英语语言学笔记2 10页

ChapterⅢLexiconChapterⅢLexicon3.1Definitionofword3.1.1Wordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitswhichcanoccuronitsowninspeechorwriting.ItcanbeintuitivelyrecognizedbyNativeSpeakers.Questionsfordiscussion:1.Istheabovedefinitiontenable?Why?1.1 LexicologyThetermlexicologycontainstwoGreekmorphemes:lexiconandlogie.Theformermeanswordandthelattermeanslearningorthestudyof.TheliteralmeaningofthetermisthescienceofwordsLexicologyisthebranchoflinguisticsconcernedwiththestudyofthevocabularyofagivenlanguage.Itdealswithwords,theirorigin,development,history,structure,meaningandapplication.Inshort,itisthestudyofthesignificationandapplicationofwords.3.1.2ThreesensesofwordØAphysicallydefinableunit:spacesinwritingandpausesinspeechThereisaproblemwhenliaisonandcontractedformoccur,asin:It’swonderful./itswΛndәfәl/ØAlexeme:thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersimilarunits.e.g.WRITE:write,writes,wrote,writing,writtenØAgrammaticalunit:arankbetweenmorphemeandwordgroupinagrammaticalhierarchy.(Overlapwithmorpheme)3.2ClassificationofwordsØInflectiveendings:variableandinvariableWordslikefollow,matarevariable,seldom,helloareinvariable.ØMeaning:grammatical(function)andlexical(content)Functionwordsareconj.prep.art.;contentwordsaren.v.a.adv.etc.ØMembershiplimit:openclassandclosedclass(prepquiteopen)9\nChapterⅢLexiconØFunction(wordclass,partsofspeech):n.pron.v.a.adv.prep.conj.etc.ØNewcategories:Particles(to,not),auxiliaries(can,be,will,have,do),pro-form(pro-adj,pro-verb,pro-adv,pro-locative),determiners(pre-,central,post-)3.3Wordformation3.3.1MorphemeØDefinition:thesmallestmeaningfulunitinalanguage.ØTypesofmorphemes·Capacityofoccurringalone:freeandboundForexample,inspeaker,speakisafreemorphemewhile-erisbound.·Partinaword:root,affixandstemArootisthebasicpartofaword,whichmayoccuronitsown.Itcanbeaboundmorpheme(-ceive,-mit,-tain,-cur).Arootmayalsohaveboundvariants(slept,children)Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Astemisthepartofawordthatiscommontoallitsinflectedvariants.Affixesareusedtoaddtoanothermorpheme,rootorstemtoformnewwords.Theyaregenerallyclassifiedintothree:prefix,suffixandinfix(position)orinflectionalandderivationalaffix(newlexemes)Forexample,nationistheroot,inter-and–alareaffixesandnationalisthestem.3.3.2MorphologyØDefinition:thestudyofmorphemesandtheirdifferentforms(allomorphs),andthewaytheycombineinwordformation.Therearetwofieldsmorphologyconcerns:inflectionandwordformation.ØInfection:withnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase.e.g.number:table/tablesperson,finiteness,aspect:talk/talks/talking/talked,case:boy/boy’sØWordformation:compoundandderivation·Compound(freemorpheme+freemorpheme)e.g.daybreak,heartfelt,into,breakthrough·Derivation(freemorpheme+affixes)e.g.nation-al,fool-ish,work-er,dis-card3.4Morphonologyormorphonemics3.4.1.Definition:Morphophonologyormorphophonemicsisthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenphonologyandmorphology.9\nChapterⅢLexicononemorphemenumberofphonemesexamplesmono-phonemedogs,tellerbi-phonemewatches,wantedmonosyllablelove-lysyllable+phonemeteller,watchespolysyllablefa-mi-lyTable3Thecounterpointofmorphemeandphoneme3.4.2Allomorph:avariantofamorphemeincertaininstances,e.g.thechangeinformsofthepluralitymorpheme–s:boys,boxes,andchildren.3.4.3MorphologicalprocessLikeaphonologicalprocess,amorphologicalprocessinvolvesthechangeoftheshapeofamorphemeconditionedbyphonologicalormorphologicalfactors.ØPhonologicallyconditionede.g.injustice/infirmvs.imperfect/impossibleØmorphologicallyconditionede.g.boxesvs.oxen(cf.boysvs.books,booksvs.boxes)3.5Lexicalchange3.5.1Lexicalchangeproper(vocabulary)ØInvention:Kodak,Coke,nylonØBlending:twowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalorinitialpartofthesecond.e.g.smog(smoke+fog),modem(modulator+demodulator)ØAbbreviation:ad(advertisement),plane(aeroplane)ØAcronym:madeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganizationorscientificterms.e.g.WTO,UNESCO,Aids,radarØBack-formation:whereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.e.g.edit(edit),lase(laser)ØAnalogy:thiscanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.e.g.worked(wrought),slayed(slew)ØBorrowing:atom(Greek),cancer(Latin),entail(French),hamburger(German),kung-fu(China)3.5.2Phonologicalchange(pronunciation)ØLossofsound:night(niht),laboratoryØAddition:rapscallionØMetathesis(alterationinsequence):ask(ax),bird(brid)ØAssimilation:impolite,illegal,irrevocable(variantsofin-)9\nChapterⅢLexicon3.5.3Morphologicalchange(inflection)ØThirdpersonsingularformsofverbs:does(doeth),goes(goeth),has(hath)ØPluralformsofnouns:seeds(seedes),ways(wayes)ØPossessivecase:theuniversity’scampus(thecampusoftheuniversity)3.5.4Syntacticalchange(syntax)ØSingularcomparative:gladder(moregladder)ØNegation:Hedidnotseeyou.(Hesawyounot)ØPostponedprepositions:Thatpersonisimpossibletoworkwith.ØObjectivecaseofrelativenoun:Thegirlwho(m)hesawisadoctor.ØPhrasalstructure:equallyasgood(equallygood+justasgood)ØSententialstructure:Thereisnousegettingtherebeforenine.(There’snouseingetting…+It’snousegetting…)3.5.5Semanticchange(meaning)ØBroadening(specifictogeneral):e.g.bird(youngbird,anykindofbird),task(taximposed,apieceofwork)ØNarrowing(generaltospecific):e.g.hound(dog,aspecialkindofdog),deer(beast,aparticularkindofanimal),knight(youth,amedievalgentlman-soldier)ØMeaningshift:asaresultofitsmetaphoricalusagee.g.bead(prayer,prayerbead,andsmallball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwood)ØClassshift:zero-derivationorconversioneg.toplan(n.),toengineer(n.),tohog(n.)ØFolketymology:resultingfromanincorrectnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliarterms.e.g.cockroach(cucaracha),sparrowgrass(asparagus)3.5.6Orthographicchange(spelling)Sincewritingisarecordingofthesoundsystem,phonologicalchangeswillnodoubtsetoffgraphiticchanges.e.g.sun(sunne),Jesus(Iesus),sat(sate)Questionsfordiscussion:1.HowdoesChineselexiconchange?Giveexamples.2.Whatreasonsareresponsiblefordisappearanceofwords?9\nChapterⅢLexicon(TheendofChapterⅢ)ChapterⅣSyntaxThewordsyntax,derivedoriginallyfromGreek,ismadeupoftwomorphemes:｛syn｝and｛tax｝.Theformermeans“together”,andthelatter“toarrange”,hencetheliteralmeaning“asettingouttogether”or“arrangement”.Inlinguistics,itreferstothestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.4.1Thetraditionalapproach4.1.1Centralidea:Asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Therefore,thetraditionalapproachinvolvesagreatdealofstudyoftheword,suchas,partsofspeech,andwordfunctions.4.1.2Category:thedefiningpropertiesofunitslikenounandverb.ØNoun(pronoun)category·number:I(singular)/we(plural),abook/somebooks,HespeaksEnglish./TheyspeakEnglish.·gender:his(masculine)/her(feminine),actor/actress·case:nominative(I),accusative(me),vocative(Oh,mygod.),genitive(my),dative(Igaveabooktohim.),ablative(Heopenedthedoorwithakey.)ØVerbcategory·tense:present,past,future·aspect:simple,progressive,perfect·voice:active,passiveQuestionsfordiscussion:1.Arethereanyothernumbers,gendersorcases?2.Whatarepossibledisadvantagesofthetraditionalapproach?4.1.3ConcordandgovernmentØConcord(alsoagreement):therequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories,e.g.thisman/thesemen.ØGovernment(casecontrol):atypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstructions.Forexample,inShegavehimabook.,gavedemandsanaccusativehim.4.2Thestructuralapproach9\nChapterⅢLexicon4.2.1Centralidea:Linguisticunitsareinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(orsystem),notasisolatedbits.4.2.2SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsØSyntagmaticrelations:arelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenallelementswhichareallpresent,suchastherelationbetweenweatherandtheothersinthefollowingsentence:Iftheweatherisnice,we’llgoout.ØParadigmaticrelations:arelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.Forexample,inthecontextTheissmiling,possibleelementsoccurringhereareboy,girl,man,etc.thesewordsaresaidtobeinaparadigmaticrelation.Questionsfordiscussion:1.Whataretheconditionsthewordsinasyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations?4.2.3Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICAnalysis)ØBasicconcepts·construction:asyntacticstructure,e.g.aphrase,aclause,asentence·constituent:anelementofaconstruction·immediateconstituent:aconstituentdirectlybelowthelevelofaconstruction·ultimateconstituent:thelastlevelofconstituentsForinstance,poorJohnandranawayaretheimmediateconstituentsoftheconstructionPoorJohnranaway.PoorandJohnaretheimmediateconstituentsofpoorJohn,andranandawaytheICsofranaway.Thefourwordsarealltheultimateconstituentsofthesentence.ØICAnalysis:theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitICs-wordgroups,whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirownandtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.Theanalysismaybecarriedoutwithbracketsas:((Poor)(John))((ran)(away))Itmayalsobemoreeasilyshownwithatreediagram:PoorJohnranawayFigure6AtreediagramforICAnalysisØAdvantages:structuredemonstratedclearlyastorevealpotentialambiguitiesThephrasemoreexpensiveclothesmayimply(a)clothesaremoreexpensive,and(b)expensiveclothesaremore.ThisambiguitywillbeshownbyalabeledtreediagramasinFigure7onthenextpage.ØProblems9\nChapterⅢLexicon·Binarydivisionsarenotalwayspossible,astherewillbeathree-waydivision,asinmenandwomenandleavethebookontheshelf.·Discontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagrams,saymakeitupandtheloveofGod.moreexpensiveclothesmoreexpensiveclothesAdjAdjNAdvAdjNNPAPNPNPFigure7AlabeledtreediagramQuestionsfordiscussion:1.Compareandcontrastthetraditionalandstructuralapproaches.2.IsitpossibletosolvetheproblemsofICAnalysis?Howorwhy?4.3ThegenerativeapproachBythegenerativeapproachwemeantheparticulartypeoflinguistictheoryoriginatedwiththeAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky.Histheoryhasundergoneanumberofchangeseversinceitsfirstappearancein1957.4.3.1DeepandsurfacestructuresMorphophonemiccomponentTransformationalcomponentPhrasestructurecomponentdeepsurfacestructurestructureFigure8SyntacticStructures1957ØDeepstructuremaybedefinedasabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,whilesurfacestructureisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction.ØThephrasestructurecomponenthasphrasestructurerulesasfollowsSNP+VP,VPV+NP,NPDet+N,etc.ØThetransformationalcomponenthastransformationalrulestochangethedeepstructuresgeneratedbythephrasestructurecomponentintosurfacestructure.ØThemorpho-phonemiccomponentisresponsibleforthecorrectspellingandpronunciationofthewordinthesurfacestructure.4.3.2ThestandardtheoryTransformationalcomponentBasecomponentCategorieslexicondeepsurfacestructurestructrure9\nChapterⅢLexiconPhonologicalcomponentSemanticcomponentFigure9Thestandardtheory1965ØAsemanticcomponentisadded,whichisanaturaldevelopmentinthattheidealspeaker-hearer’sknowledgeofhislanguageinevitablyincludeshisknowledgeaboutmeaning.ØThebasecomponentandthetransformationalcomponenttogethermakeupthesyntacticcomponent.4.3.3TheextendedstandardtheoryThestandardtheorygetsextendedasevidencearisesthat:ØTheprinciplethattransformationsdonotchangemeaningcannotbeheldwiththepassivetransformation.ØSurfacestructurealsohassomebearingonsemanticinterpretations.TransformationalcomponentBasecomponentCategorieslexicondeepsurfacestructurestructrurePhonologicalcomponentSemanticcomponentFigure10Theextendedstandardtheory19724.4Thefunctionalapproach4.4.1FunctionalsentenceperspectiveØOnemainideaofthePragueschool:Asentencemaybeanalyzedfromthefunctionalsideaswellasthegrammaticalside.ØTheme(startingpoint)andrheme(core)·Themerefersto“thatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceeds”.·Rhemerefersto“whatthespeakerstatesabout,orinregardto,thestartingpointoftheutterance”.Forexample,inthefollowingtwosentences,intheshopandmyfatherarethemesandtherestelementsarerhemes.Intheshipsityoungapprentices.(Subjectiveorder)Myfatherwrotealettertome.(Objectiveorder)ØCommunicationdynamism(CD)ByCDFirbasmeans“theextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthecommunication”.CDanalysisassignsvariousdegreesofthematicity,orrhematicity,todifferentsentenceelements.9\nChapterⅢLexicon4.4.2Systemic-functionalgrammarThelinguistictheoryhasbeendevelopedbytheBritishbornAustralianlinguistM.A.K.Halliday.Ithastwocharacteristics:systemicandfunctionalApproachesTraditional(rules)Structural(tree)Generative(machine)Functional(program)DevelopmentfirstGreek,laterLatin,andthentootherlanguagesSaussure1916Language1933Proposed1957,StandardTheory1965,Extended1972AnIntroductiontoFunctionalGrammar(1985)RepsSaussure,BloomfieldChomskyHalliday,SimonCentralideas(Importantconcepts)SeealllanguagesintermsofLatincategorieslanguageasaself-containedstructuralsystem,Accountforallthepotentialsentencesinalanguagethefunctionalrelationshipsofitselements,andthesystemsResearchmethodPrescriptive,parsingDescriptiveandsynchronicICanalysisexplanativeDeep/surfacestructuresDescriptive,functionalResearchsubjectRulesofcorrectnessStructuretransformationalrulescommunicativefunctionsContributionsSentence,partsofspeech,hierarchicalexplanativeLanguageandcommunicationLimitationsLinearStructuralambiguityIdealized,abstractØTheSYSTEMICpartcomesdirectlyfromFirth,meaninglanguageelementsformintosystems.Theuseoflanguageinvolvesanetworkofsystemsofchoices.Theitemsinasystemareinchoicerelationwitheachother(paradigmaticrelations).ØByFUCTIONAL,Hallidaymeanslanguageisasocialphenomenon,andthusshouldbestudiedinrelationtothefunctionsitperforms.ØThreegeneralfunctionsoflanguage:·ideational:toexpresstherealworldandinnerworld·interpersonal:toestablishandmaintainsocialrelations·textual:toenablethespeakerorwritertoconstruct“texts”4.5AComparisonofthefourapproachesTable4AComparisonoffourapproachestosyntaxQuestionsfordiscussion:1.Whichofthefourapproachesisthebestinyourview?2.HowhavethefourapproachesinfluencedourEnglishteachingandlearning?9\nChapterⅢLexicon(TheendofChapterⅣ)9