(2)Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/(3)Thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/e.g.:spring/spri/,strict/strict/,square/skew/,splendid/splendid/,scream/skri:m/lEverywordmustcontainatleastonevowel-likesegment.lTherulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.WhatisnotpermissibleinEnglishmightbepermissibleinanotherlanguage.2.3.4.2AssimilationrulenWhenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This“sloppy”tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.lNasalizationofvowelsincertainphoneticcontexts.e.g.:[i:]–bean,green,team,screamlThevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal/n/insomesoundcombinatione.g.:alveolarnasal/n/--stillalveolarnasalinindiscreet(for/d/isanalveolarstop)alveolarnasal/n/--velarnasal//inincorrect(for/k/isavelarstop)lThesoundassimilationisactuallyreflectedinthespellinginmostcases.Inpossibleàimpossible,asthe/n/soundisassimilatedto/m/Inplausibelàimplausible,inlegalàillegal,inregular--.irregular2.3.4.3DeletionrulenIttellswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.e.g.:sign,design,paradigmàno/g/soundthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbythelettergsignature,designation,paradigmaticà/g/representedbythelettergispronouncedlTheruleis:deletea/g/whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.2.3.5SuprasegmentalFeaturesSegment--anylinguisticunitinasequencewhichmaybeisolatedfromtherestofthesequence,e.g.asoundinanutteranceoraletterinawrittentext9\nSuprasegmental–(inphoneticsandphonology)aunitwhichextendsovermorethanonesoundinanutterance.,e.g.syllable,word,sentence.2.3.5.1StresslStressisthepronunciationofawordorsyllablewithmoreforcethanthesurroundingwordsorsyllables.Briefly,stressissyllableprominence.lStressinasyllableisachievedbychangingthepitch,makingthesyllablelouder,ormakingitlonger.lInaword,thebasicdifferenceisbetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables.Thesyllablewiththegreatestprominencehadtheprimarystressandthenextstressedsyllablethesecondarystress.Aword,iflongenough,mayhaveseveralnonprimarystresses.However,nowordhasmorethanoneprimarystress.lStresshastwomainsemanticfunctions:distinguishingbetweentwowordswhicharealike,e.g.\import(n.)andim\port(v.);emphasizingthesyllableorword,e.g.Isaidinduce,notdeduce.lTherearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.lWordstress–thelocationofstressdistinguishesmeaning.(1)ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordformanountoaverb.e.g.:\increase(n.)–in\crease(v.);insult(n.)–insult(v.);rebel(n.)–rebel(v.)(2)thealterationofstressoccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelementse.g.:\blackbird(compound)–aparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack.black\bird(nounphrase)–abirdwhosecolorisblackgreenhouse–greenhouse;hotdog–hotdog(3)themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthe–ing+nouncombinations.e.g.:\diningroom(compound)---ingservingasamodifierofthenounreadingglasses,sewingmachinesleeping\baby(nounphrase)–nounasthedoeroftheactionindicatedbythe–ingform,whichisan–ingparticiplemodifierswimmingfishlSentencestress(1)thepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinEnglisharenouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns.(2)Theothercategoriesofwordslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,9\nprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.(1)Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.e.g.:Heisdrivingmycar.2.3.5.2TonelToneispitchvariationswhichareassociatedwiththepronunciationofsyllablesorwordsandwhichaffectsthemeaningoftheword.lAtonelanguageisalanguageinwhichthemeaningofworddependsonthetoneusedwhenpronouncingit.lMandarinChinese,atypicaltonlanguage,makesadistinctionbetweenfourdifferenttones.lOthertonelanguagesarespokeninVietnam,Thailand,WestAfrica,andCentralAmerica.2.3.5.3IntonationlWhenspeaking,peopleusuallyraiseandlowerthepitchoftheirvoice,formingpitchpatterns.Theyalsogivesomesyllablesintheirutterancesagreaterdegreeofloudnessandchangetheirspeechrhythm.Thesephenomenaarecalledintonation.Inotherwords,whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.lEnglishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones–thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.9