语言学 考研真题 79页

语言学考研真题和答案第一章语言学Fillintheblanks1.Humanlanguageisarbitrary.Thisreferstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthe_______itisassociatedwith.（人大2007研）meaning语言有任意性，其所指与形式没有逻辑或内在联系2.Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.Thisqualityislabeledas_______.（北二外2003研）displacement移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点3.Bydualityismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsofthe_______levelarecomposedofelementsofthe__________levelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.（北二外2006研）primary,secondary双重性指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则4.Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalled_______features.（北二外2006）design人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。5.Theterm________originatesfromMalinowski'sstudyofthefunctionsoflanguageperformedbyTrobriandIslanders.Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.（中山大学2006研）phaticcommunication寒暄功能有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，最先由Malinowski提出6.Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehas________,interpersonalandtextualfunctions.（中山大学2008研）ideational韩礼德将儿童的语言功能范围逐渐缩小，简化成为一套高度符号化和抽象化的功能：概念、人际、语篇功能。7.Ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself.Thisisthe________functionoflanguage.（中山大学2005研）metalingual语言的元语言功能是指语言可以用来讨论语言本身。8.Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthe_______studyoflanguage.（北二外2003研）scientific9.________studieshowthespeechsoundsaremade,transmitted,andreceived,and_______studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.（人大2006研）phonetics,phonology语音学研究语音是如何产生，传播以及接收的；音系学研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及音节的形式。10._______studiesmeaninginlanguage,_______isaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences,and________isconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Theyareallamongthemainbranchesoflinguistics.（人大2006研）semantics,syntax,morphology语义学研究语言的意义，句法学研究构成句子的规则，形态学研究词汇的内部结构。三者都是语言学的分支。11.InSaussure'sview,therelationshipbetweensignifier(soundimage)andsignified(concept)is_______.（北二外2003）arbitrary索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系。79\n12.________isthestudyofthelanguage-processingmechanisms.Itisconcernedwiththestorage,comprehension,productionandacquisitionoflanguage;________ontheotherhand,attemptstoshowtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Theybothbelongtobranchesofmacrolinguistics.（人大2006研）psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics心理语言学研究语言处理机制，如语言的记忆、理解、习得等。社会语言学研究语言与社会之间的关系。13.Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances)as________and________.Theformerreferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andthelatteristheconcretemanifestationoflanguageeitherthroughspeechorthroughwriting.（人大2006研）langue,parole索绪尔用语言和言语来区分说话者的语言能力和言语上(表达的)的实际表现或语料。14.________grammarsattempttotellwhatisinthelanguage,while________grammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguage.Mostcontemporarylinguistsbelievethatwhateveroccursnaturallyinthelanguageshouldbedescribed.（人大2006研）descriptive,prescriptive描述性语言记录语言共同体的成员所遵循的规则，规定式的语言学目的在于为正确使用语言定下各种规则。15.Oneoftheimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsis________andperformance.（人大2006）competence语言能力指理想的语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识，语言应用指语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。16.Theorythatprimitivemanmadeinvoluntaryvocalnoiseswhileperformingheavyworkhasbeencalledthe________theory.yo-he-ho语言的起源有“汪汪”理论，“噗噗”理论和“哟嘿吼”理论o“哟嘿吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。17.Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisa________study.Diachroniclinguistic历时语言学家集中研究几十年或几百年的时期内两个或比两个更多的语言状况的差异。18.LinguisticpotentialissimilartoSaussure'slangueandChomsky's________.Competence索绪尔的语言与乔姆斯基的语言能力相似，因为二者都指抽象的语言知识，不是实际使用中的语言MultipleChoices1.WhichofthefollowingstatementisNOTtrue?（大连外院2008研）BA.Languageisameansofvocalcommunication.B.Languageisinstrumental.C.Languageissocialandconventional.2.WhichofthefollowingisNOTafrequentlydiscusseddesignfeature?（大连外院2008研）BA.ArbitrarinessB.ConventionC.Duality3.By_______wemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandrecursiveness.（西安外院2006研）A.arbitrarinessB.dualityC.creativityD.displacementC创造性指语言的能产性，能早出和理解无穷的长句，其中大半是从未听说过的4.Whichofthefollowingwordsisentirelyarbitrary?（西安交大2008研）AA.treeB.crashC.typewriterD.bang79\nCrash是个缩略语，typewriter是复合词，bang是拟声词，5.ThefunctionsoflanguagedoNOTinclude________.（大连外院2008研）CA.informativefunctionB.interpersonalfunctionC.metacognitivefunction语言的主要功能是寒暄功能、指示功能、信息功能、疑问功能、表达功能、施为功能和劝说功能6.Themostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguageisthe_______function,bywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.（西安外院2006研）BA.performativeB.interpersonalC.phaticD.metalingual7.Saussuretooka(n)________viewoflanguage,whileChomskylooksatlanguagefroma______pointofview.（西安交大2008研）AA.sociological...psychologicalB.psychological...sociologicalC.applied...pragmaticD.semantic...linguistic索绪尔的语言指语言社团中的语言，所以是从社会的角度研究语言。乔姆斯基是从使用者本身掌握的语言知识研究语言，是从心理角度研究语言。8.AccordingtoF.deSaussure,_______referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.（西安交大2008研）CA.paroleB.performanceC.langueD.Language9.Thestudyofphysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechiscloselyconnectedwith______.（大连外院2008研）B声学语音学研究语音的物质特质A.articulatoryphoneticsB.acousticphoneticsC.auditoryphonetics10.Studythefollowingdialogue.Whatfunctiondoesitplayaccordingtothefunctionsoflanguage?—Aniceday,isn'tit?—Right!Ireallyenjoythesunlight.B寒暄功能A.Emotive.B.Phatic.C.Performative.D.Interpersonal.11.________dealswithlanguageapplicationtootherfields,particularlyeducation.CA.LinguisticgeographyB.SociolinguisticsC.AppliedlinguisticsD.Comparativelinguistics12.Verbaldueling,theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,ismainlytodowiththe_______,functionoflanguage.（武汉大学2011研）D为了开心好玩，所以选娱乐功能A.performativeB.interpersonalC.informativeD.recreationalTrueorFalse1.Thephaticfunctionreferstolanguagefunctionforestablishingormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas.（清华2011研）T寒暄功能是指建立与保持社交联络而不是交换信息2.Syntaxreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage.（大连外院2008研）T3.“Competence”and“performance”aretwodistinctivetermsproposedbySaussure.（北二外2005研）F是乔姆斯基提出的4.Theconceptcompetenceoriginallyreferstothegrammaticalknowledgeoftheideallanguageuserandhasnothingtodowiththeactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.（南开2004研）T79\n5.Prescriptivelinguisticsismorepopularthandescriptivelinguistics,becauseitcantellushowtospeakcorrectlanguage.F这是两种不同的方法，不能淡出说谁好谁坏6.Bydiachronicstudywemeantostudythechangesanddevelopmentoflanguage.T7.Onomatopoeicwordsaretotallyarbitrary.F拟声词不是完全任意的ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.arbitrariness（四川大学2006研）2.duality（四川大学2006研）3.displacement（南开2010研，清华2001研）4.performativefunction（武汉大学2004研）5.parole（北师大2004研）6.descriptivestudyoflinguistics（四川大学2007研）7.langue（北外2010研）1.Arbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbenonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative;aconventionalityoflanguagemakesalanguagebepassedfromgenerationtogeneration.Forexample,itisunabletoexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/.2.Dualityreferstothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigatedtherearetwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.Forexample,asyllableisthesmallestunitthatisnormallyspokenbyitself,andscoresofsyllablesbecomethecarriersofhundredsofmeaningfulsegmentsofwordsthatarecalledmorphemes.3.Languagecanbeusedtorefertowhatispresent,whatisabsent,whathappensatpresent,whathappenedinthepast,whatwillhappeninthefutureorwhathappensinafar-awayplace.Thispropertyoflanguageenableslanguageuserstoovercomethebarrierscausedbytimeandplace.Forexample,scientistscanpredictthe"future"ofcertainplanetsthatareseveralbillionsoflightyearsawayfromus.4.Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersonsanditcanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.Forexample,inChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowlthehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosaysuisuipingan(everydaybesafeandhappy)asameansofcontrollingtheforceswhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlives.5.Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Itvariesenormouslyaccordingtoindividuals.Thespeeches,theidiosyncraticutterancesmadebyindividualsareallexamplesofparole.6.Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivestudyistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherolestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness,whichareinthescopeofprescriptivelinguistics.7.Languereferstoabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolereferstoparticularrealizationoflangue.79\nShortAnswerQuestions1.Citeanexampletoexplainsynchroniclinguistics.（人大2005研）2.Howwell,inyouropinion,doestheword“communication”representthefunctionofhumanlanguage?（北二外2008研）3.Whatarelinguisticcompetenceandcommunicativecompetence?（武汉大学2007研）4.Oneofthedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguageiscreativity.Whatisit?Andwhatmakesitpossible?（浙江大学2007研）5.Whatisthedirectivefunction?（西安交大2008研）第一章简答答案1.SynchronicLinguisticsisthedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory.Itfocusesonthecharacteristicsofthelanguageatacertaintime.Forexample,whenwestudyEnglish,welearnaboutthevocabulary,thelanguagepointsandoralEnglishetc.Atthistime,wearelearningEnglishofcurrenttimeinsynchronicmethod.2.Weuselanguageforanalmostinfinitenumberofpurposes,fromwritingletterstogossipingwithourfriends,makingspeechesandtalkingtoourselvesinthemirror.Buttheprimaryfunctionoflanguageoflanguageistotransmitinformationandtoconveycommands,feelingsandemotions.Thatis,languageisatoolofcommunication.Theterm“communication”canbeusedtocovermuchofthefunctionoflanguage.Thisfunctioncanbefurtherdividedintomorespecificfunctions,suchasphaticfunction/communion,directivefunction,informativefunction,interrogativefunction,expressivefunction,evocativefunction,performativefunctionetc.3.LinguisticcompetencewasoriginallyproposedbyNoamChomsky.Itisdefinedasalanguageuser'sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemorrules.InChomsky'sview,thenativespeaker'scompetencecanbecharacterizedasasetofrulesforproducinganunderstandingofsentencesinhislanguage.Toacquirethenativespeaker'scompetenceistoobtaintheabilityofrecognizingandproducinggrammaticalsentencesinalanguage.Communicativecompetence,ontheotherhand,wasproposedbyDellHymesasanefforttorefinetheoriginalnotionbyChomsky.HepointedoutthatChomsky'scompetenceisnecessarybutnotsufficientforalearnertocommunicatewithotherssuccessfullyinaspeechcommunity.Inadditiontogrammaticalaccuracy,asuccessfulcommunicationrequiresappropriacyinthesensethatheknowswhenhespeakswhattowhom.Thusheextendedthenotionofcompetencebyincorporatingthepragmaticabilityforlanguageuse.Thisextendedideaofcompetenceiscalledcommunicativecompetence.4.Thecreativityoflanguagemeansthatuserscanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Creativityisapropertyuniquetohumanlanguage.Itcombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverheardbefore.Humanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Thespeakerisabletounderstandthesentencesbeforeproducedorheard.Thefactthathumanlanguageisrecursivecouldbeshowninthatwordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthings,andcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacrossthatwordbefore.Forexample,Icouldmakeasentencelike“Theman79\nwhoiswaitingfortheladywhoistalkingtotheboywhoisplayingwithagirl,ismyuncle.”5.Directivefunctionisoneoffunctionsoflanguage.Languageisusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesareofthisfunction.Forexample,thesentence“Closeyourbookandlistentomecarefully!”performsadirectivefunction.Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle's“Indirectspeechacttheory”atleast,servesthepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”EssayQuestions1.Linguisticsisnottheonlyfieldconcernedwithlanguage.Otherdisciplinessuchassociology,psychology,ethnographyarealsopreoccupiedwithlanguage.（中山2008研）本题答案：Sincelanguagehasbothindividualandsocialaspects,itisnaturallyofinteresttopsychologistsandsociologistsamongothers.Manypsychologistsareinterestedtoinvestigatetheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample,languagedevelopmentinthechild,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition;biologicalfoundationsoflanguage,andabigtopic—therelationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition,sotherearepsycholinguistics.Socialistswhoareinterestedintherelationsbetweenlanguageandsocietydoresearchesconcernedbothsociologyandlinguistics,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Whenanthropologistsenlistedthehelpoflinguiststostudyunwrittenlanguages,anthropologyandlinguisticsbecamecloselyassociatedintheearlydaysofanthropologicalfieldwork.Incontrastwithotherlinguists,anthropologicallinguistsareinterestedprimarilyinthehistoryandstriKlureofformerlyunwrittenlanguages.Theyareconcernedwiththeemergenceoflanguageandalsowiththedivergenceoflanguagesoverthousandsofyears.Therefore,itisnotsurprisingtherearesomebranchesofmacrolinguisticsthatshowaninterdisciplinarynature.2.Therearetwokindsofgrammarbasedondifferentlinguisticpointsofview.Theyareprescriptivegrammaranddescriptivegrammar.Agrammarmaydescribehowlanguageisactuallyspokenand/orwritten,andmaynotstateorpostulatehowitoughttobespokenorwritten.Butagrammarmayalsostatetherulesforwhatisconsideredthebestormostcorrectusage.Whichgrammarisdescriptivegrammar,andwhichgrammarisprescriptivegrammar?Citesomeexamplestogiveyourreasons.（北师大2003研）本题答案：Thefirstoneistypicalofdescriptivegrammar,whilethesecondoneisprescriptivegrammar.Thedescriptivegrammaraimstodescribehowpeoplespeakanddetailtheunderlyingknowledge.Itisbelievedindescriptivegrammarthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech,suchashesitation,incompleteutterance,shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,orcorrupt;modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.Whereas,theprescriptiveapproachaimstoteachpeoplehowtospeak,read,andwriteaparticularlanguage;inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.Forexample,thestatementthat“instandardEnglish,adoublenegativeisrarelyused”isadescription,showinghowthelanguageisusedinstandardEnglish,regardlesswhetheritiscorrect79\nornot.“Youshouldneveruseadouble-negative”isatypicalgrammarrulethatprescribeswhatshouldbegrammaticallycorrectintheStandardEnglish.Asforthespelling,prescriptionsays“judgment”iscorrect,butdescriptionaccuratelypointsoutthat“judgment”isconsideredbyEditedEnglishtobecorrecttoo,andadescriptiveaccountforthesetwodifferentspellingswillshowhowthelateroneisusedandwhousesit.3.Saussureputsforwardtheconceptoflangueandparole,andChomskyputsforwardtheconceptofcompetenceandperformance.Pleasedwelluponthedifferencesandsimilarities,ifany,ofthetwopairs:langueandparolevs.competenceandperformance.（北京交通大学2007研）本题答案：AccordingtoF.deSaussure,languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity;whileparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.ForChomsky,afundamentaldistinctionbetweenlinguisticcompetenceandperformanceshouldbemade.Alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledlinguisticcompetence.Andperformancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Inlightwiththis,competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablebuthisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors,andthuswouldinvolveimperfectionssuchasslipsoftongue,falsestarts,unnecessarypauses,andsoon.Thus,thepointisthataspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhiscompetence.Saussure’sdistinctionissomewhatsimilarwithChomsky’sinthesensethattheybothrefertotheconstantfactorwhichunderliestheutterancesthatconstituteparole/performance.However,theirdifferenceisquiteobvious.Saussue’slanguageisasocialproduct,asetofconventionsforaspeechcommunity.Chomskyregardscompetenceasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SaussruelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalpointofviewwhileChomskylooksatitmorefromapsychologicalpointofview.4.Examinethefollowingtwostatementsaboutlanguage,anddiscussthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthem.Doyouagreewiththetwostatements?Explainyouranswer.(1)Sapir(1921:Language);“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”(2)BlochandTrager(1942:OutlineofLinguisticAnalysis):“Alanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsbymeansofwhichasocialgroupco-operates.”本题答案：Similarities:(1)Bothdefinitionssticktothefactthatlanguageisprimarilyamatterofspeechbecausetheprimarymediumoflanguageissound.SapirillustratesthisideabyimplyingthattheproducedsymbolsareauditoryandBlochandTragerbyexplicitlyusingtheword‘vocal’.(2)Bothdefinitionsalludetothefactthattheassociationbetweenthewordsandthethingsthattheydenotedisrarelyinherent,Sapirbyusingtheword‘symbols’andBlochandTragerbyplacingemphasison‘arbitrary’and‘symbols’.Differences:(1)Sapir’sdefinitionemphasizethatlanguagerelatestocommunicationbetweenhumanbeings.Itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsofothercreatures,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.BlochandTragerdonotclearlyindicatethisproperty,onlysayingthatitispossessedbyasocialgroup.79\n(2)Sapiralsoconsidersthatlanguageis‘non-instinctive’and‘voluntarilyproduced’.Thusforhimlanguagedoesnotincludesuchinstinctiveformsofcommunicationassmilingandcriesofpain,etc.However,BlochandTrager’sdefinitiondonotincludethisfeature.(3)Theelement‘system’inBlochandTrager’sdefinitionreflectsthefactthatlanguageprovidesuswiththeframeworkforgeneratingappropriateutterancesratherthanprovidinguswithaninfinitestoreofready-madeutterances.Stillelementsoflacunaearecombinedaccordingtorules.(4)Thefunctionoflanguageisindicateddifferentlyintwodefinitions.Sapirseeslanguageasforcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesires,whileBlochandTragerconsidersitforasocialgroup'sco-operation.Sapir’sdefinitionproposes‘communication’astheprincipalfunctionoflanguageandspecifieswhatiscommunicated;BlochandTrageronlyvaguelypointsoutthatlanguagecanbeusedforco-operation.Eachofthetwodefinitionshasitsownspecialemphasisanditnottotallyfreefromlimitations.Wethinkthetwodefinitionsgraspsomedefiningpropertiesoflanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication,forexample,‘vocal’,‘arbitrary’,‘symbol’,‘purelyhuman’,‘asystem’.Buteitherhassomelimitation.AsforSapir’sdefinition,whetheroneconsiderslanguagetobeinstinctiveornotisanissue.Languageisinstinctiveinsofarasweareallbornwithapredispositiontospeak,weallacquirealanguagewithouttuitionandwhenwespeakwedonotconsciouslyconvertourthoughtsintospeech.Languageis,however,non-instinctiveinthatwecanchoosewhattosayorwhethertosayanythingatall.Boththedefinition'sdescriptionoflanguage'sfunctionisnotprecise.Sapir’sdefinitionconfineslanguageonlytocommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesires,andBlochandTrager’sdefinitiondoesnotpointitoutatall.5.Itiswidelyknownthatanimalshavetheirownwaysofcommunicatingwitheachother.Forexample,beescandanceverycomplicateddancesandsomebirdscansingverycomplicatedsongs.Itisalsogenerallyagreedthattherearefundamentaldifferencesbetweenhumanlanguageandotheranimals'waysofcommunicating.i.Whatisyourviewonthispoint?ii.Ifyoualsothinkthattherearefundamentaldifferencesbetweenhumanlanguageandotheranimals'waysofcommunicating,accordingtoyou,whatarethedifferences?Pleasegiveshortexplanations.Ifyoudon'tthinkthattherearefundamentaldifferencesbetweenhumanlanguageandotheranimals’waysofcommunicating,pleasealsodefendyourposition.Illustrateyourpointswithexamplesifnecessary.本题答案：i.There’refundamentaldifferencesbetweenhumanlanguageandotheranimal’swaysofcommunicating.Allcreatures,notonlythe“clever”oneslikeapesanddolphinsbutalsosuch“lower”onesasbeesandbirdsareabletocommunicatewitheachother.Wehavebeencarefulinusingtheterm“animalcommunicationsystem”toindicatethisability.Butlanguageishuman-specificwhichisnotmerelyatoolusedtotransmitinformationbutalsoameansofsocialcommunication.Linguistsmadealistof“designfeatures”,whicharefoundutterlyabsentinanimalcommunicationandthusdistinguishhumanlanguagefromanimal’scry.ii.Therearefundamentaldifferencesbetweenhumanlanguageandotheranimals’waysofcommunicating,suchasthe“designfeature”coulddistinguishhumanlanguagefromother79\nsystemsofcommunication.Forinstance,1)Duality,animalsthatusevocalsignalshaveastockofbasicsoundswhichvaryaccordingtospecies.Acowhaslessthanten,achickenhasaroundtwenty,butmostanimalscanuseeachbasicsoundtostandforonethingonly,sothecommunicativepowerofanimallanguageishighlylimited.However,humanlanguagehasanumberofsoundunits,orphonemesandeachphonemecanbecomemeaningfulwhenitiscombinedwithotherphonemes,sowesayhumanlanguageoperatesontwolevelsofstructures.2)ProductivityorCreativity,itmeansthathumanbeingscanproducenovelutteranceswhenevertheywant.Therobiniscreativeinitsabilitytosingthesamethinginmanyways,butnotcreativeinitsabilitytousethesameunitsofthesystemtoexpressmanydifferentmessageswithdifferentmeanings.3)Displacement,itisapropertyoflanguageenablingpeopletotalkaboutthingsbeingremoteeitherinspaceorintime.Mostanimalscanonlycommunicateaboutthingsintheimmediatesituation.本题考查语言的本质特征。结合所学知识和自己对这一组特征的理解，先给出自己的观点，再阐释动物语言系统和人类语言系统的区别6.Whydowesaylinguisticsisascience?（北二外2011研）本题答案Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Ittriestoanswerthebasicquestions"Whatislanguage?"and"Howdoeslanguagework?"Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,e.g.English,Chinese,Arabic,andLatin,butitstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharcfoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation;thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.本题考查语言学作为一门学科，其科学性，为开放试题。从其研究内容和方法角度作答即可。7.WhatarethethreemetafunctionsofSystemicFunctionalGrammar?Illustrateeachofthemwithspecificexamples.（武汉大学2011研）本题答案：AccordingtoHalliday,theadult'slanguagebecomesmuchmorecomplexandithastoserveman-ymorefunctions,andtheoriginalfunctionalisgraduallyreducedtoasetofhighlycodedandabstractfunctions,whicharethreemetafunctions:theideational,theinterpersonal,andthetextualfunctions.First,theideationalfunction(“experiential”and“logical”)istoconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer.Presentinalllanguageuses,theideationalfunctionisameaningpotential,becausewhateverspecificuseoneismakingoflanguagehehastorefertocategoriesofhisexperienceoftheworld.Theideationalfunctionmainlyconsistsof“transitivity”and“voice”.Thisfunctionnotonlyspecifiestheavailableoptionsinmeaningbutalsodeterminesthenatureoftheirstructuralrealisations.Forexample,Johnbuiltanewhousecanbeanalysedasaconfigurationofthefunctionroles:79\nActor:JohnProcess:Material:creation:builtGoal:affected:anewhouseSecond,theinterpersonalfunctionembodiesallusesoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelations.Thisincludesthevariouswaysthespeakerentersaspeechsituationandperformsaspeechact.Becausetheclauseisnotconfinedtotheexpressionoftransitivity,therearenon-ideationalelementsintheadultlanguagesystem.Interpersonalfunctionisrealisedbymoodandmodality.Moodshowswhatrolethespeakerselectsinthespeechsituationandwhatroleheassignstotheaddressee.Ifthespeakerselectstheimperativemood,heassumestheroleofonegivingcommandsandputstheaddresseeintheroleofoneexpectedtoobeyorders.Modalityspecifiesifthespeakerisexpressinghisjudgementormakingaprediction.Forexample,“Givemethatteapot!”Moodismadeupoftwoparts;the“Subject”andthe“Finite”element.Thesubjectcanbeanoun,anounphrase,oraclause.Third,thetextualfunctionreferstothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenorwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.Althoughtwosentencesmayhaveexactlythesameideationalandinterpersonalfunctions,theymaybedifferentintermsoftextualcoherence.Thetextualfunctionfulfilstherequirementthatlanguageshouldbeoperationallyrelevant,havingtextureinarealcontextofsituationthatdistinguishesalivingpassagefromamereentryinagrammaroradictionary.Itprovidestheremainingstrandsofmeaningpotentialtobewovenintothefabricoflinguisticstructure.Forexample,analyzethesentence“Johnlikeslinguistics.”onthreelevelsofmetafunctions.IdeationalMentalProcessReactionJohnlikeslinguisticsSenserMentalreactionMentalreactionInterpersonalDeclarativeMoodResidueSubjectPredicatorAdjunctTextualUnmarkedThemeThemeRhemeGivenNew79\n第二章音位学Fillintheblanks1.Thesound[b]canbedescribedwith“_______,bilabial,stop”.（北二外2004研）voiced/b/是双唇音，爆破音，浊音2.Consonantarticulationsarerelativelyeasytofeelandasaresultaremostconvenientlydescribedintermsof________andmannerofarticulation.（北二外2004研）place辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。3.________areproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.（中山大学2006研）Consonants发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得，气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。4.Consonantarticulationsarerelativelyeasytofeel,andasaresultaremostconvenientlydescribedintermsofplaceand_______ofarticulation.（北二外2008研）manner5.Thesound[k]canbedescribedwith“voiceless,________,stop”.（北二外2003研）velar／k／是清音，软腭音，爆破音6.________referstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound.（中山大学2005研）assimilation同化指一个音具有了邻近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化、齿化、鄂化7.Stressreferstothedegreeof_______usedinproducingasyllable.（中山大学2006研）force重音指在音节发音时所用的力度8.Inphonologicalanalysisthewordsfail-veilaredistinguishablesimplybecauseofthetwophonemes/f/-/v/.Thisisanexampleforillustrating________.Minimalpairs如果有两个词，它们除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余音都一样，那么这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体，所以fail-veil是最小对立体。9.InEnglishthereareanumberof________,whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.diphthongs如果在发音时通过舌头的一次运动，由第一个单元音滑向第二个单元音，这样产生的音的组合就叫做双元音10.Thedifferentmembersofaphoneme,soundswhicharephoneticallydifferentbutdonotmakeoneworddifferentfromanotherinmeaning,are________.allophones同一个音位在不同语音环境中的实现方式被称为该音位的音位变体。因为变体是互补分布的，而且发音相似11.Phoneticsimilaritymeansthatthe_______ofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.（中山大学2011研）allophones语音的相似性指一个音位的音位变体必须具备某些语音相似性MultipleChoices1.Allsyllablescontaina_______.（北二外2004研）AA.nucleusB.codaC.onset一般的音节由节首、节核和节尾构成。一个音节中可以没有节首或节尾，但一定有节核2.Ofthethreecavities.________isthemostvariableandactiveinamplifyingandmodifyingspeechsounds.（北二外2004研）C79\nA.nasalcavityB.pharynxcavity咽腔C.oralcavityC在三大发音器官中，气流在口腔中受挤或转向，从而产生不同的声音3.Oftheconsonants/p/,/t/,/k/,/f/,/m/,/z/and/g/,whichhasthefeaturesofvoicelessandvelar?（对外经贸2005研）AA./k/B./p/C./g/D./t//k/是清音，软腭音，爆破音。/t/是齿龈音，爆破音，清音/g/是浊音，软腭音，爆破音。/p/是双唇音，爆破音，轻音4.Theconsonant(s)intheword"smile"canbedescribedas:A.voicelessoralalveolarfricativeB.voicelessnasalbilabialliquidC.voicedoralalveolarplosiveD.voicedoralbilabialfricative（对外经贸2006研）A／s／是清音，摩擦音，齿龈音5.Thevowel_______isalowbackvowel.A./i:/B./u/C./e/D./a:/（西安外院2006研）D/a/是低元音，后元音，紧音6.ThecategoriesofconsonantareNOTestablishedonthebasisof_______.（大连外院2008研）CA.mannersofarticulationB.placeofarticulationC.narrowtranscription7.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest,andexplainthereasoninONEsentence.（南京大学2008研）DA、B、C都是摩擦音，但D是爆破音A./f/B./z/C./3/D./k/(Focusonmannerofarticulation)8.Whichofthefollowingisnotaminimalpair?（对外经贸2006研）AA./li:f//fi:l/B./sip//zip/C./sai//sei/D./keit//feit/如果有两个词，它们除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余音都一样，那么这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体9.Inasyllable,avoweloftenservesas_______.A.PeakorNucleus节核B.Onset节首；开始C.Coda节尾；曲尾；完结部（大连外院2008）A音节中，节核通常由元音来担当10.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsintermsofmannerofarticulationinvolvesthefollowingEXCEPT_______.DA.fricativesB.lateralC.affricatesD.bilabial双唇音是根据发音部位分的11.ThemostrecognizabledifferencesbetweenAmericanEnglishandBritishEnglishareinandvocabulary.A.usageB.grammarC.pronunciationD.structureC英音和美音最大的区别就是发音和词汇，比如发音方面，美音有儿化音12.Whichoneisdifferentfromtheothersaccordingtoplacesofarticulation?A.[n]B.[m]C.[b]D.[p]A[n]齿龈音，另外三个是双唇音13.Whichbranchofphoneticsconcernstheproductionofspeechsounds?A.Acousticphonetics.声学B.Articulatoryphonetics.发音语音学研究语音的发生C.Auditoryphonetics.听觉D.Neitherofthem.TrueorFalse1.Whenthevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiced.（大连外院2008研）F在发音过程中，声带不振动，发出的音叫做清音79\n2.Ofthethreecavities,pharynxcavityisthemostvariableandactiveinamplifyingandmodifyingspeechsounds.（北二外2007研）F在三大发音腔中，口腔是在发音中最灵活的3.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintotwocategories:voicedandvoicelessconsonants.（对外经贸2006研）T4.Bilabialconsonantisproducedwhentheobstructionispartialandtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassage.（对外经贸2006）F双唇音是由上唇和下唇接触使语流受阻而构成的一种辅音5.Thesoundsegmentsaregroupedintoconsonantsandvowels.（大连外院2008研）T音段可分为元音和辅音6.Uvularismadewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula.（大连外院2008研）T小舌音是由舌后部与小舌共同作用产生的音7.Asyllablecanbedividedintotwoparts,theNUCLEUSandtheCODA.（大连外院2008研）F音节中必不可少的就是结核，即元音，节首和节尾可有可无8.Auditoryphoneticsstudieshowsoundsareperceivedbythespeaker.（清华2001研）F感知语音学(或听觉语音学)研究语音的感知9.Thelastsoundof“top”canbearticulatedasanunreleasedorreleasedplosive.Thesedifferentrealizationsofthesamephonemearenotincomplementarydistribution.T如果两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中且不区别意义，这两个音素可被看作自由变体10.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationsareallphonemes.F我们所听见和说出的声音并不总是音位，有可能是音素，只有那些能区别意义的才是音位。11.Twosoundsareinfreevariationwhentheyoccurinthesameenvironmentanddonotcontrast,namely,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentword,butmerelyadifferentpronunciation.T自由变体是指两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素替换另一个音素不产生新词，只产生同一个词的不同读音。ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.GlottalStop（四川大学2006研）2.Voiceless（西安交大2008研）3.Minimalpairs（北航2008研，北二外2006研）4.Phoneme（人大2006研，上海交大2007研）5.Freevariation（武汉大学2004研）6.Assimilation（武汉大学2008研，上海交大2005研）7.Suprasegmentalfeatures（中山大学2005研，南开2004研）8.Syllable（四川大学2006研）9.Complementarydistribution名词解释答案：1.GlottalStop:Vocaltractiscomposedoforalcavity,nasalcavityandpharynx.Whenthevocalfoldsaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem.Theresultofthisgestureistheglottalstop.2.Whenthevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.Forexample,consonants(p,s,t)areproducedthisway,sotheyarevoicelessconsonants.“Voiceless”isdefinedincontrastwith“voiced”.Consonants(b,z,d)arevoicedconsonants.3.MinimalPairarepairsofwordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Forexample,theEnglishwordsbearandpearconstituteaminimalpairastheydifferinmeaningandintheir79\ninitialphonemes/b/and/p/.4.Phonemeisabasicunitofphonologicalstudy,anditisanabstractcollectionofphoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.Forexample,inEnglish,/p/isdescribedasaphoneme.5.Whentwoormoresoundsoccurinthesamepositionwithoutanyapparentchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Forexample,thefinalconsantofcupmaynotbereleasedbysomespeakerssothereisnoaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Inthiscase,itisthesamewordpronouncedintwodifferentways:(KhΛph)and(KhΛp¬).(Thediacritic“┐”indicates“noaudiblerelease”inIPAsymbols.)6.Thewaythatsoundsbelongingtoonewordoronesyllablecancausechangesinsoundsbelongingtoneighboringwordsorsyllablesiscalledassimilation.Forexample,in“mink”,“n”,whichisoriginallypronouncedas/n/,willbevelarizedbythefollowing“k”/k/,andthereforethewordwillbepronouncedas/miŋk/.7.Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesarestress,toneandintonation.8.Syllable:Theseunits,whichareoftenlongerthanonesoundandsmallerthanawholeword,arecalledsyllables.Forexample,theEnglishwordbeautifulconsistsofthreespeechunits:beau-ti-ful.9.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyareincomplementarydistribution.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishstopsneveroccurafter(s),andtheunaspiratedonesneveroccurinitially.Allophonesofthesamephonemeareusuallyincomplementarydistribution.Theallophonesof/p/,forinstance,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theunaspirated(p=)occursafter/s/,whiletheaspirated(ph)occursinallotherenvironmentsexceptafter/s/.ShortAnswerQuestions1.Whatisacousticphonetics?（人大2003研）本题答案Acousticphoneticsisatechnicalareaoflinguistics.Itisthestudyofsoundwavesmadebythehumanvocalorgansforcommunication.2.Whatarethethreepartsofthevocalorgans?（清华2001研）本题答案Thepharynx,themouthandthenosearethethreepartsofthevocalorgans.3.Givethephonetictermforeachofthefollowingdescriptions,(1)thesoundproducedbythelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth(2)thesoundproducedwithacompleteclosureinthemouthsothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth（北二外2006研）本题答案(1)labiodental(2)nasal4.Howarethevowelsdescribedusually?（北二外2009研）本题答案Usually,thedescriptionofthevowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:(1)Theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);(2)Thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);(3)Thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short);(4)lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).79\n5.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?本题答案Asuprasegmentalfeaturereferstothephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofsoundsegment.ThemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglishincludewordstress,sentencestress,tone,andintonation.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.6.Whatisassimilation?Isitsimilartocoarticulation?Whatdoseitinclude?本题答案Assimilationisaprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Itisoftenusedsynonymouslywithcoarticulation.Nasalization,dentalizationandvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation.Therearetwopossibilitiesofassimilation:ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,itisregressiveassimilation;theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation.7.IntheAfricanlanguageManika,theaffix,themeaningofwhichissimilartothatofthesuffixinginEnglish,hastwophoneticforms,asshowninthedatagivenbelow.Youarerequiredto(1)givethetwophoneticformsoftheaffix;(2)givetheunderlyingformoftheaffix;forms,usingthewords[dumuni]“eating”and[sungoli]“sleeping”toillustratetheprocessofderivation.bugohitbugolihittingdilarepairdilalirepairingdoncomedonnicomingdumueatdumunieatinggwenchasegwennichasingdaliedowndalilyingdownfamuknowfamuniknowingmenhearmennihearingsungosleepsungolisleeping.（南开大学2011研）本题答案(1)Thetwophoneticformsare:[ni]and[li].(2)Theunderlyingformis[ni].(3)[ni]→[ni]/[-vowel]________[ni]→[li]/[+vowel,-u]________Inthewordsungo,thelastsound[o]isvowelso-ingformofthewordissungoli.Whilethelastsoundoftheworddumuis[u],whichisquiteanexception,the-ingformofthewordisdumuni.79\n8.TranscribethefollowingwordsintoIPAsymbols,withstressmarkingwherenecessary.Example:find—/faind/,beneath—/bi'ni:θ/(1)corpora(2)sociologist(3)chef(4)debris(5)nasal(6)embedding(7)antonymy(8)facial(9)annotated(10)phonetics（中山大学2011研）本题答案(1)corpora—/'ko:pәrә/(2)sociologist—/sәusi'olәd3ist/(3)Chef—/ſef/(4)debris—/dә'bri:/(5)nasal—/'neizәl/(6)embedding—/im'bediŋ)/(7)antonymy—/'ǽntonәmi/(8)facial—/'feiſәl/(9)annotated—/'ǽnәuteitid/(10)phonetics—/fәu'netiks/9.InEnglish,thephoneme/p/ispronounceddifferentlyinwordssuchaspat,spat,ortap.Canyouformarulethatcangeneralizethislinguisticphenomenon?（南开2010研）本题答案InEnglish,thereisarulethat/p/isunaspiratedafter/s/butaspiratedinotherplaces.So/p/inpat,tapisaspiratedbutunaspiratedinspatsinceitisafter/s/.Tobringoutthephoneticdifference,anaspiratedsoundistranscribedwitharaised"h"afterthesymbolofthesound.Soaphonetictranscriptionforpeakis[pi'-k]andthatforspeakis[spi^k].So[p,p]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledal-lophonesofthesamephoneme.Theallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext;[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.Wecanpresentthisruleas:/p/→[p]/[s]_______[ph]elsewhere(note:_______isthepositioninwhich/p/appears)Inadditionsometimesaphonememayalsohavefreevariants.Thefinalconsonantoftapmaynotberealizedbysomespeakerssothereisnoaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Suchphenomenoniscalledfreevariation.10.Whatarethecriteriausedinphoneticdescriptionofvowels?（厦门大学2010研）本题答案Asthevowelscannotbedescribedinthesamewayastheconsonants,asystemofcardinalvowelshasbeensuggestedtogetoutofthisproblem.Thecardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.Thecardinalvowelsareabstractconcept.Thecardinalvoweldiagramisasetofhypotheticalpositionsforvowelsusedasreferencepoints.ThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:(1)theheightoftongueraising(high,middleorlow);(2)thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);(3)thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short);(4)lip—rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).Forexample,[i:]:high,front,tense,unroundedvowel.[u]:high,back,lax,roundedvowel.EssayQuestions79\n1.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenvoicedsoundsandvoicelesssoundsintermsofarticulation?（南开2004研）本题答案Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoiceless,consonants(p,s,t)areproducedinthisway;butwhenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedlypushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoiced(b,z,d)arevoicedconsonants.2.Whatarethesuprasementalfeatures?（西安外院2006研）本题答案Suprasegmentalfeaturesrefertothephonologicalfeaturesabovethesoundsegmentlevel.Theyarethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.ThemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglisharesyllable,stress,toneandintonation.Thesyllablereferstothephonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Forwordsofmorethanonesyllable,oneismorestressedthantheother.Themorestressedsyllableistheprimarystresswhilethelessstressedsyllableisknownasthesecondarystress.Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Differentratesofvibrationproducewhatisknownasdifferentfrequencies,andinauditorytermsasdifferentpitches.Pitchvariationsmaybedistinctivelikephoneme,thatis,whentheymaycontributetodistinguishbetweendifferentwords.Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearefourintonationpatterns:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone.3.InChinesetonechangesareusedinthewaythataffectsthemeaningsofindividualwords.（中山大学2011研）本题答案Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegmentalfeature.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguages.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Ithasfourtones.Thefirsttoneislevel(阴平),thesecondrise(阳平),thethirdfallrise(上声),andthefourthfall(下声).Theroleofthetonecanbewellillustratedbypronouncingthesamesoundcombinationsuchas[pa]inthefourdifferenttonesandhavedifferentmeanings:bā（八）Highlevel‘eight’bá（拔）Highrising‘pulloutbă（靶）Lowfallingrising‘target’bà（爸）Highfalling‘dam’本题考查汉语为声调语言，在解释时要举例说明声调是如何改变意义的。第三章形态学Fillintheblanks79\n1.The_______istheminimaldistinctiveunitingrammar,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetherlexicalorgrammatical.（北二外2008研）morpheme语素是最小的语言单位，不能在不破坏或改变词义或语法意义的情况下再切分2.Somemorphemeslike-ish,-ness,-ly,-dis,trans-,un-areneverwordsbythemselvesbutarealwayspartsofwords.Theseaffixesare________morphemes.bound黏着语素指不能单独出现，必须至少跟一个其他语素同时出现3.Therearetwofieldsofmorphology:thestudyof________andthestudyof________.（人大2006研）inflectional;lexical/derivational屈折和派生4._______isabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinterrelationshipbetweenphonologyandmorphophology.（南开2007研）形态音系学研究形态学和音系学的关系5._______isarelativelycomplexformofcompoundinginwhichanewwordisformedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofonewordandthefinalpartofanotherword.Forexample,theEnglishwordsmogismadefrom________and________.（人大2006研）blending把第一个词的头和第二个词的尾混成在一起，或把两个词头混在一起6.An________ispronouncedletterbyletter,whilean________ispronouncedasaword.initialism;acronym首字母拼写和缩略词的区别：是一个一个字母读，是按单词读7.Wordsaredividedintosimple,compoundandderivedwordsonthe________level.morphemic从词素角度讲，词可分为简单词、合成词、派生词MultipleChoices1._______otherthancompoundsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.A.PolymorphemicwordsB.BoundmorphemesC.Freemorphemes（大连外院2008研）A多语素词可被分为词根和词缀，而合成词不能这么分2._______referstothewayinwhichaparticularverbchangesfortense,person,ornumber.A.AffixationB.InflectionC.DerivationD.Conjugation（西安外院2006研）Ｄ　曲折变化是加词缀表现语法关系，不改变所词干的语法类别3.Compoundwordsconsistof________morphemes.A.boundB.freeC.bothboundandfree　　　（北二外2003研）　Ｂ　合成词的组成成分必须是自由词素4.Whichofthefollowingwordsisformedbytheprocessofblending?A.WTOB.MotelC.BookshelfD.red-faced（对外经贸2006研）B混成词是把第一个词的头和第二个词的尾混成在一起，或把两个词头混在一起。Motel是motor和hotel混成。5.Boundmorphemesdonotinclude________.（西安交大2008研）DA.rootsB.prefixesC.suffixesD.words6.Whichtwotermscanbestdescribethefollowingpairsofwords:(table—tables,day+break—daybreak.（大连外院2008研）A屈折变化合成词A.inflectionandcompoundB.compoundandderivationC.inflectionandderivation7.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest,andexplainthereasoninONEsentence.(Focusonthetypeofwordformation)（南京大学2007研）A是逆向法A.burgleB.fridgeC.autoD.math8.Therearedifferenttypesofaffixesormorphemes.Theaffix"-ed"intheword"learned"isknownasa(n)________.C曲折变化79\nA.derivationalmorphemeB.freemorphemeC.inflectionalmorphemeD.freeformTrueorFalse1.Somelinguistsmaintainthatawordgroupisanextensionofwordofaparticularclass.（清华2001研）T词组指一组或具有一定词性的词的组合扩展，不改变词性Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunitsinrespectoftheirinternalstructure.（大连外院2008研）T有词汇意义（指代动作、事物、性质）的词，如名动形副3.Thewords“loose”and“books”haveacommonphonemeandacommonmorphemeaswell.（北二外2007）F共同的语素/s/在两个词中的意义不同，前者没任何意义后者表示复数4.Freemorphememayconstitutewordsbythemselves.（大连外院2008研）T5.Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.（北二外2006研）T6.Rootalsofallsintotwocategories:freeandbound.（北二外2006研）T7.Thewordof"impossibility"containsfourmorphemes.（对外经贸2006研）F包含三个语素：im-,possibl-,ity8.Wecanalwaystellbythewordsacompoundcontainswhatitmeansbecausethemeaningofacompoundisalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.F合成词词义不一定是两个单词意义的简单相加9.9.Allrootsarefreeandallaffixesarebound.F词根分为自由和粘着ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.morpheme（四川大学2006研，武汉大学2008研）2.inflectionalmorpheme（南开2004研）3.freemorphemes（西安交大2008研）4.boundmorpheme（上海交大2007研）5.boundroot（四川大学2006研）6.functionalmorpheme（上海交大2005研）7.inflection（四川大学2007研）8.allomorph（四川大学2006研）9.blending（四川大学2008研）10.acronym（北航2010研）名词解释答案1.Morphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Forexample,inboys,therearetwomorphemes:“boy”and“-s”;ininternational,therearethreemorphemes:“inter-““nation”and“-al”.2.Inflectionalmorpheme:Itisalsocalledinflectionalaffixes,whichattachestotheendofwordsInflectionalaffixesandonlyaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem.Thepluralsuffixisatypicalexampleofthiskind.3.Freemorphemeisanelementofmeaningwhichtakestheformofanindependentword.Theymayoccuralone,thatis,theymaymakeupwordsbythemselves.Forexample,“dog”,“nation”and“close”arefreemorphemes.Andsuchwordsarecalledmono-morphemicwords.Thusallmono-morphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.79\n4.Boundmorphemesrefertothosemorphemesthatcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme.Forexample,intheword“careless”,“-less”isaboundmorphemesinceitcouldnotoccurbyitselfasaword.5.Boundrootreferstothebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,andthisbaseformcouldnotoccuralone,suchas“-ceive”in“receive”.6.Thisisasubtypeoffreemorphemes,whichoneconsistslargelyofthefunctionalwordsinlanguagesuchasconjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns,forexample,“and,about,whenon,near,the”andsoon.7.Inflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Forexample,thepastformoftheverbworkisrealizedbytheadditionoftheinflectionalsuffix:“-ed”;thepluralformofthenounchildisrealizedbytheinflectionalsuffix:“-ren”8.Allomorph:Amorphememaytakevariousshapesorforms,andanallomorphisanyofthevariantformsofamorphemeasconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds.Forinstance,themorphemeofpluralityj-s(hasanumberofallomorphsindifferentsoundcontext,asin“cats”/s/,in“bags”/z/,in“matches”/iz/.9.Blendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtogethertheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyonlyjointheinitialpartsofthetwowords.Forexample,telephone+exchange—>telex;transfer+resister—>transistor.ShortAnswerQuestions1.Completethewordswithsuitablenegativeprefixes.(1)rational(2)moral(3)regular(4)political(5)effective(6)human(7)relevant(8)legal(9)proportionate(10)resistible（四川大学2007研）本题答案(1)rational:irrational(2)moral:immoral(3)regular:irregular(4)political:apolitical(5)effective:ineffective(6)human:inhuman(7)relevant:irrelevant(8)legal:illegal(9)proportionate:disproportionate(10)resistible:irresistible2.(a)Listthe“bound”morphemestobefoundinthefollowingwords:misleads,shortened,unhappier,fearlessly(b)Inwhichofthefollowingexamplesshouldthe“a”betreatedasaboundmorpheme:aboy,apple,atypical,AWOL（上海交大2005研）本题答案(a)misleads:mis-,-sshortened:-en,-edunhappier:un-,-erfearlessly:-less,-ly(b)Amongtheseexamples,the“a”in“atypical”shouldbetreatedasaboundmorpheme.3.InEnglish,thesuffix“-able”asin“X+able”means“abletobeX-ed.”(1)Useanexampletoillustratethisrule.(2)Whatkindofwordscanfunctionas“X”?(3)Inwordslike“unthinkable,”thesuffix-ablemeansmorethan“abletobeX-ed.“Thinkof79\nTWOmorewordsofthistype.（南京大学2007研）本题答案(1)applicable,whichmeans“abletobeapplied”.(2)Thewordsthatcanfunctionas“X”areprobablyverbs.(3)unbelievable,undefeatable.4.WhatcanthisrulemeaninEnglishgrammar?{D}→(id)/(t)—（北师大2004研）本题答案Thisrulerevealstwopoints:first,itshowsonepossibleallomorphofthemorpheme(id),andthisallomorphhasthephone(-id)asitselement;second,itshowstheaccordingphoneticenvironmentinwhichthatallomorphcanoccur,thatis,itwillbepronouncedas(-id)whenitappearsafterthephone(t).Inthisrule,thearrowmeanstherealization,andthebarindicatestheenvironmentofthetargetelement.5.Whatarephonologicallyconditionedandmorphologicallyconditionedformofmorphemes?本题答案Somephonologicalfactorscanaffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,namely,theformofamorpheme;andtherecouldbeassimilation,anddissmilation.Forexample,thenegativemorphemecouldberealizedas“in-”or“im-”followedbydifferentphonologicalenvironments,asin“inefficient”and“imperfect”,asaresultofassimilation.Morphemescanalsobeconditionedbymorphologicalfactors;forexample,theallomorphsofthepluralmorpheme,ascouldbeseenin“oxen”,"cows",and“feet”.7.AnalyzethemorphemicstructureoftheEnglishwordsgentlemanlnessandunlockable,usingalabeledtreediagramtoillustratethemorphemicstructureofthewordunderanalysis.(1)gentlemanliness(2)unlockable（大连外院2008）本题答案gentlemanlinessunlockablestemsuffixprefixrootsuffixgentlemanlynessunlockableEssayQuestions1.Whatisthedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes?（四川大学2007研）本题答案Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemescouldbeillustratedinthefollowingfouraspects.Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenonlyaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem,forinstance,thoseinflectionalaffixesinwordssuchastoys,walks,Johns,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning,e.g.cite,citation;generate,generation.Inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers;whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.79\nVeryofteninflectionalaffixesareconditionedbynon-semanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence.Whereasderivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.2.Howareaffixesclassified?（四川大学2008研）本题答案Consideringthefreeandboundmorpheme,affixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme,soitisnaturallybound.Dependingontheirpositionwithreferencetotherootorstemoftheword,affixesaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffix,andinfix.Forexamples,“para-”asprefix,“-tion”assuffix,and“-bloomingly-”inword“abso-bloomingly-luty”asinfix.Affixcanalsobeclassifieddependingonthedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes.Theformaloftenonlyaddaminutegrammaticalfunctiontothestemanddonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto;whilethelatterareveryproductiveinmakingnewwordsandoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.Forinstances,“-s”inwords“toys”,“alks”and“ohn’”isinflectionalaffixes,while“tion”isaderivationalaffixinword“ecitation”本题考查词缀的种类。可以从两个角度分析。一个角度是前缀、中缀、后缀；另一个角度是屈折词缀和派生词缀。3.InwhatwaydowesayEnglishisaninflectionallanguage?（厦门大学2006研）本题答案Theinflectionallanguageisatermasopposedtotheisolatedlanguage,inwhichthemorphemehasnoinflectedform;suchasinChinese,thereareonlyisolatedcharacters,whichcannotbeaddedtowithaninflectionalaffix.EnglishisregardedasaninflectionallanguageinthesensethattheinflectionalaffixerservesimportantgrammaticalfunctionintheEnglishvocabulary.InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesindicatingtense,numbers,caseandsoonusuallymanifestatethegrammaticalrelationshipsbetweentheelementsofthesentences.4.IllustratelexicalchangeproperwithlatestexamplesinEnglish,coveringatleastfouraspects.（大连外院2008研）本题答案Newwordsorexpressionsarecreatedthroughthefollowingprocessesexceptedcompoundandderivation,whicharecalledlexicalchangeproper.(1)InitialismSomenewwordsarecomposedofthefirstlettersofaseriesofwordsandpronouncedbysayingeachletterinthem.WordsofthiskindsuchasVIP,WTOarecalledinitialisms.(2)AbbreviationManyEnglishwordshavecomeintobeingthroughabbreviation.Thisphenomenonisalsocalledclipping:anewcanbecreatedby:i.cuttingthefinalpart,forexample,adforadvertisement.ii.cuttingtheinitialpart,forexample,planeforaeroplane.iii.cuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly,forinstance,fridgeforrefrigerator.(3)Blendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtogethertheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyonlyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords,forexample,emotion+icon→emoticon;car+hijacking→carjacking.79\n(4)Acronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasheavilymodifiedheadword;anexampleisEUforEuropeanUnion.Thisprocessisalsowidelyusedinshorteningextremelylongwordsofwordgroupsinscience,technologyandotherspecialfields,forexample,SARSisshortfor"SevereAcuteRespiratorySyndrome".What'smore,peoplealsousethisprocessininternetchattingore-mailcommunication,suchasBTWfor“ytheway”,ASAPfor“ssoonaspossible”.本题考查特有的词汇变化。作答时任选四个进行描述，并举例。79\n第四章句法Fillintheblanks1.1Cistheshortformofimmediate_______usedinthestudyofsyntax.（北二外2003研）constituent直接成分分析法是一种句法分析方法。它指先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。2.________referstotiesandconnectionswhichexistwithintexts.Theyarealsocalledformallinksbetweensentencesandbetweenclauses.（人大2007研）Cohesion衔接不是一个句法概念，而是指文本中存在的一种意义上的联系或关系，也包括句子或分居之间存在的一种形式上的联系。3.Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalled________rules,whoseoperationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.transformational句法位移是受传统上被称为转换规则的这些规则所支配的，转换规则的运用会改变句子的句法表达方式。4.Thelevelofsyntacticrepresentationthatexistsbeforemovementtakesplaceiscommonlytermed_______structure.deep深层结构是指一个结构体的句法属性的抽象表述，即不同成分之间的结构关系，深层结构一般指移位前的结构。5.A________isastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.sentence6.Thebranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofsentencesiscalled________.(北二外2010研)syntaxMultipleChoice1.1.Phrasestructurerulesallowustobetterunderstand________.A.howpeopleproduceandrecognizepossiblesentencesB.whatconstitutesthegrammaticalityofstringsofwordsC.howwordsandphrasesformsentencesD.Alloftheabove（西安交大2008研）DChomsky提出短语结构规则，这个规则有助于我们更好的明白句子是如何产生与被理解的，以及单词和短语是怎样根据语法规则形成句子的。2.Bloomfieldintroducedthe1Canalysis,whosefullnameis________Analysis.A.InternalComponentB.InnateCapacityC.InternalConstituentD.ImmediateConstituent（北二外2010研）D直接成分这一术语，最早由Bloomfield在《语言论》中提出。3.Thecriterionusedin1Canalysisis________.A.transformationB.conjoiningC.groupingD.substitutability答案D直接成分分析法的标准：替换性。即看一个词语的序列是否可以被一个单词替换而结构保持不变。4.InHalliday'sview,the________functionoflanguageisrealizedasthetransitivitysysteminclausesasarepresentationofexperience.A.ideationalB.interpersonalC.textualD.social答案A韩礼德认为概念功能就是表达说话者对现实世界的经验。5.Thephrase“mysmallchild'scot”isanambiguousphrase,whichcanberevealedby________79\ntreediagrams.A.oneB.twoC.threeD.four答案C(my)((small)((child’s)(cot)))(my)(((small)(child’s))(cot))((my)(small))((child’s)(cot))6.InEnglish,________and________areoftenexpressedbysubjectandpredicate.A.themeandrhemeB.themeandpredicateC.predicateandobjectD.subjectandpredicate答案A较早提出主位和述位概念的是布拉格学派创始人之一马泰休斯。主位和述位通常指主语和谓语。但主位结构分析属于语义分析，主语-谓语-补语分析属于结构分析。ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.Immediateconstituent（武汉大学2006,2008研）2.1Canalysis（人大2006研）3.Concord(or:Agreement)（武汉大学2008研，中山大学2008研）4.Government5.Paradigmaticrelations6.Syntax7.Constituent8.Logicalsubject（中山大学2011研）名词解释答案1.Immediateconstituent.Animmediateconstituentistheconstituentimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofaconstruction.Forexample,inthesentence“PoorJohnranaway”,theconstituents“PoorJohn"and"ranaway”areregardedastheimmediateconstituentofthesentence.2.ICanalysis.ICanalysis(immediateconstituentanalysis)referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents—wordgroups(orphrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.Inpractice,forthesakeofconvenience,weusuallystopatthelevelofword.3.Itmaybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory(orcategories).Forexample,thesyntacticrelationshipbetweenthatgirlandsheinthefollowingdialogue:A:Whoisthatgirl?B:Oh,sheismysister.4.Governmentisanothertypeofcontrolovertheformsofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions.Itdiffersfromconcordinthatthisisarelationshipinwhichawordofacertainclassdeterminestheformsofothersintermsofcertaincategory.InEnglish,forexample,thepronounafteraverboraprepositionshouldbeintheobjectformasinShegavehimabook.Shegaveabooktohim.Inotherwords,theverb,orthepreposition,determines,orgoverns,theformofthepronounafterit.5.Paradigmaticrelation,Saussureoriginallycalledassociative,isarelationholdingbetween79\nelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.6.Itisasub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Specifically,itisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsandphrasesarejoinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensententialelements.7.Constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:forexample,inthesentence“Theboyatetheapple”,S(A),theboy(B),atetheapple(C),eachpartisaconstituent.8.Logicalsubjectisthesubjectofasentencethatexpressestheactualagentofanexpressedorimpliedaction.Inpassivevoicesuchas“Johnwasbittenbyadog”,wehavetwoterms“grammaticalsubject”and“logicalsubject”.Sincethecoreobjectnoun(Johninthiscase)sitsintheslotbeforetheverbinthepassive,itiscalledgrammaticalsubject,fortheoriginalobjectnounphraseoccupiesthegrammaticalspacebeforeaverb,thespacethatasubjectnormallyoccupies;thecoresubject(Adog),nowtheobjectofapreposition(byadog),iscalledthelogicalsubject,sincesemanticallythecoresubjectstilldoeswhatasubjectnormallydoes:itperformsanaction.ShortAnswerQuestions1.Distinguishbetweenthetwopossiblemeaningsofmorebeautifulflowersbymeansof1Canalysis.（北二外2006，2008研）本题答案(a)((morebeautiful)flowers)(b)(more(beautifulflowers))2.Whataretheadvantagesofusingtreediagramsintheanalysisofsentencestructures?（西安交大2008研）本题答案Thetreediagramcannotonlyrevealalinearorder,butalsoahierarchicalstructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituents.Itcan,inaddition,showthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,thusitisbelievedtomosttruthfullyillustratetheconstituentrelationshipamonglinguisticelements.（本题考查用树形图分析句子的好处）3.Pleaserephrasethefollowingsentences,todisambiguatethem.(1)TomandMarysawthemountainswhiletheywereflyingover.(2)Oldmenandwomenarehardtolivewith.(3)Theysaidshewouldgoyesterday.(4)Thegovernorisadirtystreetfighter.(5)Wedeploretheshootingofthehunters.（北京交通大学2007研）本题答案(1)WhileTomandMarywereflyingover,theysawthemountains.(2)Itishardtolivewitholdmenandoldwomen.(3)Theysaidyesterdaythatshewouldgo.(4)Thegovernorisafighteragainstdirtystreets.(5)Wedeplorethehunters'shooting.4.Pleasedisambiguatethefollowing5sentences,usingthetree-diagram,oranyothermeansthatyouthinkisappropriate.（北京交通大学2007研）79\n(1)Janeshowedherbabypictures.(2)Theoldmanisdrinkingintheair.(3)Weneedmorerealisticofficialstohandletheeconomy.(4)Wearesweepingthegroundcigarettesonthestreet.(5)Tomexchangedthemoneyandfellaroundcigarettesonthestreet.本题答案(1)a.S(1)b.SNPAUXVPNPAUXVPJanetenseVNPNPJanetenseVNPNPshowedPronNpicturesshowedherNNherbabybabypictures(2)a.(VPdrinkingin)(NPtheair)b.(VPdrinking)(PPintheair)(3)a.NP(3)b.NPAdjPNAdjNPAdvAdjofficialsmoreAdjNmorerealisticrealisticofficials(4)a.VP(4)b.VPVNPVNPPPsweepingNPPPsweepingArtNPPrepNPArtNPPrepNPtheNNonArtNtheNNonArtNgroundcigarettesthestreetgroundcigarettesthestreet(5)a.(VPexchangethemoney)(Conjand)(VPfellaroundthecorner)(5)b.(VPexchangethemoneyandfell)(PParoundthecorner)79\n5.WhatisHalliday'sideaontherelationshipbetweenthefunctionsperformedbylanguageanditsstructures?本题答案InHalliday’spointofview,therearethreegeneralfunctionsoflanguage:ideational(whichissubdividedintoexperientialandlogical),interpersonalandtextual.Andtheyarerelatedtothethreegrammaticalsystems:transitivity,moodandtheme.Specifically,theideationalfunctionisrealizedasthetransitivitysystemintheclauseasarepresentationofexperience,inwhichtherearesixprocesses:material,mental,relational,behavioral,verbalandexistential.Actor,theso-calledlogicalsubject,isanimportantparticipantinthematerialprocess.Theinterpersonalfunctionisrealizedasthemoodsystemintheclauseasanexchange,whichisdividedintothetwomajorpartsofMoodandReside.AndSubjectisoneofthetwopartsofMood,theotherpartbeingthefiniteverbaloperator.Thetextualfunctionisrealizedasthethematicstructureoftheclauseasamessage.Thetwomainconstituentsherearethemeandrheme,theformerbeingthepointofdepartureofthemessage,ortheconcernoftheclause,whilethelatteristhepartinwhichthethemeisdeveloped.6.Whataredeepandsurfacestructures?本题答案Deepstructureisacentraltheoreticaltermingenerativegrammaropposedtosurfacestructure.Itistheabstractsyntacticrepresentationofasentence—anunderlyinglevelofstructuralorganizationwhichspecificallthefactorsgoverningthewaythesentenceshouldbeinterpreted.Surfacestructureisacentraltheoreticaltermingenerativegrammar,opposedtodeepstructure.Itisthefinalstageinthesyntacticrepresentationofasentence,whichprovidestheinputtothephonologicalcomponentofthegrammar,andwhichthusmostcloselycorrespondstothestructurewearticulateandhear.7.Inthefollowingthreesentences,theparticle“up”staysindifferentpositions,i.e.immediatelyaftertheverb;inbetweenthenounphraseandtherelativeclause;andattheendofthesentence.Canyouformulateasyntacticruletoexplainthepositionchangesoftheparticle?（南开2010研）(1)Shestoodupthemanwhoofferedheradiamond.(2)Shestoodthemanupwhoofferedheradiamond.(3)Shestoodthemanwhoofferedheradiamondup.本题答案AccordingtoChomsky’sGenerativeandFunctionalGrammar,thereisanunderlyingrepresentationforanysentence.Thentheunderlyingformistransformedintothesurfaceformthroughsometransformationalrules.Thesameunderlyilyngformmayresultindifferentsurfacerepresentationbyundertakingdifferentoperation.Sometimes,thesamesurfaceformislikelytobetransformedfromdifferentdeepstructurebecauseofvariousmovements.“Standsb.Up”meansthatsb.failstoshowupinadatethoughhehaspromisedtoappear,andlettheotherwaitforhiminvain.Theunderlyingformoftheabovethreesentenceshavethesameunderlyingform,thatis“Shestoodthemanupwhoofferedheradiamond”.Thereasonwhytheyfinallyhavethedifferentformisthattheyhaveundertakendifferentoperation.Because“up”isanadjunctinthethreesentences,itismoreconvenienttoputitsinceitwillnotchangethepropertyofthesentence.Therefore,finallywegetthethreekindsofsurfaceforms.Sentenceone,“up”ismovedupwardtothefrontofthemanforthepurposeofbanlancingthesentence.Sentencetwo,“up”ismovedupwardstothefrontoftheattributiveclausetothefrontoftheattributiveclauseinordertoachievecoherence.Andthelastsentenceistheunderlyingform.79\nConsequently,wecansaythatitisveryflexibletopositiontheadjunctinasentenceforvariouspurposes.EssayQuestions1.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)（北京交通大学2006研）本题答案ThroughICanalysis,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,andifthereisanyambiguity,itcouldberevealed.Forexample,howthesentence“Leavethebookontheshelf”isambiguouscouldbeshownaftertheICanalysis.However,therearealsoproblemsinICanalysis.First,atthebeginning,someadvocatorsinsistedonbinarydivisions,thatis,anyconstruction,atanylevel,willbecutintotwoparts.Butthisisnotalwayspossible.Forexample,inthephrase“menandwomen”,itisnotappropriatetocombine"and"withonlytheprecedingpartoronlythesucceedingpart.Second,constructionswithdiscontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagramsinICanalysis.Forexample,in"makeitup"thephrasalverb"makeup"isseparatedbyapronoun.Third,whichisalsothemostseriousproblem;therearestructuralambiguitieswhichcannotberevealedbyICanalysis,asshownin“theloveofGod”.InICanalysis,thedifferentrelationsof“God”totheword“love”cannotbeshownwhichmakestheexpressionambiguous.2.Illustrate“ImmediateConstituentAnalysis”.（大连外国语学院2008研）本题答案Therelationbetweenasentenceanditscomponentelementsisgenerallyreferredtoastherelationbetweenaconstructionanditsconstituents,inwhichaveryimportantnotionisimmediateconstituentanalysis,ICAnalysisforshort.Theimmediateconstituentanalysismaybedefinedas:theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents—wordgroups(orphrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.Theimmediateconstituentanalysisofasentencemaybecarriedoutwithbracketsorwithatreediagram.Thecriterionfortheimmediateconstituentanalysisissubstitutability:whetherasequenceofwordscanbesubstitutedforasinglewordandthestructureremainsthesame.ThroughICanalysis,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,andambiguities,ifany,willberevealed.Forexample:the1Cstructureforthesentence“Theboyatetheapple.”is:1)Treediagram2)Bracketing((The)(boy))((ate)((the)(apple)))本题考查直接成分分析法。作答时给出定义、作用、表现方法------树形图和括号，并分别举例3.Foreachofthefollowingpairsofsentences,discusshowthetwosentencesaredifferentfromeachother.（南京大学2006研）（1）A.HiscarelessnessIcan'tbear.B.Ican'tbearhiscarelessness.（2）A.Adaggerkilledthetourist.79\nB.Thetouristwaskilledwithadagger.（3）A.Ahurricanekilledeightpeople.B.Eightpeoplediedinahurricane.（南京大学2006研）本题答案(1)Thesetwosentencesaredifferentinthesensethatthethematicstructuresaredifferent.Thethemeofasentenceisoftentheknowninformation,whichthesentenceismainlyabout.SentenceAprovidessomeinformationabout“hiscarelessness”,since“hiscarelessness”servesasthetheme.Whereas,SentenceBisastatementabout“I”,andfromtheremainderofthesentencetherecipientcouldknowsomeinformationaboutme.(2)InsentenceA,“Adagger”servesasthetheme,withwhichthesentencecouldbeseenasananswerof“Whatdidthedaggerdo?”InsentenceB,“Thetourist”istreatedasthegiveninformation,aroundwhichthesentencedevelops;thus,thecorrespondingquestionofthissentenceasananswercouldbe“Whathappenedtothetourist?”(3)Therearestilldifferencesofthematicstructuresbetweenthesetwosentences,withthefirstoneabout"Ahurricane"andthesecondoneabout“eightpeople”.What’smore,insentenceA,theverb“kill”emphasizesadirectrelationshipbetweenthehurricaneandtheeightpeople,thatis,itisthehurricanethatcausedthepeopletodie.Whereas,insentenceB,ameaninglikeaboveisnotentailed.4.Describewithtreediagramsthetransformationsinvolvedinformingthequestion“DoesJohnlikethebook？”（南开2007研）本题答案本题难啊CPCPNPCIPNPCIPNPInflVPNPInflVPVNPVNPDetNDetNJohnPresentlikethebookDoesJohntlikethebook5.What,inyourview,makesatextatext,ratherthanaseriesofunconnectedutterances?Whataretheimplicationsofyouranswerforsecondlanguageteaching?(北外2006研)本题答案Thefactortodistinguishconnectedtextswhichmakesensefromthosewhichdonotisusuallydescribedascoherence.Coherenceistraditionallydescribedastherelationshipsthatlinktheideasinatexttocreatemeaningforthereaders,apartfromcohesivedevices.Itshouldbenoticedthatcohesionbyitselfwouldnotbesufficienttoenableustomakesenseofwhatreadorhear;itisquiteeasytocreateahighlycohesivetextwhichhasalotofconnectionsbetweenthesentences,butwhichremainsdifficulttointerpret.Andcoherence,astheinvisiblenetofatext,performsafunctionof“connectedness”whichmakesthetextinterpretabletopeople.79\nRegardingtheimportanceofcoherencetoawholetext,itseemsnecessaryforateacherofSFLtohelpstudentsdevelopcoherenceinwriting.Researchhasfoundthatintheirwriting,ESL/EFLstudentsfocusalmostexclusivelyonthewordandsentencelevelsratherthanthelevelofthewholediscourse,thatis,textualcoherence.Apedagogicalfocusoncoherencecanshiftstudents’attentionfromsentence-levelgrammartodiscoursefeaturessuchastextualstructuringandprepositionalunity,whicharecrucialtocreatingmeaningintexts.Indeed,helpingstudentsimprovethecoherenceoftheirwritingoughttobeasignificantaspectofL2writinginstruction.Tohelpstudentsfocusoncoherenceinwriting,itisessentialthatteachershaveathoroughunderstandingofwhatmakesatextcoherent.Asisshowninthecompositiontextbooks,itseemscommontoregardcoherencesimplyasconnectednessbetweensentences,useofexplicitcohesivedevicesattheparagraphlevel,anduseofconnectivedevicessuchaspronouns,repetitivestructures,andtransitionalmarkers.However,coherenceshouldnotbenarrowedintermsofsentence-levelconnectednessandparagraphunityratherthandiscourseunity.Thus,tohelpstudentscreatecoherenceintheirwriting,itisnecessaryforteacherstopaymoreattentioninthe'readersenseofcoherence.6.TheEnglishsentencesgivenbelowareungrammatical.Youarerequiredtogivethesyntacticexplanationtotheungrammaticalityineachofthesentence.(1)*Jackputhisball.(2)*IwonderMichaelwalkedthedog.(3)*Frankthinkshimselfisasuperstar.(南开2011研)本题答案(1)*Jackputhisball.Becauseoftheword“put”,thesentencelacksacomplement,whichshouldbeaPP.Therefore,itshouldbe“Jackputhisballunderthechair.”(2)*IwonderMichaelwalkedthedog.Thesentenceisungrammatical,forwhatfollowstheword“wonder”shouldbeaclause.Thecorrectformis“IwonderifMichaelwalkedthedog.”(3)*Frankthinkshimselfisasuperstar.InEnglish,thepatternoftheword“think”isthatthinkplusesaclauseoracomplement.Sothecorrectformshouldbe“Frankthinkshimselfasasuperstar.”or“Frankthinksheisasuperstar.”7.Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenaphraseandaclause?本题答案Phraseandclausearebothgrammaticalunitscontainedinthesetoflayersinthegrammarofalanguage,asfollowing:morpheme,word,phrase,clause,clausecomplex.Theyareattachedtoesentences.Forexample,thetallestgirl(nominalphrase),Havingfinishedtheirtask,theymetohelpus.(clause)Phraseisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy,positionedbetweenclauseandword.Whileclauseisaconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate,anditisincludedinalargersentence.First,aphrasemustbeagroupofwordswhichformaconstituent.Second,aphraseisloweronthegrammaticalhierarchythanclauses.Moreprecisely,simpleclausesmay(andusuallydo)containphrases,butsimplephrasesdonot(ingeneral)containclauses.考察短语语从句异同，分别阐述并举例。79\n第五章语义学Fillintheblanks1.AccordingtoGLeech,________meaningisthecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.（北二外2006研）connatative利奇认为内涵意义是指通过语言所指传达的意义，是位于纯粹的概念意义之上的。2.AccordingtoGLeech,________meaningreferstologic,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.（北二外2005研）conceptual利奇认为概念意义是指逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容3.AccordingtoG.Leech,________meaningreferstowhatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer.（北二外2007研）affective利奇认为感情意义是指所传达的关于说话人/作者感情、态度方面的意义。4.Termslike“apple”,“banana”and"pear"are________oftheterm"fruit".（北二外2007研）hyponyms在上下以关系中，一个坐标次通常有很多下义词。同类中的成员叫做同下义词。苹果和香蕉都是水果的同下义词。5.“XbuyssomethingfromY”and“YsellssomethingtoX”areinarelationof________.（北二外2006研）synonym主动与被动，意思相同，同义关系6.“MarygaveabooktoJack”issynonymouswith“Jack_______abookfromMary.”（北二外2005研）receive同义关系句的表达7.______=PARANT(x,y)&MALE(x).（北二外2005研）father同时满足“父母亲”和“男性”的只能是“父亲”8.______=CHILD(x,y)&MALE(x).（北二外2006研）son同时满足“孩子”和“男性”的只能是“儿子”9.Sentencemeaningisthecombinationofthemeaningsofthecomponentwordsand______.themeaningofitsstructure句子的意义,由词汇意义和句子结构两者决定10.Thehyponymsunderthesamesuperordinatearecalled______.co-hyponyms同类中的成员叫同下义词。MultipleChoices1.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest.(Focusonconnotation)A.corpulentB.statesmanC.slimD.decease（南京大学2007研）A从内涵意义来看，corpulent（肥胖的，臃肿的）有些贬义，而其他词是褒义且语义委婉2._______dealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldexperience.A.ReferenceB.ConceptC.SemanticsD.Sense（西安交大2008研）A指称reference指拥有某些属性的具体实体。它处理的是语言元素与非语言世界的关系。3.WhichofthefollowingisNOTincludedinG.Leech’sseventypesofmeaning?A.Connotativemeaning.B.Denotativemeaning.C.Conceptualmeaning.（大连外院2008研）B利奇提出的七种意义：概念意义、内涵意义、社会意义、感情意义、反射意义、搭配意义、主位意义79\n4.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest.(Focusonthetypeofsemanticrelation)A.school/collegeB.move/runC.furniture/tableD.mature/ripe（南京大学2007研）C这一组是上下义关系，其他是同义关系5.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest.(Focusonthetypeofsemanticopposition)A.wake-asleepB.inside-outsideC.teacher-studentD.right-left（南京大学2008研）C这一组是关系反义词，其他是互补反义词6.Therearegenerallythreekindsofsenserelationsrecognized,samenessrelation,oppositenessrelationandinclusivenessrelation.Theyarerepresentedby________respectively.A.synonymy,antonymy,andhyponymyB.synonymy,hyponymy,andantonymyC.antonymy,synonymy,andhyponymy（大连外院2008研）Ａ　同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系7.Bycomponentialanalysis,BECOME(x,(-ALIVE(x)))isanexplanationof_______.A.dieB.deadC.killD.killed（西安外院2006研）Ａ　表达式的意思是：X变成无生命的。8.Thesenserelationshipbetween“Johnplaysthepiano”and“Johnplaysamusicalinstrument”is_______.A.synonymyB.antonymyC.entailment（北二外2004研）C如果知道一个句子的真假能够判断另一个句子的真假，那么第一个句子就蕴含了第二个句子。如第一个句子为真，则第二句为真；如第一句为假，第二句或真或假。所以第一句蕴含第二句。9.Conceptualmeaningisnot_______.A.affectiveB.cognitiveC.logicD.denotative)A概念意义是逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容，而不是感情的。10.Thesemantictriangleholdsthatthemeaningofaword________.A.isinterpretedthroughthemediationofconcept.B.isrelatedtothethingitrefersto.C.istheideaassociatedwiththatword“inthemindsofspeakers”.D.istheimageitisrepresentedinthemind.A语义三角学说认为，词汇的意义是通过概念表现出来的。11.Lexicalambiguityarisesfrompolysemyor________whichcannotbedeterminedbythecontext.A.homonymyB.antonymyC.meronymyD.synonymyA当语境无法决定多义词或同音异义词的具体涵义时，就会产生分歧。TrueorFalse1.Inthesentence“Moneyisoftensaidtobetherootofallevil”,“root”isusedinitsconceptualmeaning.（北二外2007研）F这里的root用的是联想意义中的内涵意义2.Aftercomparing“Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.”with“Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.”,youmayfindsomedifferenceinmeaning,andthedifferencecanbeinterpretedin79\ntermsofcollocativemeaning.（北二外2006研）F搭配意义是指通过词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。主位意义是通过顺序和重音这种信息的方式所传达的意义。所以这里应是主位意义。3.Conceptualmeaningoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionof“reference”.（北二外2005研）T概念意义是逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。指称理论是把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来，二者有相似之处。4.Whenyouuseyourownsentencewithameaningotherthantheconceptual,themeaningissometimesreferredtoasspeaker'smeaning,orcontextualmeaning.（大连外院2008研）T有时句义要根据说话要想表达的意义而定，这也可被称为语境。5.Referenceisoneoftherarelyusedcohesivedevices.（南开2005研）F指称是一种常用的衔接手段。6.OdgenandRichardsarguethattherelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoisnotdirect.（南开2004研）T奥格登和理查兹在《意义的意义》一书中提出语义三角理论。他们认为词与所指事物之间没有必然联系。它们是以概念为中介的。7.“Tulip”,“rose”and“violet”areallincludedinthenotionof“flower”.Thereforetheyaresuperordinatesof“flower”.（北二外2006研）F位于上下义这种意义关系上位的词语，即类名，叫做上坐标词；位于下位的是成员，叫做下义词。这里是上坐标词应是flower。8.Senseisregardedasakindofintralinguisticrelationship.（北二外2010研）T涵义sense是可看作是它和其他词之间的关系网络。我们可以把涵义界定为词语之间的语义关系。更概括地说，是语言单位之间的语义关系。它体现的是语言内关系。9.Allthewordsinalanguagecanbeusedtorefer,butonlysomehavesenses.（北二外2010研）F一种语言中的所有词都有涵义sense，但并不是每个词都有指称。ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.SemanticTriangle（大连外院2008研）2.Gradableantonym（人大2006研）3.Semanticfeature（四川大学2006研）4.Componentialanalysis（浙江大学2005研，北航2008研）5.Entailment（武汉大学2006研）6.Presupposition（武汉大学2004研）名词解释答案1.OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the"referent"referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Accordingtothisview,thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolandreferent,thatis,betweenlanguageandtheworld.Thelinkisviathought,theconceptinourminds.Thought(concept)Symbol------------------------Referent(theword)(theobject)79\n2.Gradableantonym.Gradableantonymsareantonymsthataregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Forexample,coldandwarmconstituteapairofgradableantonyms.3.Semanticfeature.Themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponentswhicharecalledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,theword“man”isanalyzedascomprisingthefeaturesof+HUAMN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.4.Componentialanalysisreferstoasemanticapproachwhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents,orsemanticfeatures.Forexample,themeaningofthewordboymaybeanalyzedintothreecomponents:HUMAN,YOUNGandMALE.5.Entailment.Itisatypeofmeaningdependencebetweensentences.Itisconcernedwiththemeaningofthesentenceitself.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue,andifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.Forexample,thesentence“HehasbeentoFrance”entails“HehasbeentoEurope”.6.Thespeakerorwriteralwaysassumesthatthereaderorheareralreadyknowssomethingofwhatheisgoingtosayorwrite.Thissomethingoftenbecomesthepresuppositionofasentence.Forexample,Johndidn’tpasschemistrypresupposesthatJohntookchemistry.ShortAnswerQuestions1.Whatisconceptualmeaning?TrytodistinguishitfromanyothertypesofmeaningclassifiedbyLeech?（北二外2008研）本题答案AccordingtoLeech,conceptualmeaningreferstothelogical,cognitiveordenotivecontentofthemeaningofaword.itisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto.Conceptualmeaningoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionofreference.Buttheterm“connotative”isusedindailyconversation,referstosomeadditional,especiallyemotive,meaning.Thistypeofmeaningandthefollowingfourtypes,namely,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaningandcollocativemeaning,arecollectivelyknownasassociativemeaninginthesensethatanelementaryassociationisttheoryofmentalconnectionsisenoughtoexplaintheiruse.Thelasttype,thematicmeaning,ismoreperipheralsinceitisonlydeterminedbytheorderofthewordsinasentenceandthedifferentprominencetheyeachreceive.2.Explainthenotionofhyponym.（北二外2008研）本题答案Atermwhichissubordinatetoanotherinthatitsextensioniscontainedintheextensionofanother,e.g.“lion”or“tiger”isahyponymof“animal”.3.Howwouldyoudescribetheoddnessofthefollowingsentences,usingsemanticfeatures?(a)Thetelevisiondrankmywater,(b)Hisdogwritespoetry.（浙江大学2004研）本题答案(a)Theverbdrinkrepresentsabehavioroftheanimatebeings,therefore,itisrequiredthatthesubjectofthisverbshouldhaveasemanticfeatureas(+ANIMATE),however,thewordtelevision,whichisinpositionofsubject,hasanoppositefeature:(-ANIMATE).That'swhysuchacollocationresultsinoddness.(b)Theactionofwritingpoetryisnormallyonewhichonlyhumanbeingscoulddo,therefore,thesubjectisrequiredtohaveasemanticfeatureas(+HUMAN);however,theworddoginthesubjectpositionisfeaturedas(-HUMAN).Therefore,thesentenceisodd.79\n4.Whatisoneobviouspresuppositionofthespeakerwhosays:(a)Wheredidhebuythebeer?(b)Yourwatchisbroken.（上海交大2006研）本题答案(a)Oneobviouspresuppositionofthesentence“Wheredidhebuythebeer”shouldbe“Hehassomebeer”.(b)Oneobviouspresuppositionofthesentence“Yourwatchisbroken”shouldbe“Youhaveawatch”.5.Tellthesenserelationbetweenaandbineachpair:(1)a.Henolongerlikescoffee,b.Helikedcoffee.(2)a.MaryisworkinginChina,b.MaryisworkinginBeijing.（北二外2007研）本题答案(1)aentailsb(2)bpresupposesa6.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?本题答案Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures;theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures,anditisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaningsimilarly.Aphonemeisconsideredacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeatures;aphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditisthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.7.Areutterances,sentences,andpropositionsthesame?本题答案No.Thesethreetermsareusedtodescribedifferentlevelsoflanguage.Themostconcreteisutterancewhichiscreatedbyspeaking(orwriting)apieceoflanguage.Sentences,ontheotherhand,areabstractgrammaticalelementsobtainedfromutterances.Forexample,anutterancehasatone,orperhapssomeaccentduetoregionalorsocialvariation,andphoneticdetailswhichidentifyindividualspeakers,etc.Butatthelevelofsentence,thesekindsofinformationareignored.Propositionsaretheresultofafurtherabstractionofsentences,whicharedescriptionsofstatesofaffairsandwhichsomewritersseeasabasicelementofsentencemeaning.Forexample,thetwosentences“CaesarinvadedGaul”and“GaulwasinvadedbyCaesar”holdthesamepreposition.8.DoyouthinktherearetruesynonymsinEnglish?Why?（厦门大学2010研）本题答案Synonymyisthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.Itisusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Totalsynonymyisrare.Theso-calledsynonymsareallcontextdependent.Theyalldifferinonewayoranother.Whenyouconsiderthemeaningofaword,youneedtoconsiderbothitsdenotationanditsconnotation.Thedenotationistheprimary,literalmeaningofaword.Theconnotationisthesuggestedorimpliedmeaningofaword.Connotationsusuallycomefromexperienceorassociations.Seeingawordusedrepeatedlyincertaincontextsgivesthewordadifferentcolorthanitgetsinthedictionary.Therearenorealsynonyms,becausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects:(1)inshadeofmeaning(finish,complete,close,conclude);79\n(2)instylisticmeaning(father,dad);(3)inemotive(oraffective)meaning(smart,crafty);(4)inrangeofuseorcollocativemeaning(accuse,charge);(5)inBritishandAmericanEnglishusages(autumn,fall).Forexample,theymaydifferinstyle.Inthecontext“LittleTom________atoybear”,herebuyismoreappropriatethanpurchase.Becausepurchaseismoreformalthanbuy.EssayQuestions1.Explaintheseventypesofmeaninganduseexamplestoillustrateyourideas.（人大2007研，南开2004研）本题答案TheseventypesofmeaningwerefirstpostulatedbyG.Leech.Theyarerespectivelyillustratedasfollows:(1)Conceptualmeaning,whichreferstological,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.Thistypeofmeaningis“denotative”inthatitisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.(2)Connotativemeaning,whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.Itreferstosomeadditional,especiallyemotive,meaning.(3)Socialmeaning,referringtowhatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.(4)Affectivemeaning,whichreferstowhatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer.(5)Reflectedmeaning,whichreferstowhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.(6)Collocativemeaning,whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.Thefivetypesofmeaningsfrom(2)to(6)arecollectivelyknownasassociativemeaninginthesensethatanelementaryassociationisttheoryofmentalconnectionsisenoughtoexplaintheiruse.(7)Thematicmeaning,whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.Itismoreperipheralsinceitisonlydeterminedbytheorderofthewordsinasentenceandthedifferentprominencetheyeachreceive.2.Discusssense,denotationandreference,usingChineseexamplestoillustrateyourpoints。（北二外2008研）本题答案Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticexpression.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Forexample,theword"^6j"inChineseisgiventhedefinitionof“哺乳动物，种类很多，听觉嗅觉都很敏锐，善于看守门户，有的可以训练成军犬、警犬”.Thisdoesnotrefertoanyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedinthedefinition.Sothisisthesenseoftheworddog.Referencemeanswhatalinguisticexpressionreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Ifwesay“这只狗真可爱”,wemustbetalkingaboutacertaindogexistinginthesituation;theword“狗”herereferstoadogknowntoboththespeakerandthehearer.Thisisthereferenceoftheword“狗”79\ninthisparticularsituation.Denotationreferstotherelationshipbetweenanexpressionanditsextension.Thetermextensionofanexpressionisthesetofthingswhichcouldbepossiblybethereferentofthatexpression.Sotheextensionoftheword“狗”is“所有种类的狗”.Thus,therelationshipbetweentheword“狗”and“所有种类的狗”isdenotation,thatis,theword“狗”denotes“所有种类的狗”.Furthermore,thedifferencesbetweenthethreetermsarediscussedasfollows.Senseandreferencearetwodifferentbutrelatedaspectsofmeaning.Twoexpressionsmayrefertothesamereferentbuthavedifferentsenses.Forexample,insentences“1949年10月1日，毛泽东在天安门城楼上宣布：今天，中华人民共和国成立了！”and“1949年10月1日，那位伟大的领袖在天安门城楼上宣布：今天，中华人民共和国成立了！”,expressions“毛泽东”and“那位伟大的领袖”refertothesameperson(havethesamereferent)butwithdifferentsenses.Thereisalsoanotherdifferencebetweensenseandreference.Tosomeextent,allwordshavesenses,butnoteverywordhasareferent.Somewordslike“和”,“但是”,“假如”,“的”donotrefertoanything.Therefore,themeaningifanexpressionwillarisebothfromitssenseanditsreference.Bothreferenceanddenotationrefertotherelationshipbetweenalinguisticexpressionandtheworld,buttherearealsodifferences.Denotationreferstotherelationshipbetweenalinguisticexpressionandasetofpossiblereferentsofthatexpressionintheworld;whilereferenceisusedfortherelationshipbetweenalinguisticexpressionandaparticularentityintheworld.Forexample,inthesentence“一只云雀飞进了房间”,theexpression“一只云雀”referstothelarkinthatparticularsituation,whiledenotestothewholeclass“鸟”.Anotherdifferenceisthatdenotationisastablerelationshipinalanguagewhichisnotdependentonanyoneuseofaword.Reference,ontheotherhandisamomentbymomentrelationship:whatentitysomebodyreferstobyusingtheword“云雀”dependsonthesituation.3.Wordsareindifferentsenserelationswitheachother.Whatsenserelationisillustratedineachofthepairsofwordsbelow?Addonemoreexampletoeachpair.(a)casual-informal(b)intelligent-stupid(c)steal–steel(d)animal-dog（北航2008研）本题答案Thesenserelationof(a)issynonymy.Thetwowords“casual”and“informal”havesimilarmeaning.Onemoreexampleofsynonym:“buy”and“purchase”.(b)isapairofantonym.Thetwowordshaveoppositemeaning.Therearethreemainsubtypeforantonymy,namelygradableantonymy,complementaryantonymyandconverseantony-my.(b)isthefirsttype.Anotherexampleforantonymy:“good”and“bad”.“Steal”and“steel”areapairofhomonym,whichhavethesamepronunciationbutdifferentmeanings.Onemoreexamplefor“homonym”:“no”and“know”.“Animal”and“dog”haveasenserelationofhyponymy,inwhich“animal”isasuperordinatewhile“dog”ahyponym.Onemoreexample:“bird”and“lark”.4.Foreachofthefollowingpairsofwords,statetheprincipalreasonwhytheymaynotbeconsideredtobesynonyms:a.manboyb.toiletlooc.determinedstubbornd.pavementsidewalke.slimskinnyf.moverun79\n（浙江大学2005研）本题答案a.Thereasonfornotregardingmanandboyassynonymscouldbeseenfromthesemanticcomponentstheyincluderespectively.Man:+HUMAN,+MALE,+ADULT;whileboy:+HUMAN,+MALE,-ADULT.Sincetheydonothavethesamesemanticcomponents,theyarenotconsideredassynonyms.b.Theprincipalreasonfornotregardingtoiletandlooassynonymscouldbeattributedtothedifferentstyleswheretheyareused.Toiletisamorestandardexpression,whilelooisaslang,whichismoreinformal,comparedtotoilet.c.Thetwowordsdeterminedandstubbornarequitedifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.Thewordstubbornisusuallyusedbythespeakertoexpressanegativeattitude,whiletheotherwordisnot.d.Pavementandsidewalkaredialectallydifferent.PavementismoreoftenusedbyBritishpeople,whileinAmerica,peoplewillbemorelikelytousesidewalk.e.Althoughbothslimandskinnycouldrefertothethinnessofaperson,theyaredifferentinthatskinnyemphasizesmoreontheexcessivethinness,whileslimhasnoconnotationoftheexcessiveness.f.Thesetwowords,moveandrun,aresemanticallydifferent:runmeanstomoveswiftly,socomparativelyspeaking,moveismoregeneral.5.Putthefollowingwordsinahierarchicalorder(youcanuseatreediagramifneedbe)andtrytodefineatleasttwoofthem:crocodile,mammal,reptile,rabbit,primate,animal（北师大2003研）本题答案Animalmammalreptileprimaterabbitcrocodileanimal:Amulti-cellularorganismofthekingdomAnimalia,differingfromplantsincertaintypicalcharacteristicssuchascapacityforlocomotion,non-photosyntheticmetabolism,pronouncedresponsetostimuli,restrictedgrowth,andfixedbodilystructure.reptile:Anyofvariouscold-blooded,usuallyegg-layingvertebratesoftheclassReptilia,suchasasnake,lizard,crocodile,turtle,ordinosaur,havinganexternalcoveringofscalesorhornyplatesandbreathingbymeansoflungs.6.Studythefollowingexchangeandthenanswerthequestionsthatfollow.“Takesomemoretea.”theMarchHaresaidtoAlice,veryearnestly.“Fvehadnothingyet,”Alicerepliedinanoffendedtone,“soIcan'ttakemore.”(1)WhywasAliceoffended?(2)WhatistheproblemwiththeMarchHare’sremark?Whatisthelinguisticissueinvolvedhere?79\n（南京大学2006研）本题答案(1)Alicewasoffendedbecauseshefeltthatsheseemedtobeaccusedofsomethingshehadn'tdone.TheMarchHare'sremarkcouldbeinterpretedinawaythathepresupposedAlicehadalreadyhadsometea,whichwasnottrue.(2)TheMarchHareignoredthepossiblepresuppositiverelationsamongsentences.PresuppositionistherelationbetweenpropositionsbywhichApresupposesBif,forAtohaveatroth-value,Bmustbetrue.Inhisutterance,theword“more”functionsasthepresuppositiontriggers.Itpresupposesthatthereisalreadysomethingexisting.Inthisspecificutterance,itpresupposes“Youhavealreadyhadsometea”,whichisnottrueaccordingtothereality.7.Considerthefollowingstatements.WhendowesayStatementAentailsStatementB?WhendowesayStatementApresupposesStatementB?DoesStatementAnecessarilyentailStatementC?Why?DoStatementsAandDbothpresupposeStatementB?Why?A.Jack'sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.B.Jackhasabrother.C.Jack'ssiblinghasgonebankrupt.D.Jack'sbrotherhasnotgonebankrupt.（南京大学2008研）本题答案Atruth-basedapproachisagoodwaytocharacterizethesemanticrelationsofentailmentandpresupposition.Inatruth-baseddefinitionofentailment,asentencepentailsasentenceqwhenthetruthofthefirst(p)guaranteesthetruthofthesecond(q),andthefalsityofthesecondguaranteesthefalsityofthefirst.Thus,whenweexamineStatementAandStatementBhere,supposetheresultislikethis:ifAistrue,Bisalsotrue;ifBisfalse,Aisalsofalse,thenwecansayAentailsB.However,theresultistheopposite.Thetrueresultwefindis:ifA(Jack’sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.)istrue,B(Jackhasabrother.)istrue;ifB(Jackhasabrother.)isfalse,A(Jack'sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.)fails,thatis,ifJackhasnobrother,howcanA(Jack'sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.)bejudged?Isitfalse?Isitingreyarea,neithertruenorfalse?IfAisfalse,thenAentailsB;butifwecannotjudge,wecannotsayAentailsB.Ifweviewpresuppositionasatruthrelation,then:ifpistrue,qisalsotrue;ifpisfalse,qisstilltrue;ifqistrue,pcouldbeeithertrueorfalse;ifqisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutp.Adoptingthisapproach,wefindtherelationbetweenStatementAandStatementBhereis:ifA(Jack’sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.)istrue,B(Jackhasabrother.)istrue;ifA(Jack’sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.)isfalse,B(Jackhasabrother.)isstilltrue;ifB(Jackhasabrother.)istrue,A(Jack’sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.)canbeeithertrueorfalse;ifB(Jackhasabrother.)isfalse,wecannotsayanythingtrueorfalseaboutA(Jack’sbrotherhasgonebankrupt.).Therefore,fromtheaboveanalysis,theconclusionwegethereisApresupposesB.No,StatementAnotnecessarilyentailsStatementBhere,becausetheword“sibling”doesnotnecessarilyhaveallthesemanticcomponentsof“brother”.Entailmentisconcernedwiththe:meaningofthesentenceitself.Itdoesnotdependonthecontextinwhichasentenceisused.Therefore,thecontextwhatJackhasisbrotherorsisterisnotnecessarilytakenintoconsideration.Justintermsofsemanticmeaning,theword"sibling”means“abrotherorsister”.Abrother?Orasister?Ifitreferstoabrother,wecansaythatStatementAentailsStatementB;butifitreferstoasister,thesemanticrelationbetweenAandBwillfailtobeanentailment.79\nYes,statementsAandDbothpresupposeStatementB.StatementDisthenegationofStatementA.Accordingtheaboveanalysisaboutpresupposition,wehavealreadydrawntheconclusionthatStatementApresupposesStatementB,soboththetrothandfalsityofStatementAcanprovethetruthofStatementB,thatistosay,bothStatementAandDcanprovethetruthofStatementB.Therefore,itisundoubtedlythatStatementDalsopresupposesStatementB.8.Ineachofthefollowingsentences,thesecondpartcancelssomeinformationgivenbythefirstpart.However,thisseemstoresultinquiteacceptableutterancesingroup(1)andinveryawkwardutterancesingroup(2).Explainwhy.Group(1)a.老张有三个小孩，其实还不止三个。b.我只喜欢黄色和蓝色，不过试试红色也未尝不可。c.约翰的普通话说得还可以，确切地说是非常棒。Group(2)a.我特后悔选修了这门课，其实我没有选修这门课。b.它这次考试有不及格了，不过她上次及格了。c.我在乡下日子过得很苦，说真的我没在乡下呆过。（北二外2002研）本题答案Ingroup(1),thesecondpartsofthethreesentencesallcanceltheimpliedmeaningofthefirstpartbyaddingsomeextracontents.Thisisacharacterofcancellationofconversationalimplicature.Thepresenceofaconversationalimplicaturereliesonanumberoffactors:theconventionalmeaningofwordsused,theCP,thelinguisticandsituationalcontext,etc.,ifanyofthemchanges,theimplicaturewillalsochange.Thiscanbedonesimplybyaddingmoreinformation,liketheexamplesingroup(1).Whenthesecondpartsareadded,theoriginalimplicaturesarenolongerthere.Ingroup(2),thecaseisverydifferentbecausethetwopartsofthosesentencesareself-contradictory.Whileingroup(1),eventhesecondpart'sfunctionofcancellationofimplicatureisbasedonthetruth-valueofthefirstpart.Soeachsecondpartingroup(1)’ssentenceswillnotchangethetruth-valueofitscorrespondingfirstpart.Butingroup(2),thesentences'secondpartactuallydenythetruthvalueofthefirstpart,thusthetwopartsareinconsistentwitheachotherandcannotexistsimultaneously.Thesentencesexamplesingroup(2)areconsideredself-contradictoryandthennotacceptable.9thefollowingfoursentencespresentfourdifferentusagesoftheword不过.Pleasediscussthedistinctionsandconnectionsamongthefourusages,illustratingyourpointswithyourownexampleswherenecessary.1)不过二十年，君必无患。2)他十七岁就结婚，一年后当了爸爸不过十八岁。3)这是个乖巧不过的孩子。4)我也没有长策，不过这种事情，其事已迫，不能计出万全的。本题答案Inanylanguagetherearewordswhichhavethesamelinguisticformbutaredifferentin79\nmeanings.Thesewordsarecalledhomonyms.TherearealsolotsofhomonymsinChinese,forinstance,theChineseword“不过”embodiesdifferentmeaningsinactualusage.Taketheexamplesprovidedaboveforexample.In(1),theword“不过”expressesthemeaningof“nomorethan”.Hence,thissentencecanberewrittenas“youwillhavenothingtobeworriedaboutafternomorethantwoyears.”In(2),themeaningisalittlebitdifferentanditmeans“only,just”.Theexamplecanbeinterpretedas“oneyearlaterhebecameafatherwhowasonly18yearsold.”In(3),ithasusedanothermeaningofthisword,namely“very,extremely”.Therefore,thissentencecanbeinterpretedlikethis:thisisaverycutekid.However,themostcommonly-usedmeaningof“不过”canbeidentifiedinthelastexample(4).InChinese,moreoftenthannot,weusethiswordtoindicatethechangeortransitionofmeaning.IthasthesamemeaningwiththeEnglishconjunctions“however”,“but”,“nevertheless”,etc.Therefore,thesentenceintheexamplecanbeparaphrasedas“Ihavenogoodsuggestions,either.However,thisisveryurgent;thereisnowaythatwecanmakesureitisperfect”.Throughthesefourexampleswecanobservethatthemeaningofthespecificwordsiscontext-dependent.Themeaningsmayvaryduetothechangeofthecontext.“不过”inmostcasesisusedasanadverb,indicatingthedegree,suchastheexample(1)—(3).Itisusedasaconjunctionin(4)indicatingtransitionorchangeofideas.（本题考查汉语中一词多义现象。通过分析例句指出同义词语和不同意义之间的联系与区别，具有较强的灵活性。）10.Commentonthefollowingobservationinabout150words.“Themeaningofawordisnotanunanalysablewhole.”（武汉大学2010研）本题答案(1)Ontheanalogyofdistinctivefeaturesinphonology,somelinguistssuggestthattherearesemanticfeaturesorsemanticcomponents.Componentialanalysisisawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Thisisbasedonthebeliefthattherearesemanticunitssmallerthanthemeaningofaword,thatistosaythemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeaturesorproperties.Theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures,anditisthesefeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaning.Sinceitiseconomical,componentialanalysisgivesabetteraccountforsenserelationsandthosebetweensentences.(2)Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsarewrittenincapitalizedletters.Forexample,themeaningofthewordboycanmaybeanalyzedinto+HUAMN,-ADULT,+MALE.79\n第六章语用学Fillintheblanks1.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itisthe________of,orthe________theutterance.（人大2004研）comsequence,changebroughtaboutby根据取效行为的定义，由话语所带来的结果和变化。2.Whenateachersays“Theexamthisyearisgoingtobereallydifficult”,thesentencewouldhavean_______force.（清华2001研）illocutionary行事行为是表达说话人意图的行为，老师所说的话表明了让学生努力学习的意图。3.Therehasbeenamaximin_______whichclaimsthat“Youarewhatyousay.”（中山大学2008研）quantity格莱斯的数量准则指1．使你的话语如(交谈的当前目的)所要求的那样信息充分；2．不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。即说你该说的。4.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicaturewasproposedby_______.（中山2008研）Grice格赖斯认为一定存在一些管理话语产生和理解的机制。他把这种机制称为合作原则，在这个大原则下有四条准则，它们分别为数量、质量、关系和方式准则。5.Y’sutteranceinthefollowingconversationexchangeviolatesthemaximof________.X:Whowasthatyouwerewithlastnight?Y:Didyouknowthatyouwerewearingoddsocks?relation显然Y的回答与X的问题“你昨晚跟谁在一起?”无关。6.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalofthe________.commissives承诺类指说话人使自己对某一未来的行为做出许诺。MultipleChoice1.Thespeechacttheorywasdevelopedby________.A.JohnSearleB.JohnAustinC.LevinsonD.G.Leech（对外经贸2006研）B言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答“用语言干什么”这个问题。2.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest.(Focusonthetypeofillocutionaryact)A.threatenB.adviseC.beseechD.urge（南京大学2007研）AA为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。3._______isusingasentencetoperformafunction.A.AperlocutionaryactB.AnillocutionaryactC.AlocutionaryactD.Speechact（西安外院2006研）D约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论，此理论对语言交际的本质进行解释，即指出言语行为是指用一句话来发挥作用去完成某些事情。4.Bysaying“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen,”aspeakermightbeperformingthethreeacts:locutionary,illocutionaryandperlocutionary________.79\nA.atthesametimeB.oneafteranotherC.twofirstandthentheotherD.onefirstandthentheothertwo（西安交大2008研）D言语行为理论中的发话行为先发生，然后行事行为和取效行为才发生。行事行为和取效行为属于话后行为。5.TheIllocutionaryActwasdevelopedby_______.A.JohnAustinB.LevinsonC.JohnLyonsD.John（西安交大2008研）D美国的哲学语言学家约翰，舍尔对言语行为理论的发展做出了巨大的贡献，尤其是他对行事行为的分类。6.SearleAccordingtotheconversationmaximof________suggestedbyGrice,oneshouldspeaktruthfully.A.quantityB.qualityC.relevanceD.manner（西安外院2006研）B格莱斯的合作原则有四条准则，它们分别为数量、质量、关系和方式准则。其中质量准则指设法使你的话语真实。1．不要讲明知是虚假的话；2．不要说没证据的话。7.WhichofthefollowingisNOToneofthefourmaximsoftheCooperativePrinciple?A.themaximofquantityB.themaximofqualityC.themaximofmannerD.themaximofstrength（对外经贸2006研）D格莱斯合作原则有四条准则：数量、质量、关系和方式准则。TrueorFalse1.AspeakerfloutstheMaximofQuantitywhenhiscontributionstotheconversationarenottruthful.（对外经贸2005研）F违反的是质量准则而不是数量准则。2.Theco-operativeprinciplewasproposedbyGrice.（南开2004研）T合作原则由格莱斯提出3.Whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhehimselfbelievestobetrue.T阐述类是指说话人进行陈述或描写，说自己相信是真的话。4.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsobeconsideredasakindofmeaningstudy.T语用学是研究语言在某种语境下所传达的意义，也是研究语言意义的5.Inviting,suggesting,warning,orderingareinstancesofcommissives.F题中所举为指令性话语，指说话人试图让听话人做某一件事。ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.LocutionaryAct,IllocutinaryActandPerlocutionaryAct（北京交大2005，武汉大学2005研）2.ConversationalImplicature（武汉大学2004研，北京交大2007研）3.Cooperativeprinciple（北师大2003研）4.Violationofmaxims（北京交大2006研）名词解释答案1.AccordingtoAustin,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking.Alocutionaryactistheactofsaying,theliteralmeaningoftheutterance．Therefore,whensomebodysays“Morning”,wecanaskaquestionlike“Whatdidhedo?”andtheanswercouldbe“Heofferedagreeting.”79\nAnillocutionnaryactistheextrameaningoftheutteranceproducedonthebasisoftheliteralMeaning.Thereare,forthesameexample,wecansay“Hemeantitasagreeting”．Aperlocutionaractistheeffectoftheutteranceonthehearer.Thus,bysaying“Morning!”thespeakerhasmadeitclearthathewantstokeepfriendlyrelationswiththehearer.2.Conversationalimplicaturereferstoatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.Forexample,theimplicatureofHeisatigercouldprobablybehehassomecharacteristicsofatiger.3.CooperativeprinciplewasproposedandformulatedbyGrice.Itexpressesthatinmakingaconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Itgoeslikethis:"makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged".Thisprinciplecanbefurtherspecifiedasthefourfollowingmaxims:Quantity,Quality,Relation,Manner.4.Therearecircumstanceswherespeakersmaynotfollowthemaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.Forexample,inconversation,aspeakermayviolatethemaximexpectationsbyusinganexpressionlike“Nocomment”inresponsetoaquestion.Althoughitistypicallynot“asinformativeasisrequired”inthecontext,itisnaturallyinterpretedascommunicatingmorethanissaid(i.e.thespeakerknowstheanswer).Thistypicalreactiontoanyapparentviolationofthemaximsisactuallythekeytothenotionofconversationalimplicature.Whenweviolateanyofthesemaxims,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.Inthisway,wecanconveymorethanisliterallysaid.Forexample,thereisviolationofthefirstmaximofQuantity,andsometimesthefirstQuantitymaximcanbeinconflictwiththeQualitymaxim.ShortAnswerQuestions1.Whatarethemajorconcernsofpragmatics?（人大2006研）本题答案Pragmaticsisthestudyofthelanguageinuse.Itismainlyabouthowspeakersuselanguageappropriatelyandeffectivelyinaccordancewithagivencontext.Itisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeaker(orwriter)andinterpretedbyalistener(orreader).Ithasmoretodowithparticipantsofcommunicationandcontextinwhichcommunicationtakesplace.Hencethestudyofspeakermeaning,thatofcontextualmeaning,ofwhatisunsaidbutcommunicated.2.Howwouldyoudescribethisshortexchangeintermsoftheardorsperformedbythespeakers?Motorist:Mycarneedsnewexhaustsystem.Mechanic:I’llbebusywiththisothercarallday.（浙江大学2005研）本题答案Inthemotorist’sutterance,therearetwotypesofspeechactsperformed,namelyrepresentativeanddirective,andastothelatterone,itisrecognizedasanindirectspeechact,whichisperformedthroughtheperformanceoftheformerone.Thus,bystatingthathiscarneedsnewexhaustsystem,themotoristhasinfactaskedthemechanictoequipanew79\nexhaustsystemforhim.Similarly,inthemechanic'sutterance,therearetwotypesofspeechactsperformed;oneisrepresentative,theothercommissive.Thecommissivespeechactinfactisanindirectonesinceitisrecognizedthroughtheperformanceofrepresentativeaction.Thatistosay,bystatingthathewillbebusywithanothercarallday,themechanichasinfacttoldthemotoristthathecouldnotrepairhiscarrightaway.3.Conversationalimplicatureiscomparabletoillocutionaryforceinspeechacttheoryinthattheyarebothconcernedwiththecontextualsideofmeaning,or“言外之意”inChinese.（中山大学2005研）本题答案Wemaysummarizeconversationalimplicatureasatypeofimpliedmeaning.Itcouldbeinferredonlybythedependenceonthecontextoftheutteranceandsharedknowledgebetweenthespeakerandlistener.Illocutionaryforce,onotherhand,referstospeaker'smeaning,contextualmeaning,orextrameaning,thatis,themeaningthespeakerwantstoconveyinaspecificcontext.Byanillocudonaryforce,wecansay"Whatdoeshemeanbysayingthat?"Inthissense,implicatureiscomparabletoillocutionaryforceinspeechacttheoryinthattheyarebothconcernedwiththecontextualsideofmeaning,or“言外之意”inChinese.4.Decidewhichmaximofthecooperativeprinciplehasbeenfloutedinthefollowingutterancesandwhatimplicaturecanbedrawn.(1)A:Canyoutellmethesecret?B:ButJohnisthere.(2)A:Let'sgotothemovies.B:ITlbringtheKleenex.(3)A:WouldyoudriveaMercedes?B:Iwouldn'tdriveANYexpensivecar.（厦门大学2006研）本题答案Intheexchanges,themaximofrelationhasbeenflouted.Astoinstance(1),AwillassumethatifBiscooperative,hisreplymustberelevantinadifferentsense:IwillnottalkaboutmysecretnowbecauseIdonotwanttoletJohnknow.In(2),theanswerofBseemsirrelevanttoA'sutterance.Bydoingso,AwilllikelyderivetheimplicaturethatBhasacceptedhissuggestion,andisgoingtogetprepared.In(3),byviolatingthemaximofrelation,BintendstoimplicatethatMercedesisanexpensivecarandhewouldnotdriveaMercedes.5.DoyouthinkBiscooperativeinthefollowingdialogue?SupportyourargumentwithCooperativePrinciple.A:Whenisthebuscoming?B:Therehasbeenanaccidentfurtheruptheroad.（南开大学2004研）本题答案Onthefaceofit,BviolatedthemaximofrelationsincehedidnotprovideadirectanswertoA'squestion.ButAwouldassumethatBiscooperativeintheconversation,andwouldtrytoexplorethelinkbetweentheseeminglyirrelevantresponsetosomethingrelevant.Thus,AwouldinterpretB'sutteranceinsuchawaythatbecausetherehadbeenasaccidentfurtheruptheroad,itwasquitepossiblethattheroadwasblocked;inaconsequence,thebuswouldnotbeabletocome.79\n6.AnalyzethefollowingdialoguewithreferencetoGrice'sCooperativePrinciple.A:OhIlikethispopularsongsomuchHowaboutyou?B:Ioftenhearclassicalmusic,especially,thesymphoniescomposedbyBeethovenHisSymphonyNo.9ismyfavorite.（北二外2005研）本题答案BhasobviouslyviolatedMaximofRelation:AwasaskingB'sopinionaboutaparticularpopularsong,butB'sresponsewasactuallyaboutclassicalmusic.Bysuchaviolation,Bprobablywantedtoimplythathedidnotlikethatpopularsong.7.Inwhatwaysdopeoplecooperateintheirconversations?（人大2006研）本题答案Indailyconversationspeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem,andaccordingtoGrice,theyseemtoobservewillinglyorunwillinglycertainprinciple,whichiscalled"cooperativeprinciple":"Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged".Underthisprinciple,therearefourmaxims,namely,Quantity,Quality,Relation,andManner.EssayQuestions1.Whenateachersays“it’ssohotinhere”duringaclass,whatdoessheprobablymean?Refertothetheoryofpragmaticswhenyouanalyzethesituation.（人大2002研）本题答案Thisutterancewouldbesemanticallyambiguousifitwasseenisolatedwithoutanycontextofsituation.Itsinterpretationhastorelyonthecontextinwhichitwasuttered.Therecouldbegenerallytwotypesofsituationinwhichthisutterancecouldhappen.Onemaybethatitissummer;theteacherjustcameintotheclassandwassweatingheavily.Theothermaybethatinclassthestudentsarequiteactivetowardsthequestionsorproblemstheteacherhasposed,forexample,discussingingroup,ordebatinginalargescale.Accordingtothecooperativeprinciple,inourconversation,inordertobecooperative,thatis,tomakehisintentionstobeknownbythehearer,thespeakerwilltrytomakehisconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequire,atthestageatwhichitoccurs.Therefore,accordingtothethirdmaximofcooperativeprinciple,RELATION,whichsays“berelevant”,theutterancecouldbeinterpreteddifferentlyasfollows:Inthefirstsituation,whenthestudentsheartheteachersaying"it'ssohotinhere",theywouldprobablyassumethattheteacherisobeyingthecooperativeprinciple,andwhathesaysisrelevanttothecontext,whichisthattheteacherissweating,andmaybeaccompaniedbyfanningherselfwithhishand.Therefore,whattheteachermeansisprobablythatthetemperatureishigh.What’smore,ifthewindowsintheclassroomareclosed,thisutterancewillgofurthertobeanimplicationofarequestforopeningthewindows.Inthesecondsituation,thestudentswouldassumethattheteachershouldhaveobservedthemaximofrelation,sinceitisundernormalcircumstances.Giventhecontextinwhichthestudentsarediscussingordebatingaboutcertainquestionsfuriously,thehearerwouldtendtointerprettheteacher'sutteranceas:“youarediscussing(ordebating)soactively”,whichimpliespraiseforthe79\nactiveparticipationofthestudentsinclassactivity.2.AspeechactconsistsofthreerelatedactsaccordingtoJ.L.Austin'sSpeechActtheory.Whatarethey?AnalyzethefollowingconversationinthelightofSpeechActtheory.Customer:Waiter~\There'saflyinmysoup.Waiter:Don'tworry,there'snoextracharge.（北航2008研）本题答案AspeechactconsistsofthreerelatedactsaccordingtoJ.L.Austin'sSpeechActtheory,namely,locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Thelocutionaryactistheordinaryactweperformwhenwespeak.Itistheactofsaying.Theillocutionaryactistheactperformedintheperformingofalocutionaryact,thatmaysaidtobetheextrameaningoftheutterance;whileperlocutionaryactconcernstheconsequentialeffectsofalocutionuponthehearer,dependingonspecificcircumstances.Austinsuggeststhatthethreekindsofactsareperformedsimultaneouslywhenaspeakersayingsomething.Inthisconversation,bysaying“Waiter!There’saflyinmysoup”,thelocutionaryactofthisutteranceisthatthecustomerproducesanumberofsoundswithitliteralmeaningthatthereisaflyinhis/hersoup.Theillocutionaryactisthatthecustomerintendsnottojustreviewtheinformationtothewaiter,butmightexpresshisfeelingsandexpectthewaitertodosomething.Itmightbeacomplaint,awarn,acriticism,orathreaten,butwhateveritmightbe,itisnodoubtaforce,makingthewaitertochangesouporgivesomecompensation.Theperlocutionaryactoftheutterancehereisthewaitersdoingnothingbutgivingastrangerespond.Astothewaiter'sresponding,bysayingthathenotonlyproducesanumberofsoundstostatethatthereisnoextracharge,butalsoshowshispossiblemisinterpretationorhissenseofhumororhisindirectrefusal.3.Explainspeechacttheoryandlistthedifferentkindsofspeechactswithexamplesforeach.（浙江大学2004研）本题答案ThespeechacttheorywasproposedbyJohnAustin.Accordingtothistheory,weareperformingvariouskindsofactswhenwearespeaking.Actionsperformedthroughutterancesaregenerallycalledspeechacts.Anutterancecanperformdifferentspeechactsdependingonthecontextandthatonespeechactcanbeperformedbymorethanoneutterances.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsallintofivegeneralcategories.Specificactsthatfallintoeachtypesharethesameillocutionarypoint,butdifferintheirstrength.(1)Representatives:actsofsayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue;theyincludestating,describing,asserting,andsoon;suchas“It’sraining”,“Theywonthegame”.(2)Directives:actsoftryingtogetthehearertodosomething.Commands,orders,requests,warnings,suggestions,andonsoareofthistype,asillustratedin“Bequiet!”,“Don’ttouchthat!”(3)Commissives:actsofcommittingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.Theyincludepromising,vowing,offering,threatening,andsoon.Examplesare“I’lltakehertothevet.”and“Wewon'tdothat.”(4)Expressives:actsofexpressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.Theycanbestatementsofpleasure,pain,likes,sorrow,andsoon.Forexample,“I’msorrytohearthat”.(5)Declarations:actsofbringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.Theyincluderesigning,dismissing,naming,appointing,andsoon.Forexample,thepriestmaysayinawedding79\n“Inowpronounceyouhusbandandwife”.4.Discussthefollowingsentencesintermsofviolationofmaximsinthecooperativeprinciple.a.Ithinkhewasmarriedandhadalionessathome.b.A:Whatdoyouintendtodo?B:Ihaveaterribleheadache.c.A:Where'veyoubeen?B:Out.（浙江大学2007研）本题答案Insentencea,thespeakerhasviolatedthefirstQualitymaxim,whichsays"donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse".Intheliteralsense,nohumanbeingwouldmarryalioness,andthereforeatthislevel,itisafalsestatement.However,thedeliberateviolationofthemaximwillleadustointerpretitasametaphor,meaningthathiswifehadabadtemper.Insequenceb,BhasfloutedthemaximofRelation,sincehedidnotanswerA’squestiondirectly.However,assumingthatBwasco-operative,AwaslikelytoderivetheimplicaturethatsinceBhadaterribleheadache,hewouldprobablyjustlieinbedanddonothing.Inexchangec,aviolationofthefirstQuantitymaximwasrecognized,whichsays“makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange”.Bwassupposedtoprovidethespecificinformationoftheplacehehadbeento;however,hedidn’t.Bysuchaviola-don,Bprobablyimpliedthat“IdonotwanttotellyouwhereIhavebeen”.5.Discussthefollowingadvertisementextensively:你不理财，财不理你.（浙江大学2007研）本题答案Thisadvertisementisaninterestingone,foritswittyuseofpunwords.Therearetwoplacesofpunning.First,“理财”couldbeinterpretedintwodifferentways:oneis“tomanageone’smoney”,theotheris“nottoignoremoney”.Second,inthesecondpartofthesentence,“财”ispunnedthroughhomophony:itcouldbeinterpretedas“财”,therefore,thewholepart“财不理你”couldmean“fortunewillignoreyou”,orrather,“fortunewillpassyouaway”.Thischaractercouldalsointerpretedas“才”,therefore,thewholepart“财不理你”couldmean“Iwillignoreyou”,orrather,“Iwillshowyoumycoldshoulder”(Here“I"referstothecompanywhichputoutthisadvertisement).Therefore,thisutterancecouldbepossiblyinterpretedinthefollowingways.1)Ifyoudonothandleyourmoneyinaproperway,thenmoneywillpassyouby.2)Ifyoudonothandleyourmoneyproperly,thenIwon'ttakecareofanyofyourbusiness.3)Ifyouignoremoney,anddonotpayanyattentiontoit,thenmoneywillpassyouby.4)Ifyouignoremoney,thenIwillignoreyou,too,andIwon'ttakecareofanyofyourbusiness.Inthesefourinterpretations,itiscleartoseethatinIand4,theadvertiserconveyedthemessagestothereadersasifhewashavingaface-to-facetalktoafriend.Thishasinsomewaymadethepieceofadinterestingtoread.Itisknownthepunningisbynatureambiguous.Therefore,accordingtoGrice,theadvertisementhasviolatedtheprincipleofavoidingambiguityunderMannerMaxim.Bysuchaviolation,theadvertiserhaspossiblyintendedtomakethepotentialconsumerspaymoreattentiontoit,andspendmoretimeonit,sinceitisknownthatambiguitywillincreasethetimeforprocessingthesentence;andbyinterpretingitinadditionalways,thereadersarealsoexpectedtogetanotherinterestingmessagefromthisad.Allofthesecouldeventuallycometoahighermemorabilityofthe79\nadvertisement.6.Imagineyouwereatabusstopandtwopeopleapproachedyouoneaftertheother.Thefirstsaid“哎，几点了？”andthesecondsaid“不好意思，打扰一下，请问您戴表了吗？”Whatassumptionswouldyoumakeifyouwereaddressedinthesetwowaysandwhywouldyoumakethem?（北二外2007研）本题答案Astothefirstone,animmediateassumptioncomingtoourmindwouldbethepersonisaskforthetime.Theassumptionthatthehearergetsarisesoutoftheconventionalmeaningoftheexpression.Theconventionalmeaningisrelatedtotheexistingknowledgeoftheworld,andisthemeaningthatisachievedbytheconventions,andisgenerallyacceptedbythesociety.Itcanbeaccessedtowhenweturntotheknowledgetowardstheworldthatwehave.Theexpression“几点了？”issuchanconventionalmeaningthatwhenitisspokenout,everyonewillunexceptionallyacceptitasawayofaskingforthetime.Astotheexplanationofthesenondone,Levinson'sM-principlecouldcomeintouse.Consideringthecontext,whichisinthebusstop,whatitexpressesisnolongeraconventionalone,butratheraconversationalimplicature.AccordingtoM-principle,thespeakernormallywillnotuseaprolix,obscureormarkedexpressionwithoutreason;onthehearer’sside,ifthespeakerusedaprolixormarkedexpression,hedidnotmeanthesameashewouldhavehadheusedtheunmarkedexpression.Thatistosay,inthenormalsituation,inabusstopastheexampleabovehasshown,theintentionofthatthespeakerasksotherswhethertheywearthewatchornotisnotmerelytocareabouttherecipienthasawatchornot,buthassomeotherreason,becauseitwouldbebizarretoaskastrangerinthebusstopaboutsuchapersonalstaff.Therefore,thehearerhastoassumethattheexpressionisrelatedtothesituation,andthisexpressionisnotwhatitliterallymeans.Followingthis,thehearerreachesaconnectionbetweenthebusstopandthewatchthatisthetime.Asaconsequence,heknowswhatthespeakerintendsistheinquiringofthetime.7.Whatkindoflinguisticphenomenoncanyouidentifyinthefollowingdialogue?Define,analyseandexplainthephenomenon.甲：上车请买票。乙：三张天安门。甲：您拿好。（北外2010研）本题答案Thisconversationconsistsofthelinguisticphenomenonwhichiscalledthe“CooperativePrinciple”,proposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,basedonsuchapragmatichypothesisthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibletocarryonthetalk.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:Themaximofquantity:(a)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).(b)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.79\nThemaximofquality:(a)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.(b)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofrelation:Berelevant.Themaximofmanner:(a)Avoidobscurityofexpression.(b)Avoidambiguity.(c)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).(d)Beorderly.Therearecircumstanceswherespeakersmaynotfollowthemaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.Forexample,inthisconversation,thespeakermayviolatethemaximexpectationsbyusinganexpressionlike“三张天安门”inresponsetoaquestion.Althoughitistypically“moreinformativethanisrequired”inthecontext,itisnaturallyinterpretedascommunicatingmorethanissaid(i.e.thespeakerknowstheanswer).Thistypicalreaction(i.e.theremustbesome-“special”here)oflistenerstoanyapparentviolationofthemaximsisactuallythekeytothenotionofconversationalimplicature.Whenweviolateanyofthesemaxims,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.Inthisway,wecanconveymorethanisliterallysaid.79\n第七章语篇分析Fillintheblanks1._______referstotiesandconnectionswhichexistwithintexts.Theyarealsocalledformallinksbetweensentencesandbetweenclauses.（人大2007研）cohesion衔接不是一个句法概念，它指文本中存在的一种意义上的联系或关系，也包括句子或分句之间存在的一种形式上的联系2._______istheinformationthattheaddresserbelievesisknowntotheaddressee,while_______istheinformationthattheaddresserbelievesisnotknowntotheaddressee.Giveninformation,newinformation已知信息是指说话者认为听话者已经知道的信息，而新信息是指说话者认为听话者不知道的信息。3._______representswhattheutteranceisabout;_______iswhatissaidaboutit.Thetopic,thecomment话题是谈话的主题，述题是围绕主题所谈论的内容。TrueorFalse1.Alllanguageshavesomedifferencesinverbformswhichareusedtoproducecohesion.（南开2005研）T语言中的动词会有不同的形式来连接上下文2.Oneofpropertiesoftheadjacencypairsisthattheformandcontentofthefirstpartdependsonthetypeofthesecondpart.F配租对话的其中一个特征是第二部分的内容与构成取决于第一部分3.Thetopic-commentdistinctiondependsonthepointofviewofthelistener.F已知信息与新信息的区别在于听话者一方，而话题与述题的区别在于说话者一方ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.coherence/cohesion（浙江大学2004研）2.adjacencypairs3.preferencestructure名词解释答案：1.Cohesionreferstothegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofadiscourse.Thismayberelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesorbetweendifferentpartsofasentence.Itcanbeachievedbycohesivedevicesincludereference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.Coherence,ontheotherhand,referstothequalityofadiscoursewhichmakesitaconnectedtextcoherenttothecontext,notaseriesofjuxtaposedsentences.2.Adjacencypairisasequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers.Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.Ithasfiveproperties:(1)Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances,afirstpartandasecondpart.(2)Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers.79\n(3)Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes,forexample,questionandanswer,orgreetingandgreeting.(4)Theformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart.(5)Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart,thesecondpartisrelevantandexpectableasthenextutterance.3.Therearemanyresponsestoquestionswhicharenotanswersbutwhichcountassecondparts.Thisstructurallikelihoodiscalledpreference.Preferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispref-erredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.EssayQuestions1.Whatismeantbytheterm“cohesion”inthestudyoftexts?Whatis“cohesion”isdifferentfromtheterm“coherence”?（上海交大2007研，浙江大学2005研）本题答案Cohesionreferstothegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofadiscourse.Thismayberelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesorbetweendifferentpartsofasentence.Whatitisconcernedwithisthequestionofhowsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscoursebydifferentkindsofovertdevices.Suchcohesivedevicesincludereference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.However,cohesionbyitselfwouldnotbesufficienttocreateahighlycohesivediscoursewhichhasalotofconnectionsbetweenthesentences,butwhichremainsdifficulttointerpret.Theconnectednesswhichweexperienceinourinterpretationofnormaltextsisnotsimplybasedonconnectionsbetweenwords.Thereissomeotherfactorwhichleadsustodistinguishconnectedtextswhichmakesensefromthosewhichdonot.Thisfactorisusuallydescribedascoherence.Therefore,ifcohesionisthevisiblenetofadiscourse,thencoherenceistheinvisibleone.2.Ininterpretingutterancessuchas(1)and(2),thehearergenerallytreatstheeventsdescribedinthetwosentencesineachgroupascausallyrelatedeventhoughsuchrelationshipisnotencodedinthemeaningsofthesentences.Thatis,thehearertendstothinkthatHelenfellonthegroundbecauseofTom’spushingandthatthevasebrokebecauseitwasdropped.Explainwhy.(1)TompushedHelen.Helenfellontheground.(2)Peterdroppedthevase.Itbroke,（北二外2005研）本题答案Thephenomenondescribedcanbeillustratedbythetheoryofcohesionandcoherenceindiscourseanalysis,especiallytheconjunctivekindofcohesiverelation.Textprocessingrequiresinferencesforestablishingcoherencebetweensuccessivesentences.Theachievementofcoherencepartlyreliesonthecohesiverelationshipswithinandbetweenthesentences.Cohesionoccurswheretheinterpretationofsomeelementinthediscourseisdependentonthatofanother.Itisrealizedpartlythroughgrammaticaldeviceandpartlythroughlexicalcohesion.79\nConjunctionisoneofthegrammaticallycohesiverelations.Itisbasedontheassumptionthatthereareformsofsystematicrelationshipsbetweensentencesinthelinguisticsystem.Conjunctioncanberealizedbysomeconjunctivewordsandsomeadverbs,suchasso,but,further'more,andsoon.Butinfact,theconjunctiverelationbetweenthediscoursesneednotbereal-B_izedbyconjunctivewords,ascanbeseeninthesetwoexamples.Yetitisnotenoughforthetexttohaveconnectionsbetweenelements,thereisalsothecoherencewhichdistinguishesconnectedtextswhichmakesensefromthosewhichdonot.Itenablespeopletomakesenseofwhattheyreadandhear,andthentrytoarriveataninterpretationwhichisinlinewiththeirexperienceofthewaytheworldis.Infact,ourabilitytomakesenseofwhatwereadisprobablyonlyasmallpartofthatgeneralabilitywehavetomakesenseofwhatH'weexperienceorperceiveintheworld.Therefore,bythecoherencewhichhelpsustoconnectthediscoursewiththeworldweexperience,we,thehearers,willtendtomakethediscoursefitsomesituationwhichcouldaccommodateallthedetails,andjustasinthetwoexamples,thecausalconjunctiverelationsareestablished.3.Inacoherentpieceofwriting,wordsandclausesaretiedtogetherinsomeways.Usethefollowingtexttodiscusswhataresomeofthewaysoftyingtogetherwordsandclausestomakeacoherentpieceofwriting.Withthecarefuldressofabankmanagerandfiat,classlessaccent,JohnMajorisimpossibletopigeonholeoneitherrightorleftoftheConservativeParty.Hehasmaderemarkablyfewenemiesinhisrapidrise,althoughhiseasygoingcharmreputedlyconceals“tabitofatemper”,andhecanhecaustic.Nevertheless,henumbersLabourMPsamonghislong-standingfriends.本题答案Coherencemeansthatonesentencemovesintothenextlogicallyandsmoothlywithinparagraphs.andfromparagraphtoparagraph.Itreferstotheunitycreatedbetweentheideas,sentences,paragraphsandsectionsofapieceofwriting.Coherenceiswhatgivesapieceofwritingitsflow.Italsogivesthereaderasenseofwhattoexpectand,therefore,makesthereadingeasiertofollowastheideasappeartobepresentedinanatural,almostautomaticway.Whenwritinglackscoherence,thereaderisforcedtostopandreread.Generallyspeaking,thecoherencecanbeachievedviafourdifferentways,1)usingappropriatetransitionwords/phrasesandconjunctions,2)usingreferents,wordsorphrasesthatstandforpreviouslymentionedwords/ideas,3)therepetitionofkeywords,4)arrangingsentenceandparagraphsinlogicalorder.Thecoherenceofthispieceofwritingcanbealsoachievedthroughthesefourdifferentaspects:Firstly,theemploymentofconjunctions.Manydifferenttypesofconjunctionscanbedetectedinthisshortpassage,namely,“although”,“and”,“or”,and“nevertheless”.“Although”isemployedtoexpressthemeaningofconcession,“and”servesastheaddition,and“nevertheless”isusedtoshowthechangeortransitionofthemeaning.Secondly,thereference.Inthisshortpassage,wecanidentifytheanaphoricpronounsserveasthereference.Forexample,“He”canreferto“JohnMajor”,“his”canreferto“JohnMajors”inthistext,whichhascontributedtothesmoothtransitionoftheplot.Thirdly,therepetitionofkeywords.Theheroofthetext,thepronoun“he”,isconstantlyemphasized.Lastbutnottheleast,arrangingsentencesandparagraphsinlogicalorder.Thelogicofthis79\npassageisactualizedthroughthedevelopmentofplotandtheemploymentofconjunctions.Inaword,theemploymentofthesefourdifferentwayshasgreatlycontributedtothecoherenceoftheshorttext,withoutwhichwewouldhavegreatdifficultyinunderstandingwhatthetextisabout.（本题考察话语分析中如何使文章连贯的问题，答案中共给出四个方面，围绕这四个展开论述。）4.Whatkindofimplicaturedothefollowingexchangesofconversationpossiblymake?A:Theskirtsheiswearingisbeautiful,isn'tit?B:Oh,thepatternisnice.(TheconversationismadewhenSpeakerBknowsforsuretheobviousbeautyoftheskirt.)（南开2010研）本题答案Therecouldbegenerallytwotypesofimplicatureinwhichthisutterancemake.OnemaybethatspeakerBwantstoemphasizeitisthepatternthatmaketheskirtbeautiful.TheothermaybethatspeakerBdoesn'tlikethewomanwhoweartheskirt.Accordingtothecooperativeprinciple,inourconversation,inordertobecooperative,thatis,tomakehisintentionstobeknownbythehearer,thespeakerwilltrytomakehisconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs.Therefore,accordingtothethirdmaximofcooperativeprinciple,RELATION,whichsays"berelevant",theutterancecouldbeinterpreteddifferentlyasfollows:Inthefirstsituation,whenspeakerBhearspeakerAsaying“Theskirtsheiswearingisbeautiful”,he/shewantstoaddthatthepatternisespeciallygood.Theutteranceisactuallyrelevanttothecontextandfurtherstressthebeautyofthedress.Inthesecondsituation,speakerBdoesn'tlikethewomanwhoweartheskirt,butaccordingtothePolitenessPrinciple,inordertobepolite,speakerBwouldviolatethemaximofrelation,thustomaketheutteranceeuphemistic.Byemphasizingitisthepatternthatmakestheskirtbeautiful,speakerBgivesanimplicationthatthewomanwhowearstheskirtisnotsonice.79\n第八章社会语言学MultipleChoice1.________isdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.A.CompetenceB.PerformanceC.LearningD.AcquisitionC我们在学校学第二语言，对第二语言知识的这种有意识的积累，叫做“学习”.2.________isthestudyofpsychologicalaspectoflanguage.A.languageacquisitionB.appliedlinguisticsC.psycholinguisticsD.pragmaticsA语言习得是从心理学的角度来研究语言，主要研究儿童不自觉地自然地掌握母语的过程。3.Achildacquireshis/hermothertongueinvariablythroughthesephases:_______,one-word,two-wordandmultiword.A.no-wordB.babblingC.talkingD.utteringB婴儿学习母语的过程分为四个阶段：呀呀学语阶段、单词阶段、双语词阶段、多语词阶段。ShortAnswerQuestions1.Whatisthepurposeofstudyinglanguageandmind?（南开2004研）本题答案Thestudyoflanguageandmindaimstomodeltheworkingsofthemindinrelationtolanguage;forexample,ithelpsexplainhowthelanguageproductionandperceptionisachieved.Sincestructuresandconnectionsinthemindareinevitablyunobservable^researchersputforwardhypothesesbasedonfragmentaryclues.Thelabelmostusuallygiventothestudyof“languageandmind”ispsycholinguistics,atermwhichisoftenperceivedasbeingtrendy.Psycholinguisticsisconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructures.2.Whatarethefactorsinfluencingsentencecomprehension?本题答案(1)Structuralfactorsincomprehension.Comprehensionofwrittenandspokenlanguagecanhedifficultbecauseitisnotalwayseasytoidentifytheconstituents(phrases)ofasentenceandthewaysinwhichtheyrelatetooneanother.Psycholinguistshaveproposedprinciplesinterpretingsentencecomprehensionwithrespecttothegrammaticalconstraints.ThemostpopularprincipleisMinimalattachmentwhichdefines“structurallysimpler”,anditclaimsthatstructuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.Inthisview,thesentenceprocessorconstructsasingleanalysisofasentenceandattemptstointerpretit.Thefirstanalysisistheonethatrequiresthefewestapplicationsofgrammaticalrulestoattacheachincomingwordintothestructurebeingbuilt;itistheautomaticconsequenceofanefforttogetsomeanalysisconstructedassoonaspossible.ConsiderthesentenceThesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.Whentheinheritancefirstappears,itcouldbeinterpretedaseitherthedirectobjectofclaimorthesubjectofbelongs.Itwasfoundthosereaders’eyesfixatedforlongerthanusualontheverbbelongs,whichdisambiguatesthesentence.Theyinterpretedthisresulttomeanthatreadersfirst79\ninterpretedtheinheritanceasadirectobject.Readersweredisruptedwhentheyhadtorevisethisinitialinterpretationtotheoneinwhichtheinheritanceissubjectofbelongs.Theydescribedthereadersasbeingleddownagardenpathbecausethedirectobjectanalysisisstructurallysimplerthantheotherpossibleanalysis.(2)Lexicalfactorsincomprehension.Psycholinguistshaveproposedthatthehumansentenceprocessorisprimarilyguidedbyinformationaboutspecificwordsthatisstoredinthelexicon.InthesentenceslikeThesalesmanglancedata/thecustomerwithsuspicion/rippedjeans,theprepositionalphraseswithsuspicionorwithrippedjeanscouldmodifyeithertheverbglanceorthenouncustomer,Thisistrueonlyforactionverbs,notforperceptionverbslikeglanceat.Ithasbeennotedthatanactualpreferencefornounphrasemodificationonlyappearedwhenthenounhadtheindefinitearticlea.3.Whatarethefourstagesoflanguageproductionandhowdoyouunderstandthem?本题答案(1)ConceptualizationThenotionisthatthoughtstakeforminmentaleseandarethentranslatedintolinguisticform.(2)FormulationFormulationisthesecondstageofspeechproduction.Itanalysisoneventualoutputoftheprocess,suchasspeecherrors,andthechoiceofwordsorsentencestructurescanbeagreathelpforunderstandingspeechproduction.Majortypesofslipsofthetongue:shift,exchange,anticipation,perseveration,addition,deletion,substitutionandblend.(3)ArticulationArticulationofspeechsoundsisthethirdandaveryimportantstageofproduction.Oncewehaveorganizedourthoughtsintoalinguisticplan,thisinformationmustbesentfromthebraintothemusclesinthespeechsystemsothattheycanthenexecutetherequiredmovementsandproducethedesiredsounds.(4)Self-regulationSelf-regulationisthelaststageofspeechproduction.Toerrishuman.Soeachpersonwoulddosomeself-correctionoverandoveragainwhileconversing.EssayQuestions1.Researchhasfoundthattwo-year-oldEnglishchildrenproducenegativesentencessuchasa)tod),butnote):a)Hedoesn’tlikecabbage.b)Doesn’tlikecabbage.c)Himnolikecabbage.d)Nolikecabbage.e)*Himdoesn'tlikecabbage.Howcanyouaccountforthis?（北二外2006研）本题答案Thisfoundingfirstlydemonstratesonepointthattheacquisitionofauxiliaryverbscomeslaterthanthatofcomparatively“simpler”morphemessuchaspronouns.79\nTherefore,itisunlikelyforchildrentomakemistakesasshownine).Thereasonforthisphenomenoncouldbeexplainedbythefactthatintheearlystageofchildren'slanguageacquisition,thespeechatfirstonlycontainscontentwordsandlacksthefunctionelements.Thisfoundingalsoshowsthatchildrenhaveacertainprocessoflearningthenegativeform.Therearegenerallythreestages.(1)Atfirst,thenegativeelementisnotpartofthestructureofthesentences.Itissimplyattachedtothebeginning,asshownind).(2)Thenegativeelementisinsertedintothesentence.Theadditionalnegativeformsdon'tandcan'tareused,andwithnoandnot,begintobeplacedinfrontoftheverbratherthanatthebeginning,asshowninc).(3)Childrenbegintoproducetheappropriatepartofdo,beorthemodelverbs,tosuitthepersonortense,asshowninb)anda).2.Ininformalspeech,peopleoftenomitsentencesubjectsbecausetheyarecommonlyunderstood.Whataretheomittedsubjectsinthefollowingtwosentences?Whydopeopleknowthatthesearethecorrectsubjects?a.Hopeyoulikeeverythinghere.b.Justimaginewhathasjusthappenedhere.（南京大学2008研）本题答案Theomittedsubjectinsentenceais“I”,andtheomittedsubjectinsentencebisusually“You”.Thisisamatterofsentencecomprehensioninlanguagecomprehension.Psycholinguistshaveproposedprinciplesinterpreting;sentencecomprehensionwithrespecttothegrammaticalconstraints.Themostpopularprincipleis“Minimalattachment”whichdefines"structurallysimpler",anditclaimsthatstructuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.Inthisview,thesentenceprocessorconstructsasingleanalysisofasentenceandattemptstointerpretit.Thefirstanalysisistheonethatrequiresthefewestapplicationsofgrammaticalrulestoattacheachincomingwordintothestructurebeingbuilt;itistheautomaticconsequenceofanefforttogetsomeanalysisconstructedassoonaspossible.Inthefirstsentence,when“hope”asaverbisusedtoexpressthespeaker'sdesireandexpectationforsomethingtohappen,itconveysthewillofthespeaker.So,thesubjectof“hope”isusuallythespeakerher/himselfandcanbeomittedwhenthetwoaretalkingtoeachother.Whenthespeakerismakingastatementandusing“hope”toexpressother’swill,thesubjectwillnotbeomitted.Therefore,accordingto“minimalattachment”principle,whenthehearerinterpretsthissentence,theyautomaticallyinterpret“I”—thespeaker,asthesubjectof“hope”.Sentencebcanbesaidtobeanimperativesentencewhichisasentencethatgivesadviceorinstructionsorthatexpressesarequestoracommand.Thisinstructionorrequestisalwaysaimedtothehearerorthereader,sothesubjectofanimperativeisalways“you”.Whenthehearerinterpretthissentence,he/shewillinterprettheverb“imagine”asarequestoradvicethroughwhichthespeakertriestomakehe/sheinvolvedinthisaction,soitiseasierforhe/shetoconsider“you”asthesubject.Contextisanotherimportantfactorforpeopletounderstandthesubjects.Thesubjectswillbemoreclearinparticularcontextalthoughtheyareomitted.（本题可从心理语言学中的语言的理解的角度进行分析。根据心理学一些理论，人们在理解句子时，会遵循结构简单化原则。因此此题中，人们最倾向于把“我”当做第一句的主语，而把“你”当做第二句的主语。）79\n3.PleasebrieflyanswerthefollowingquestionINABOUT500WORDS:AnthropologicallinguistsE.SapirandB.Whorfclaimthatthelanguageapeopleuseshapestheirperspectiveofperception,whichinturnshapestheirthought.Thekeynotionsoftheirfamous“Sapir-WhorfHypothesis”include“languagedeterminism”and“languagerelativity”.Doyouknowanythingaboutthenotionsoftheirs?Ifyoudo,whatisyouropiniononit?Pleasebrieflyexpressyourideasinapassage.（四川大学2010研）本题答案WhorfattendedsomelinguisticcoursesgivenbySapiratYaleUniversityandfoundparticularresonancebetweenhisownideasandthoseofSapir.ThisexperienceandhisstudyofHopi,anAmericanIndianlanguage,helpedhimdevelophisuniqueunderstandingoflinguisticrelativity,whichiswidelyknownastheSAPIR-WHORFHYPOTHESES.Whatthishypothesissuggestsislikethis:ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Followingthisargument,twoimportantpointscouldbecapturedinthistheory.Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheother,similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.Fortwodifferentspeechcommunities,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.Forthisreason,thishypothesishasalternativelybeenreferredtoas“languagedeterminism”and“languagerelativity”.Nowadaysfewpeoplewouldpossiblytendtoaccepttheoriginalformofthistheorycompletely.Consequently,twoversionsoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesishavebeendeveloped,astrongversionandaweakversion.Thestrongversionofthetheoryreferstotheclaimtheoriginalhypothesissuggests,emphasizingthedecisiveroleoflanguageastheshaperofourthinkingpatterns.Theweakversionofthishypothesis,however,isamodifiedtypeofitsoriginaltheory,suggestingthatthereisacorrelationbetweenlanguage,culture,andthought,butthecross-culturaldifferencesthusproducedinourwaysofthinkingarerelative,ratherthancategorical.Ifwegoovertheliteratureconcerningthehypothesis,we’llsoondiscoverthatithasarousedalivelycontroversy.Whilesomeresearchersclaimtohavefoundreliableevidencetojustifyitsvalidity,otherssuggesttohaveobtainedenoughcounter-evidencetojeopardizeitsfeasibility.Facingasituationlikethis,wemustbecarefulanddonotrushtoanyhastyconclusionbeforewereallyobtainsomereliableevidencetosupportorrejectthehypothesis.Herearetwoexamplestakentoshowthecomplexityandcontroversyofthetheory.OneisquotedfromHopi,anAmericanNativelanguagespokeninArizona;theotheristakenfromDug-umDani,aPapuanlanguagespokeninthecentralhighlandsofIrianJaya.Asfarastheformerisconcerned,itservesasagoodexampletoshowhowlanguagesmaydifferfromeachother,possiblyprovidingsomepositiveevidencetosupportthehypothesis.Ontheotherhand,bylookingatthebasiccolorwordsysteminDanilanguagefromanevolutionaryperspective,we'llhaveanopportunitytogettoknowthatlinguisticrelativitymayequallymeetsomecross-culturalcounterexamples,achallengetothetheoryhenceformed.Recentdevelopmentsinlinguisticspredictthatlinguisticstudiesinthenewcenturywillbecomemorefruitfulifanevolutionary,cognitive,andinterdisciplinaryperspectiveistakeninitstheoreticpursuit.Meanwhile,additionalevidencehasbeencollectedtoconvincinglyshowthemomentumandfeasibilityoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesisindealingwithlinguisticdifferencesfromexoticcultures.Thesenewchangesnotonlybringmorevitalitytolinguisticsciencebutalsocallformoreeclecticisminitstheorizing.Followingthislineofargument,itseemsstillprematuretocompletelyrejecttheSapir-Whorfhypothesis.79\n第十章认知语言学Fillintheblanks1.________isthementalprocessofclassification,while________istheproductsoftheprecedingprocess.Categorization;Category范畴化是对人类经验进行分类的过程。范畴是范畴化的产物。2._____isanapproachtotheanalysisofnaturallanguagethatfocusesonlanguageasaninstrumentfororganizing,processing,andconveyinginformation.Cognitivelinguistics认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。3.Therearethreeaspectsinbasic-levelcategories:_______,_______and_______.Perception,communication,knowledgeorganization基本层次范畴的三方面：感知、交流、知识系统MultipleChoices1.Inthefollowingsentences,whichisnotametonymy?A.Thesaxhastheflutoday.B.WatergatechangedAmericanpolitics.C.WallStreetisinapanic.D.Sheistheappleinherparents’eyes.DD为暗喻，其他三句为转喻2.Whichisnotatypeoficonicity?A.IconicityofdistanceB.IconicityofcomplexityC.IconicityofintimacyD.IconicityoforderC象似性有距离象似性、复杂象似性、顺序象似性TrueorFalse1.Metonymyinvolvesusingthefamiliartostandfortheunfamiliar.（对外经贸2005研）T转喻是一种一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法2.Asane-wapproachtothestudyoflanguageandmind,popularlinguisticsbegantoappearinthe1970sandhasbeenincreasinglyactivesince1980s.F作为研究语言和思维的一种方法，认知语言学在20世纪70年代开始出现，从20世纪90年代就变得日益活跃ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.prototype2.conceptualmetonymy3.iconicity4.grammaticalization名词解释答案1.Prototype:whatmembersofaparticularcommunitythinkofasthebestexampleofalexicalcategory,e.g.forsomeEnglishspeakers“cabbage”(ratherthansay"carrot")mightbetheprototypicalvegetable.79\n2.Metonymyisacognitiveprocessinwhichonecognitivecategory,thesource,providesmentalaccesstoanothercognitivecategory,thetarget,withinthesamecognitivedomain,oridealizedcognitivemodel(ICM).3.Itisafeatureoflanguagewhichmeansthatthestructureoflanguagereflectsinsomewaythestructureofexperience,thatis,thestructureoftheworld,includingtheperspectiveimposedontheworldbythespeaker.4.Theprocesswherebyanindependentwordisshiftedtothestatusofagrammaticalelementiscalledgrammaticalization.Grammaticalizationbringsabouttypicalchangesinmeaningsandthedistributionofforms.Anothercharacteristicofgrammaticalizedformsisthattheconstraintsontheirgrammaticalusestendtoreflecttheirlexicalhistories.Anothertypicaloutcomeofgrammaticalizationisthedevelopmentofdifferenthistoricallevelsofnearlyequivalentforms.ShortAnswerQuestions1.Whatisthepurposeofstudyinglanguageandmind?（南开2004研）本题答案Thestudyoflanguageandmindaimstomodeltheworkingsofthemindinrelationtolanguage;forexampleyithelpsexplainhowthelanguageproductionandperceptionisachieved.Sincestructuresandconnectionsinthemindareinevitablyunobservable,researchersputforwardhypothesesbasedonfragmentaryclues.Thelabelmostusuallygiventothestudyof"languageandmind"ispsycholinguistics,atermwhichisoftenperceivedasbeingtrendy.Psycholinguisticsisconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructures.2.Whatarethefourassumptionsoftheclassicaltheory?本题答案Fourassumptions：Thefirstassumption:Categoriesaredefinedbyalimitedsetofnecessaryandsufficientconditions.Thesecondassumption:Featuresarebinary.Thethirdassumption:Categorieshaveclearboundaries.Thefourthassumption:Allmembersofacategoryhaveequalstatus.3.Explainthreelevelsofcategorization.本题答案Threelevelsofcategorization：(1)Superordinatelevelsmeanhigherlevelsormoregenerallevels.Furnitureandanimalareexamplesofsuperordinatecategorylevels.(2)Basic-levelcategoriesaremorespecific,butnottoospecific.Chairisanexampleofbasic-levelcategories.(3)Subordinatelevelsmeanlowerlevelsormorespecificcategories.Deskchairisanexampleofsubordinatecategories.79\n第十一章语言习得Fillintheblanks1.Thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoas________.（中山大学2008研）interlanguage中介语是再外语或第二语言学习中形成的2.Erroristhegrammaticallyincorrectform;________appearswhenthelanguageiscorrectgrammaticallybutimproperinacommunicationalcontext.（中山大学2008研）mistake是指在语法上正确但在交流语境中不恰当3.Inlearningasecondlanguage,alearnerwillsubconsciouslyusehisLIknowledge.Thisprocessiscalledlanguage________.transfer学习第二语言时不自觉地使用第一语言的过程叫语言移转4.Sucherrorsas“teached”and“womans”arecausedby________.secondlanguagelearners这些错误是第二语言习得者犯的MultipleChoice1.InKrashen'smonitortheory,“I”in“i+1”hypothesisofsecondlanguageacquisitionrefersto_______.A.interactionB.interferenceC.inputD.intake（对外经贸2006研）C克拉申的“监控理论”中有一种二语习得输入假说，他用i表示学习者现有水平，用1表示略高于的水平，这就是克拉申的“i+1”输入假说。1.Negativetransferinlearningasecondlanguageisknownas________.A.interferenceB.interlanguageC.fossilizationD.acculturationA语言学习者在学习第二语言时，难免受到母语的种种影响。其中有正面影响，称作正迁移，也有负面影响，称作负迁移或干扰。3._______seeserrorsastheresultoftheintrusionofLIhabitsoverwhichthelearnerhadnocontrol.A.erroranalysisB.performanceanalysisC.contrastiveanalysisD.discourseanalysisC对比分析是通过对比不同语言来确定潜在错误的方法，他将错误看做是受母语习惯的结果，并认为这是学习者无法控制的。TrueorFalse1.UniversalGrammarreferstotheprinciplesandpropertiesthatpertaintothegrammarsofallhumanlanguages.（对外经贸2005研）T普遍语法指符合所有人类语言特征的语法2.Allnormalchildrenhaveequalabilityinlearningtheirfirstlanguage.T乔姆斯基的语言习得机制解释了这一点。3.Itiseasyforparentstoteachtheirchildrengrammar.F79\n语法的获得一方面是语言掌握能力的提升，另一方面是语言表达能力的提高，孩子在十岁前很难掌握一些语法之间的细微差异。4.Theabilitytolearnasecondlanguageasanadultmayvaryconsiderablybetweenindividuals.T不同的个体有不同的学习环境，并且他们的学习能力也会受到学习动机和个人爱好的影响。ExplaintheFollowingTerms1.Interlanguage（对外经贸2006研）2.UniversalGrammar3.contrastiveanalysis4.ErrorAnalysis名词解释答案1.Interlanguage,referstothetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguage.It’salanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage,andimperfectcomparedwiththetargetlanguage,butnotmeretranslationfromthelearner'snativelanguage.Forexample,whentheChinesestudentislearningEnglish,hemaymakeerrorslike“totouchthesociety”.2.Universalgrammarisatheoryoflinguisticspostulatingprinciplesofgrammarsharedbyalllanguages,thoughttobeinnatetohumans(linguisticnativism).Itattemptstoexplainlanguageacquisitioningeneral,notdescribespecificlanguages.Universalgrammarproposesasetofrulesintendedtoexplainlanguageacquisitioninchilddevelopment.3.Contrastiveanalysisisanapproachtoanalysisofsecondlanguageacquisition,basedonabeliefthatamoreeffectiveteachingpedagogywouldcomeoutwhenthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweennativelanguageandtargetlanguagearetakenintoconsideration.Bysuchananalysis,itissupposedthatsomeleaningdifficultiescouldbepredictedintermsoflanguagetransfer.4.Errorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypothesesaboutthelanguagetobelearnt.TheyareworthfurtherprobingErrorAnalysisinvolves,firstindependentlyorobjectively,describingthelearners'interlanguage(thatis,theirversionofthetargetlanguageandthetargetlanguageitself),thenacomparisonofthetwoisfollowedtolocatemismatches.Differentfromcontrastiveanalysis,ErrorAnalysis,EAforshort,giveslessconsiderationtolearners9nativelanguage.TheprocedureofErrorAnalysisconsistsofthefollowingsteps:(1)Recognition(2)Description(3)ExplanationForexample,explanation:theabsenceofanitemthatmustappearinawell-formedutterance:e.g.Shesleeping.Typeoferror:Omissions.ShortAnswerQuestions1.Howdoyouunderstandinterlanguage?（上海交大2005研）本题答案Thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.nterlanguageisoften79\nunderstoodasalanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner'snativelanguage.Itisimperfectcomparedwiththetargetlanguage,butitisnotmeretranslationfromthelearner’snativelanguage.However,interlanguageshouldnotreallyheseenasabridginglanguagebetweenthetargetlanguageandnativelanguage.Interlanguageisadynamiclanguagesystem,whichisconstantlymovingfromthedepartureleveltothenative-likelevel.Therefore,"inter"actuallymeansbetweenthebeginningstageandthefinalstage.Therearemanyexamplesofinterlanguage,suchas/nohaveabookand/likereadbooks.(本题考察中介语)2.WhatismeantbyMove-ainUniversalGrammar?（西安交大2008研）本题答案Move-aruleisageneralmovementruleforallthemovementrules,accountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.Inthisrule,“a”isacovertermforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.Itgoeslikethis:anyelementmaybemovedtoanotherplace,ormoregenerallychangedinsomeway,aslongastherelevantconditions(principles)aresatisfied.Theseprinciplesreflectafactthatmovementisconstrained.Ithasbeenshownthatonlycertaincategoriesaretargetedbymovementrules,andthattherearelimitsonhowfarelementscanbemoved.Thatistosay,therearesomeotherconstraintrulesinthegrammaroperatinguponmovementssoastoruleoutungrammaticalforms,suchas“thekissedboygirl"and"waskissedthegirlbytheboy”.Itistheinteractionofmove-awithothersyntacticprinciplesthatresultsingrammaticalstrings.Forexample,itisresponsibleforthemappingbetweenactiveandpassive,whichisaNP-movement;betweenaffirmativeandinterrogative,whichisaWH-movement.3.WhatarethefourobviousbarrierstoadultL2acquisition?（浙江大学2004研）本题答案Avarietyofexplanationshavebeenputforwardfortheapparentdeclinedinadults:physicalfactorssuchasthelossof“plasticity”inthebrainand“lateralization”ofthebrain;socialfactorssuchasthedifferentsituationsandrelationshipsthatchildrenencountercomparedtoadults;cognitivefactorssuchastheinterferencewithnaturallanguagelearningbytheadult'smoreabstractmodeofthinking;andinputfactorsthatadultsspendonlyafewhourseachweekofschooltime,ratherthanviatheconstantinteractionexperiencedbyachild,withalotofotheroccupations.4.Pleasestatethefactorsthatcauseerrorsandmistakesinforeignlanguagelearning.（厦门大学2006研）本题答案Therearegenerallytwotypesoffactorsthatcauseerrorsandmistakesinforeignlanguagelearning,oneisinter-lingual,tracedtotheinfluenceofthemothertongue,theotherisintra-lingual,committedbylanguagelearnersregardlessoftheirLI.Insecondlanguagelearning,thelearnersattempttotransferthefeaturesoftheirmothertonguetothesecondlanguage.Whenthestructuresofthetwolanguagesaresimilar,wecangetpositivetransfer;whenthetwolanguagesaredifferentinstructures,negativetransferorinterferenceoccursandresultsinerrors.Notallerrorsarecausedbytheinterferenceofthemothertongue.Therearecasesthatthelearnerknowssomerulesofthetargetlanguagebutappliestheminthewrongplace.Errorsofovergeneralizationandhypercorrectionbelongtothistype.79\n5.Towhatextentissecondlanguagelearningsimilartofirstlanguagelearning?Canyoulistsomeprooffromyourownlearningexperiences?本题答案Theoreticallythenewfindingsandadvancesinfirstlanguageacquisitionespeciallyinlearningtheoriesandlearningprocessareilluminatinginunderstandingsecondlanguageacquisition.Thetechniquesusedtocollectandanalyzedatainfirstlanguageacquisitionalsoprovideinsightsandperspectivesinthestudyofsecondlanguageacquisition.Forexample,westartedtolearnournativelanguagefromlistening,thenspeaking.6.IdentifypersonalityfactorsthatmaycontributetotheSUCCESSoflearningasecond/foreignlanguage.本题答案Intermsofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalroles,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners.Certainpersonalitytraitsappearhelpfulincompletingcertaintasksinlearningasecondlanguage.7.Whatiscommunicativecompetence?Howshouldwedevelopitinourforeignlanguagelearning（四川大学2010研）本题答案Communicativecompetenceiswhatalearnerknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationsforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.Communicativecompetenceincludesknowledgeofthegrammarandvocabulary,knowledgeofrulesofspeaking,knowledgeofhowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypesofspeechactsandsocialconventions,andknowledgeofhowtouselanguageappropriately.Inordertodevelopcommunicativecompetenceinourforeignlanguagelearning,languagelearnersareencouragedtodealwithaccomplishingactions,whicharebelievedtohelpthemacquirethetargetlanguage.Twotypesoftasksareusuallyrequiredtobeperformedbythelearners:real-worldtasksandpedagogicaltasks.Forexample,studentsmaybeaskedtoworkordiscussingroups.Besides,teacherscanadoptthecommunicativesyllabuswhichaimsatthelearner'scommunicativecompetence.Itteachesthelanguageneededtoexpressandunderstanddifferentkindsoffunctions,andemphasizestheprocessofcommunication.EssayQuestions1.Commentonthefollowingstatementbasedonyourownexperience.“Knowingwordsisthekey,tounderstandingandbeingunderstood.Thebulkoflearningan