语言学资料(机密级) 13页

定义（Definition）Phonetics:Itisthescientificstudyofspeechsounds.Itstudieshowspeechsoundsarearticulated,transmitted,andreceived.Phonology:Itisthestudyofhowspeechsoundsfunctioninalanguage.Itstudiesthewaysspeechsoundsareorganized.Morphology:Itisthestudyoftheformationofwords.Itisabranchoflinguisticswhichbreakswordsintomorphemes.***Syntax:Itdealswiththecombinationofwordsintophrases,clausesandsentences.Itisthegrammarofsentenceconstruction.Semantics:Itisabranchoflinguisticswhichisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaninginallitsformalaspects.Wordshaveseveraltypesofmeaning.Asentenceneedstobewellformedbothsyntacticallyandsemantically.Pragmatics:Itcanbedefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuse.Itdealswithhowspeakersuselanguageinwayswhichcannotbepredictedfromlinguisticknowledgealone,andhowhearersarriveattheintendedmeaningofspeakers.Linguistics:Itcanbedefinedasthescientificorsystematicstudyoflanguage.Itisascienceinthesensethatitscientificallystudiestherules,systemsandprinciplesofhumanlanguages.Itdealswithawiderangeoflinguisticphenomena,analyzesthem,andmakesgeneralstatementsaboutthem.13\nLanguage:Itisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.术语翻译（termstranslation）13linguistics语言学philology语文学phonetics语音学phonology音位学morphology形态学syntax句法学semantics语义学pragmatics语用学sociolinguistics社会语言学psycholinguistics心理语言学macrolinguistics宏观语言学stylistics文体学textlinguistics文本语言学computationallinguistics计算语言学cognitivelinguistics认知语言学appliedlinguistics应用语言学language语言arbitrariness随意性duality二重性productivity创造性interchangeability互换性displacement位移性specialization特殊性culturaltransmission文化的传递性synchroniclinguistics共时语言学diachroniclinguistics历时语言学langue语言parole言语competence语言能力performance语言行为psychologicalconstruct心理构建13\nsyntagmaticrelations横组合关系paradigmaticrelations纵聚合关系functionalism功能主义formalism形式主义speechorgans发音器官articulatoryphonetics发声语音学acousticphonetics声学语音学auditoryphonetics听觉语音学articulators发音器官voicedsounds浊音voicelesssounds清音variationsofsounds音的变体elision省音assimilation同化phonemes音位minimalpairs最小对立体minimalsets最小集合freevariation自由变体distinctivefeatures区别特征syllables音节consonantclusters辅音丛suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征stress重音intonation语调freemorphemes自由词素boundmorphemes黏着词素compounding合成derivation派生conversion转类backformation逆构词clipping截短构词法blending混合acronym首字母拼音词initialism首字母拼写词wordclasses词类structuralanalysis结构分析immediateconstituentanalysis直接成分分析ideationalfunction意念功能interpersonalfunction人际功能13\ntextualfunction语篇功能namingtheory命名理论semantictriangle语义三角stimulusresponsetheory刺激反应论sense意义reference指称conceptualmeaning概念意义connotativemeaning内涵意义socialmeaning社会意义affectivemeaning情感意义reflectivemeaning反射意义collocativemeaning搭配意义thematicmeaning主位意义semanticfields语义场componentialanalysis成分分析homonymy同形异义polysemy一词多义homophony同音异形异义synonymy同义关系antonymy反义关系hyponymy上下义关系meronymy整体部分关系entailment蕴含关系presupposition前提关系inconsistency矛盾关系implicature暗含关系micropragmatics微观语用学deixis指示语anaphora回指macropragmatics宏观语用学iteratives重复词语cleftsentences断裂句locutionaryact言内行为illocutionaryact言外行为perlocutionaryact言后行为theCooperativePrinciple合作原则conversationalimplicatures会话含意thePolitenessPrinciple礼貌原则giveninformation已知信息newinformation新信息13\ntopic话题comment述题contrast对比cohesion衔接substitution替代ellipsis省略conjunction连词lexicalcohesion词汇衔接coherence连贯discoursemarkers话语标记adjacency相邻对preferencestructure优选结构presequences前序列languagevarieties语言的变体standardlanguage标准方言dialects方言registers语域pidgins洋泾浜creoles克里奥耳语linguafranca共通语languageplanning语言规划diglossia双言bilingualism双语制multilingualism多语制code-switching语码转换linguistictaboos语言禁忌euphemisms委婉语categorization范畴化prototypetheory典型理论levelsofcategorization范畴的层次conceptualmetaphor概念隐喻conceptualdomain概念域targetdomain目标域sourcedomain始发域；原域conceptualmetonymy概念转喻figuresandground图形与背景theframeandattentionapproach框架与注意iconicity象似性grammaticalization语法化lexicalchangeandprototypicality词汇演变languageacquisition语言习得13\nthebehavioristapproach行为主义方法theinnatenessapproach天赋取向法secondlanguageacquisition二语习得contrastiveanalysis对比分析erroranalysis错误分析interlanguange中介语fossilization语言停滞/僵化languageaptitude语言学能cognitivestyle认知风格fielddependence场依赖fieldindependence场独立personalitytraits个性特征introversion内向extroversion外向learningstrategies学习策略13辅音描述（consonantsdescription）BilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopsVLptkVDbdgFricativesVLfθsʃhVDvδzʒAffricatesVL(tʃ)tʃVD(dʒ)dʒNasalsVDmnŋLiquidsVDl,rGlidesVDwj重要概念区分（majorconceptiondistinguish）1.synchronicanddiachroniclinguisticsLanguagecanbestudiedatagivenpointintimeorovertime.Whenwestudylanguageatoneparticulartime,itiscalledsynchroniclinguistics.Whenwestudylanguagedevelopments13\nthroughtime,itiscalleddiachronicorhistoricallinguistics.Synchroniclinguisticsfocusesonthestateoflanguageatanypointinhistorywhilediachroniclinguisticsfocusesonthedifferencesintwoormorethantwostatesoflanguageoverdecadesorcenturies.1.langueandparoleLanguereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolereferstoparticularrealizationsoflangue.Langueisthesocial,conventionalsideoflanguage,whileparoleisindividualizedspeech.Langueisthecode,andparoleisthemessage.2.competenceandperformanceCompetencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations,whileperformancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.3.syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsTheformerreferstothehorizontalrelationshipbetweenlinguisticelements,whichformlinearsequences.Thelattermeanstheverticalrelationshipbetweenforms,whichmightoccupythesameparticularplaceinastructure.4.functionalismandformalismFunctionalismreferstothestudyoftheformsoflanguagein13\nreferencetotheirsocialfunctionincommunication.Itconsiderstheindividualasasocialbeingandinvestigatesthewayinwhichshe/heacquireslanguageandusesitinordertocommunicatewithothersinherorhissocialenvironment.Formalismorformallinguisticsisthestudyoftheabstractformsoflanguageandtheirinternalrelations.Itfixesontheformsoflanguagesasevidenceoftheuniversalswithoutconsideringhowtheseformsfunctionincommunicationandthewaysofsociallifeindifferentcommunities.画树形图（drawtreediagrams）回答问题（answerthequestions）1.Q:DesignfeaturesoflanguageA:(ⅰ)arbitrariness:Thisreferstothefactthatthereisnologicalorintrinsicconnectionbetweenaparticularsoundandthemeaningitisassociatedwith.(ⅱ)duality:Itoperatesontwolevelsofstructure.Atonelevelareelementswhichhavenomeaninginthemselvesbutwhichcombinetoformunitsatanotherlevelwhichdohavemeaning.Thisorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels—alevelofsoundswhichcombineintoasecondleveloflargerunits—iscalleddualityordoublearticulation.13\n(ⅲ)productivity:Thisreferstoman’slinguisticabilitywhichenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage,includingthesentenceswhichwereneverheardbefore.(ⅳ)interchangeability:Thisreferstothefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessages,andhisrolesasaspeakerandahearercanbeexchangedatease.(ⅴ)displacement:Itisapropertyoflanguageenablingpeopletotalkaboutthingsremoteeitherinspaceorintime.Byvirtueofthisfeaturemancantalkaboutevents,locations,andobjectswhicharefarremovedfromthepresenttimeandcontext.(ⅵ)specialization:Itreferstothefactthatmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.(ⅶ)culturaltransmission:Languageisculturallytransmitted.Itcannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.Ahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirelanguage.1.Q:TheCooperativePrincipleA:TheCooperativePrincipleisasetofassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation.Itsmaxims:TheMaximofQualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue,i.e.13\n(ⅰ)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;(ⅱ)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.TheMaximofQuantity(ⅰ)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange);(ⅱ)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.TheMaximofRelationBerelevant.TheMaximofMannerBeperspicuous,i.e.(ⅰ)Avoidobscurityofexpression;(ⅱ)Avoidambiguity;(ⅲ)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity);(ⅳ)Beorderly.1.Q:CohesionandcoherenceA:Cohesionisanimportantfieldofstudyindiscourseanalysis.Itreferstothegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofadiscourse.Thekeytotheconceptofcoherenceisnotsomethingwhichexistsinthelanguage,butsomethingwhichexistsinpeople.Itispeoplewho“makesense”ofwhattheyreadandhear.Theytrytoarriveataninterpretation13\nwhichisinlinewiththeirexperienceofthewaytheworldis.1.Q:IndividualdifferencesinL2acquisitionA:a.languageaptitude;b.cognitivestyle:fielddependenceandfieldindependence;c.personaltraits;d.learningstrategies.2.Q:SynonymyandantonymyA:a.dialectalsynonyms;b.stylisticsynonyms;c.synonymsthatdifferinemotiveandevaluativemeaning;d.collocationalsynonyms;e.gradableantonymy;f.complementaryantonymy;g.converseantonymy.3.Q:SemanticmeaningA:a.meaningasnaming;b.meaningasconcept;c.meaningasbehavior;d.meaningascontext;e.meaningastruthconditions;4.Q:DiscourseanalysisA:Itisthestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguage13\nformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.Indiscourseanalysisoneoftheprimarytasksistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourses.开放话题（openquestions）Linguistics isthe scientific studyofhuman language.Linguisticscanbebroadlybrokenintothreecategoriesorsubfieldsofstudy:languageform,languagemeaning,andlanguageincontext.Theearliestknown descriptivelinguistics activitiesaresaidtohavebeen Panini's Ashtadhyayi around500BCEwiththeanalysisof Sanskrit.Thefirstsubfieldoflinguisticsisthestudyoflanguagestructure,or grammar.Thisfocusesonthesystemofrulesfollowedbythespeakers(orhearers)ofalanguage.Itencompasses morphology (theformationandcompositionofwords), syntax (theformationandcompositionofphrasesandsentencesfromthesewords),andphonology (soundsystems). Phonetics isarelatedbranchoflinguisticsconcernedwiththeactualpropertiesofspeechsoundsandnon-speechsounds,andhowtheyareproducedandperceived.Thestudyoflanguage meaning isconcernedwithhowlanguagesemploylogicalstructuresandreal-worldreferencestoconvey,process,andassignmeaning,aswellastomanageand13\nresolve ambiguity.Thissubfieldencompasses semantics (howmeaningisinferredfromwordsandconcepts)and pragmatics (howmeaningisinferredfromcontext).Linguisticsinitsbroadercontextincludes evolutionarylinguistics,whichconsiderstheoriginsoflanguage;historical,whichexploreslanguagechange; sociolinguistics,whichlooksattherelationbetweenlinguisticvariationandsocialstructures; psycholinguistics,whichexplorestherepresentationandfunctionoflanguageinthemind; neurolinguistics,whichlooksatlanguageprocessinginthebrain; languageacquisition,howchildrenoradultsacquirelanguage;and discourseanalysis,whichinvolvesthestructureoftextsand conversations.Althoughlinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,anumberofotherintellectualdisciplinesarerelevanttolanguageandintersectwithit. Semiotics,forexample,isthegeneralstudyofsignsandsymbolsbothwithinlanguageandwithout. Literarytheorists studytheuseoflanguagein literature.Linguisticsadditionallydrawsonandinformsworkfromsuchdiversefieldsas acoustics, anthropology, biology, computerscience, humananatomy, informatics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, sociology,and speech-languagepathology.13