语言学复习定稿 12页

第一章语言学导论语言语言的定义（P2）语言的特点语言的起源摹声说感叹说杭育说语言学（P14）语言学定义语言学分支（理论分法）音系学形态学句法学语用学语言学重要区分（P19）共时与历时语言与言语语言能力与语言应用Language:asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Designfeaturesofhumanlanguage:lArbitrariness(任意性):~referstotheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(soundsandmeanings)lDuality（二层性）:Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.lProductivity/Creativity(创造性):Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.lDisplacement(移位性):HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atmomentofcommunication.(p7)TheoriesonlanguageoriginThefollowingsarereferencedtothetextbooklThe“bow-wow”TheoryOnomatopoeiaseemstobeaconvincingevidenceofthetheory.Buthowtoexplainthosedon’tsoundliketheoriginalsoundsinthewildenvironment?lThe“pooh-pooh”TheoryInthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.Butthereisonlyalimitednumberofinterjectionsinalmostalllanguages.AndsomeinterjectionslikeOh,Ahbearlittlerelationshipwiththesoundsystemofalanguage.\nlThe“yo-he-ho”TheoryWhentheprimitivepeopleworkedhard,theyproducedsomerhythmicalgrunts.ThefollowingsarereferencedtoPPTlDivine-originTheoryAccordingtotheBible,“InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.”(GospelofJohn,1:1)lTheinventiontheory:lTheevolutionary:Languageevolveswithinspecifichistorical,socialandculturalcontexts.LinguisticLinguisticisthescientificstudyoflanguage.ThebranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics:whichincludesthreelevels:Articulatoryphonetics,Acousticphonetics,Auditoryphonetics.Phonology:therulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables)Morphology:Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaningandword-formationprocesses.Syntax:therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics:themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse----Pragmatics)Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextthestudyoftheuseofsignsandtherelationshipbetweensignsandtheirusers.SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsDescriptivevs.Prescriptive描写与规定lDescriptive(描写/述性)—describeandanalyzelinguisticfactsorthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)lPrescriptive(规定性)—laydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar:“neveruseadoublenegative”)Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时与历时lSynchronicstudy(共时)—descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(e.g.modernlinguistics)lDiachronicstudy(历时)—descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime(e.g.historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)Languevs.Parole语言与言语lLangueTheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.lParoleTherealizationoflanguageinactualuseCompetencevs.performance语言能力与语言应用lCompetence—Theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.lPerformance—Theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.\n第二章语音发音辅音定义（P29）发音位置与方式。塞音擦音赛擦音双唇音唇齿音齿间音音系学音位（P39）音位变体音的同化（P42）超音段特征音节（P49）PronunciationConsonantsThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulationstops/plosives:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];fricatives:[f],[v],[s],[z],[W],[T],[F],[V],[h];affricates:[tF],[dV];bilabial:[p],[b],[m],[w];labiodental:[f],[v];dental:[W],[T];PhonologyPhonemeandAllophoneAphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisthesmallestdistinctiveunitinthesoundsystemofalanguage.e.g.tea;tooAllophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.AssimilationAssimilation----aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofa\nneighboringsound,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolar[In]inconceivablevelar[IN]inputbilabial[Im]ExerciseassimilationrulesVoicedfricative→voiceless/voicelessThisisaphonologicalrule:→“becomes”/“intheenvironmentof”___“focusbar:thelocationofthechangeorthepositionofthetargetsegment”Therulereads:voicedfricativesaretransformedintovoicelessfricativesbeforevoicelesssegments.Howtoreadthefollowingrules?1A→B/____CAbecomesBbeforeC2A→B/C_____AbecomesBafterC3A→B/C_____DAbecomesBbetweenCandDnasalizationdentalizationandvelarizationNasalizationrule[-nasal]→[+nasal]/_____[+nasal]Dentalizationrule\n[-dental]→[+dental]/_____[+dental]Velarizationrule[-velar]→[+velar]/_____[+velar]SyllableAncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Opensyllable:bar,tieClosedsyllable:bard,tiedEnglishSyllable:(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:(C)V(C)e.g.“split”,“sixths”and“prompts”.“您好，请问河南工业大学在哪里？”第三章词汇词的分类（P58）可变化词和不可变化词语法词汇和词汇词封闭类词和开放类词词类助词助动词\n代词限定词语素语素的定义语素类型自由语素和黏着语素词根，词缀和词干曲折词缀和派生词缀曲折变化和词的形成P73l曲折变化l词的形成（P73）n复合n派生n其他u合成u缩略u逆构词法ClassificationofwordsVariableandinvariablewordsVariablewords:write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats. Invariablewords:since,when,seldom,through,etc.GrammaticalandlexicalwordsGrammatical/Functionwords:conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns. Lexical/Contentwords:nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.Closed-classwordsandopen-classwordsClosed-classwords:Newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,egpronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries. Open-classwords:Newmemberscanbeadded,egnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs. beatnik,hacker,email,internet,“做秀，玉米，雷人……”inChinese.WordclassWordclass:knownasPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Somenewtermsinwordclass: Particle:infinitiveto,negativenot,subordinateunitsinphrasalverbs“getby”,“lookback”,etc. Auxiliary:do,have,can,will,may,must,etc.Pro-forms:substitutesforotherterms.Pronoun:he,she,I,they,everyone Pro-adjective:Yourcarisred.Soishis. Pro-verb:HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedid. Pro-adverb:HehopestowinandIhopesotoo. Pro-locative:Hewentthere.\nDeterminer:allthearticles,demonstratives,andquantifiersthatappearbeforethenounanditsmodifiers. Asmanyasthreedeterminersmaybeusedineachcaseandthereisafixedorderwhenthereismorethanone.MorphemesMorphemes:Thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Freevs.Boundmorphemes:Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.Root,affixandstemRoot:thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,egfriendasinunfriendliness.Rootsmaybefree:thosethatcanstandbythemselves,egblack+board;nation+-al;orbound:thosethatcannotstandbythemselves,eg-ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive.Affix:acollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Normallydividedintoprefix(dis-,un-)suffix(-en,-ify)infix(goose/geese)Stem:Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemetowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.egfriendship+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.Thisshowsastemcanbeequivalenttoarootormaycontainarootandone,ormorethanone,derivationalaffix.Noticethedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffix希望多留心下曲折变化和派生词法，容易混淆。Wordformation(thefollowingswerereferredinclass)CompoundTwoormorefreerootscombinetomakeanewword.Nouncompounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerbcompounds:brainstorm,lipread,babysitAdjectivecompounds:gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfreePrepositioncompounds:into,throughoutBlending~istocreateawordbycombiningpartsoftwoalreadyexistingwords.\nsmoke+fog→smogbreakfast+lunch→brunchchinese+english→chinglishmodulator+demodulator→modemAcronym~ismadeupfromthefirstlettersofwordgroupsinscience,politics,andotherspecialfields.VOAUNESCOWTOAidsInvention/CoinageMostlybrandnames:Kodak,Coke,nylon,Band-aid,Xerox,LycraBackformation,aprocessoppositetoaffixation,providesnewwordsbysubstractingpartoftheoldwordthatismistakenforanaffix.Itiscreatedoftenfrommereignorance.peddler→peddlelaser→laseeditor→editair-conditioning→air-conditiontelevision→televise第四章句法向心和离心结构（P89）递归性（P101）EndocentricandExocentricConstructionsEndocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead. Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup,usuallyincluding:thebasicsentence, theprepositionalphrase, thepredicate(verb+object)construction,and theconnective(be+complement)construction.Endocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof“akindof”;egself-control:akindofcontrolarmchair:akindofchair\nExocentric:thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof“akindofsomething”,egscarecrow:notakindofcrowbreakneck:notakindofneckRecursivenessRecursivenessmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,andalsoithasbecomeanumbrellatermofimportantlinguisticphenomenasuchascoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatactic.第五章意义指称论（P105）语义三角涵义关系（P108）同义关系反义关系等级反义关系互补反义关系反向反义关系上下义关系SenseandReferenceSense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.OgdenandRichards:semantictriangleProposedbyOgden&Richardsintheir“TheMeaningofMeaning”in1923.Theysawtherelationshipbetweenthewordandthethingitreferstoisnotdirect.It’smediatedbyconcept.SenseRelationsSynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms. 1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline… 2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,\ncommence;…3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,… 4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…AntonymyGradableantonymy----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,… Complementaryantonymy----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,… Converseantonymy(relationalopposites)----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,…Hyponymy----thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate上坐标词:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms下义词:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Superordinate:flower Hyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,… Superordinate:furniture Hyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,…第八章语言的使用言语行为理论（P186）发话行为行事行为取效行为会话含义理论合作原则数量质量关系方式准则的违反SpeechacttheorySpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”CooperativePrincipleFourmaximsofCP\nThemaximofquantity----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.----Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofquality----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.----Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofrelation----Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner----Avoidobscurityofexpression.----Avoidambiguity.----Bebrief.----Beorderly.Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。>Idon’twanttotellyouwhatIbought.DearSir,Mr.X’scommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.Yours>Mr.Xisnotsuitableforthejob.A:Yourkidbrokethewindow.B:Boysareboys.>BoysarenaughtyWariswar.>Wariscruel2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.>Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.Atapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“I’mRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried…”>Iaminterestedinyouandhowaboutyou.A:WhereisTom?B:Hehasgonetothelibrary.Hesaidsowhenheleft.>IamnotsureandIdonotbelievewhathesaid.Violationofthemaxims(quality)1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.\nYouarethecreaminmycoffee.Xrunsasfastasadeer.Heismadeofiron.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.----A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?----B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.I’mafraidIhavetoprepareforit.----A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?----B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltonight.Violationofthemaxims(relation)Berelevant.A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag.B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear.>Idon’twanttotalkaboutProf.Wang.----A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.----B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?----A:Whattimeisit?----B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.>Itishalfpastsix.Violationofthemaxims(manner)1.AvoidobscurityofexpressionA:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.>Don’tgivethemchocolate.2.AvoidambiguityA:Nameandtitle,please?B:JohnSmith,AssociateEditorandprofessor.Cf:买一赠一。3.BebriefA:Didyougetmyassignment?B:Ireceivedtwopagesclippedtogetherandcoveredwithrowsofblacksquiggles.>notsatisfied.