简明语言学整理笔记 8页

第一章1.linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage2．ThescopeoflinguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，appliedlinguistics应用语言学3.ImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptive&>prescriptive规定性&描写性Synchronic&>diachronic共时性&历时性Speech&>writing口语&书写Langue&languagefact)Traditionalgrammer&modernlinguistics4.Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication5.Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的识别特征CharlesHockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(soundsandmeanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers③Duality（双重性）:Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization..④Displacement(移位性):HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atmomentofcommunication.⑤Culturaltransmission（文化传承性）人独有。动物为基因传承6.FunctionsoflanguageMainfunction：Descreptivefunction描述功能，expressivefunction表达功能，socialfunction社会功能6basicfunction（RomanJakobson）①addresser-Emotive(情感功能):toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker②addressee-Conative（意动功能）③Context-referential（指称功能）④.message-poetic（诗性功能）.⑤contact-Phaticcommunion(寒暄交流)⑥Metalingualfunction(元语言功能):Halliday–childlanguage：theideational概念功能，theinterpersonal交际功能，thetextual语篇功能第二章Phology语音学Threebranches：articulatoryphonetics发音语言学，auditoryphonetics听觉语音学，acousticphonetics声学语音学。\nOrgansofspeech：pharyngealcavity咽腔:voiced浊辅音，voiceless清辅音oralcavity口腔，nasalcavity鼻腔。Broad&narrowtranscriptionclassificationofenglishspeechsound：phonology音系学名词解释Phonetics语音学isofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassifiedPhonology音系学aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatterns,andhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Aphone音素----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Aphoneme音位----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpeakandspeak.Allophones音位变体----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.(complementarydistribution互补分布)e.g.thephoneme[l]inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[l],clear[l],whichareallophonesofthephoneme[l].Phonemiccontrast音位对立----twodifferentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].Complementarydistribution互补分布----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].Minimalpair最小对立体---whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.SomerulesinphonelogySequentialrules序列规则Assimilationrule同化规则Deletionrule省略规则Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征stress，tone，intonation第三章Morphology（形态学）:refertothepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithformationandwordstructure.Closedclasswords:conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsconsistofthe“grammatical”or“functional”words.Words---thesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.Morpheme---thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction.Phoneme音位:thesmallestmeaningfulunitofsound:/p,b/Morpheme词素:thesmallestmeaningfulunitingrammar:-s,a-,-lessun-Freemorpheme自由词素----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitselfBoundmorpheme黏着词素----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.They\ncannotstandbythemselvesAllomorph词素变体---morphemesmayhavedifferentforms.(:aandan.)ThevariantformsofamorphemearesaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorphemeRoot---thecoreofthewordsthatcarriesthemajorcomponentsofmeaning.Affix---boundmorphemes.Prefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothersSuffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothersRoot---Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremovedStem---Astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,Base---Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.Derivationalmorphemes派生词素----themorphemeswhichcanchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwordsInflectionalmorphemes屈折词素----theboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon,(tables,talked,John’s)morphologicalrules---thewayswordsareformed.productivemorphologicalrules能产性词法规则Derivation(派生法)---anaffixationprocessthatformsawordwithameaningand/orcategoryfromthatofitsbases.Compounds(合成法)第四章Syntax（句法）----therulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Category（范畴）---referstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesyntacticcategories---Afundamentalfactaboutwordsinhumanlanguagesisthattheycanbegroupedintoarelativesmallnumber.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)Majorlexicalcategories主要词法范畴:n.,v.,adj.,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories次要词法范畴:det.(a,the,),deg.(修饰介词，形容词so,very),Qual.(修饰动词often，almost),Aux(must,should),Conj.(and,but,or)Threecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined:meaning,inflectionanddistribution.Phrase---thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.Thestructureofphrases:specifier标志语+head中心词+complement补语Head----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsAphrasestructurerule短语结构规则----Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase1)TheXPruleXP规则(specifier)X(complement)2)Coordinationrule并列规则---thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelements\nofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunction.XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)Modifiers修饰语SàNPVPInflisanabstractcategoryinflection(dubbed‘Infl’)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stense（时态）andagreement（一致）.(Infl.--will,Pst).Auxiliarymovement(inversion)---Atransformation,aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother,whichisknownasinversion倒置.TheauxililarymovesfromtheheadInflpositioninInflPintotheheadCpositioninCP.Suchtypeofinversionoperationinvolvingthemovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninonephraseintotheheadpositioninanotherisknownasheadmovement中心词移位.Doinsertion（do插入）----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.第五章semantics语义学Semantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Whatismeaning?Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.Someviews：Namingtheory(Plato)---Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Theconceptualistview（OgdenandRichards:semantictriangle）Thesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Contextualism（JRFirth）1.Situationalcontext场景语境:spatiotemporal时空的situation2.Linguisticcontext:co-text互文，theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Behaviorism（Bloomfield）Lexicalmeaning：名词解释Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Majorsenserelations1)Synonymy同义关系：Dialectalsynonyms方言同义词，Stylisticsynonyms-文体同义词，differintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning:thesamemeaningbutdifferentemotions:，Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词，Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,语义程度不同2)Polysemy一词多义3)Homonymy同形同音异义关系4)Hyponymy上下位关系5）Antonymy反义关系：Gradableantonyms等级反义词old-young，Complementaryantonyms互补反义词male-female，Relationalopposites关系反义词wife-husbandSenserelationsbetweensentences1)  XissynonymouswithY同义2)  XisinconsistentwithY不一致3)  XentailsY蕴含\n4)  XpresupposesY预设5)  Xisacontradiction矛盾6)  Xissemanticallyanomalous语义反常AnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysis成分分析法Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析法（G-leech）Thetreegrowswell.àTREE(GROW)Thekidslikeapples.àKIDS，APPLE(LIKE)第六章Pragmatics(语用学)---thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.Whetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics（语用，言外之意，考虑语境，具体意义）.Ifnot,thestudyisrestrictedtothetraditionallysemantics（语义，言内之音）.Context(语境)---generallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer(background,relationship).JohnFirthSentencemeaning---theabstract,decontextualized,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Utterancemeaning---basedonsentencemeaning;itisconcreteandcontext-dependent;therealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orinacontext.SpeechActTheorywasproposedbyJohnAustinandfurtherdevelopedbyJohnSearle.speechacts---languageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethingsbutto“dothings”,toperformacts.Actionsperformedthroughutterances.AccordingtoAustin,sentencescanbesubdividedintotwocategories.a.Constatives(叙事话语):statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable.（aproposition，astatement）b.Performatives（行为话语）:sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.(aproposition，apromise)Austin’snewmodelofspeechacts----AccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact（言内行为，以言指事）,illocutionaryact（言外行为，以言行事）andperlocutionaryact（言后行为，以言成事）.Thelocutionaryact----anactofsayingsomethingTheillocutionaryact----anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact----anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachother’sillocutionaryacts：Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts(1969)Assertives/representatives（阐述类）----Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue\nDirectives（指示类）----TryingtogetthehearertodosomethingCommissives（承诺类）---CommittingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofactionExpressives（表达类）---Expressingthespeaker’spsychologicalstateaboutsomething，Declarations（宣告类）---BringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairsPrincipleofconversation(PaulGrice)Cooperativeprinciple(CP)----AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.(在言语产生作出表述时，要使该表述符合此阶段话语交流所接受的目的或方向要求)Thatis,weassumethatinaconversationtheparticipantswillcooperatewitheachotherwhenmakingtheircontributions.Theprincipleisillustratedwithitsfourmaxims:FourmaximsofCP（PaulGrice）a)Themaximofquality（足够多信息）b)Themaximofquantity（真假）c)Themaximofrelation（联系）d)Themaximofmanner（艰涩，歧义）第七章LanguagechangeAdditionofnewwords1.Coinage（创新词）taikonaut2.Clippedwords：gym3.Blending：smog：smoke+fog4.Acronyms：CEO5.Back-formation：tobeg（begger）6.Functionalshift：toknee/n.—v.7.Borrowing借词Semanticchanges(1)Semanticbroadening：Holiday(2)SemanticNarrowing：meat(3)Semanticshift：silly第八章LanguageandsocietyVarietiesoflanguage语言变体Dialectalvarieties:Regional/SocialPersonalvarieties:registersSituatinalvarieties:degreeofformalityLanguageandgender：becausemencontrolpubliclifeinmostcultures,menoftencontrolthestandardlanguage,whichthenbecomesbiasedtowardsmen.Languageandage，Idiolect(个人语言)ethnicdialectRegister语域（Halliday）fieldofdiscourse语场,tenorofdiscourse语旨,andmodeofdiscourse语式.Fieldofdiscoursereferstowhatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.Itis\nconcernedwiththepurposeandsubject-matterofcommunication.Itanswersthequestionsof'why'and'aboutwhat'communicationtakesplace.Tenorofdiscoursereferstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whotheparticipantsinthecommunicationgroupsareandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.Itanswersthequestionof'towhom'thespeakeriscommunicating.Thisdimensiontoagreatextentdeterminesthelevelofformalityandtheleveloftechnicalityofthelanguageweuse.Modeofdiscoursemainlyreferstothemeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwith"how"communicationiscarriedout.Fundamentaltothemodeofdiscourseisthedistinctionbetweenspeakingandwriting.Buttherearefinerdistinctions,e.g.spokenlanguagemaybespontaneousorpreparedbeforehandandwrittenlanguagemaybeintendedtobereadwiththeeyeortobespoken.Example:alectureonbiologyinatechnicalcollegeField:scientific(biological)事件地点？Tenor:teacher-students(formal,polite)参与者Mode:oral(academiclecturing)方式方法Degreeofformality（MartinJoos）Intimate亲密Casual随意Consultative客气:Formal正式Frozen冷淡Pidgin洋泾浜语（不中不西之特别话）&Creole克里奥尔语（殖民地后发展的本地语言，词汇少）BilingualismandDiglossia双语现象和双语（殖民/移民/变体）第11章SecondLanguageAcquisitionSomebasictermsSecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA)Targetlanguage(TL)(目的语):thelanguagewhichapersonislearning,incontrasttoafirstlanguageormothertongue.Secondlanguage(L2):alanguagewhichisnotanativelanguagebutiswidelyusedasamediumofcommunicationandisusedalongwithanotherlanguageorlanguages.e.g.EnglishusedinSingaporeForeignlanguage(FL):alanguagewhichisnotanativelanguageinacountry,andisalwaystaughtinschoolsandnotusedtocommunicatewithinacountry.Erroranalysis错误分析Interlingual语际错误，intralingual语内错误\n