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一.名词解释Chapter1Introduction引言1.linguistic语言Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.语言学一般被定义为语言的科学研究。2.generallinguistics一般语言学Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.作为整体而言的语言研究经常被成为一般语言学。3.phonetics语音学Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.语言交际中语音的研究导致了语音学的建立。4.morphology形态学Thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.对这些符号的排列方式和组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的分支形态学。5.syntax句法Thestudyofthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesiscalledsyntax.句子的组合形式的研究称之为句法。6.semantics语义学Thestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.意义的研究被称为语义学。7.pragmatics语用学Whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.当意义的研究是进行的,不是孤立的,而是在语言运用的语境中,它就称为语言学的另一个分支,语用学。8.sociolinguistics社会语言学Thestudiesofallthesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguistics.研究社会各方面的语言和社会形势的关系为核心的分支叫做社会语言学。9.psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.心理语言学研究的是语言和心理学。10.descriptive描写性Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive.如果一个语言研究的目的是为了描述和分析语言的实际上的使用,那么它是描述性的。11.prescription规定性Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescription.如果语言研究的目的是制定规则,告诉人们什么是他们应该说的,什么是不应该说的,那么它是规定性的。12.synchronic共时性\nThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.历史上某一语言的描述是一个共时性的研究。1.diachronic历时性Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.语言通过时间发生变化的描述是一个历时性的研究。2.langue语言Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.语言是语言使用者必须遵守的习惯和规则的设置。3.parole言语Paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.言语是对规则应用的具体使用。4.competence语言能力Competenceisanativespeaker’sunconscious,implicitknowledgeofrulesthatunderlinehisorherjudgementsofgrammaticalityandmeaning.语言能力是指一个母语使用者的无意识的语法和意义的判断规则的内隐知识。5.performance语言运用Performanceistheactualeventsoflanguageproductionandcomprehension.语言运用是指语言产生和理解的实际事件。6.language语言Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是一个符号系统,人们借助它来实现交流的目的。Chapter21.phonetics语音学Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.语音学是关于语言的声音媒介的研究,它关注的是所有发生在世界的语言的声音。2.phonology音系学、音韵学Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.音系学的目的是要发现在语言形式上的语音是如何形成的,以及这些声音是如何在语言交际中传递意义的。3.phone音素Aphoneisphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.音素是语音单位或分部。在语言交流中,我们听到的所有声音都是音素。4.phoneme音位Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.一个音位是一个语音单元,它是一个具有独特价值的单位,它是一个抽象的单位,它不是一种特殊的声音,而是在特定的语音环境中用某个特定的因素来表示或实现的。5.allophone音位变体Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalled\ntheallophonesofthatphoneme.不同的语音环境中,能够代表一个音位的不同因素被称为音位变体。1.phonemiccontrast音位对立Phonemic contrast refers to a relation between different phonemes .They can take the same position in a sound combination but they cause difference in meaning.音位对立指不同音位之间的关系。它们在一个声音组合里占有同一位置,但却会导致意义的不同。2.complementarydistribution互补分布Two allophones of the same phoneme occur in different environments, but they never contrast each other. These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 两个来自相同音位的音位变体在不同的环境中,但他们从不互相对比,这两个音位变体是互补分布的。3.sequentialrules序列规则Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.在一种特定的语言中,语音的组合是受规则制约的,这些规则叫做系列规则。4.assimilationrule同化规则Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundsimilartothefollowingonebycopyingoneofitsphoneticfeatures.同化规则类似于复制一个它的语音特点。5.deletionrule省略规则Therulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinthecertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.在特定的语音环境中删除一个声音的规则叫做省略规则,虽然这个声音被表示在拼写上。6.surprasegmentalfeatures超切分特征Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.发生在切分层面上的音位特征被称为超切分特征。7.stress重音Whenacertainsyllableofawordisstressed,itmeansthatthesyllableispronouncedwithgreatforcethantheotherorothers.当一个词的某个音节重读时,意味着音节比其他的有更大的力量。8.wordstress词重音ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.重音在英语单词中的位置区别意义。9.tone音调,声调Tonesarepitchvariation,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephoneme;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegementalfeature.First:level.Second:rise.Third:fall-rise.Fourth:fall.音调是音调的变化,这是由不同的声带振动引起的。音高的变化可以区分意义就像音素,因此,声调是一个超切分特征。10.intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleinconveyingmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.\n当音高、重音和声音的长度与句子中的句子联系而不是孤立的,它们被统称为语调。语调在几乎每一种语言中都具有重要的意义,尤其是像英语这种语言。Chapter31.morphology形态学Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形态学是语法的一个分支,它研究词汇的内部结构,并通过哪些规则构成词汇。2.morpheme词素Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.词素是语言中最小的意义单位。3.freemorpheme自由语素Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.自由语素是独立的意义单位,可以独自使用或与其它语素结合。4.boundmorphemes黏着语素Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.黏着语素是那些不能单独使用,必须与其它语素相结合以组成一个单词的语素。5.root词根Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.词根常被看做一个词的一部分,虽然它有明确的含义,但它必须与另一个词根或词缀相结合形成一个词。6.affixe词缀Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational词缀有两类:曲折词缀和派生词缀。7.derivationalmorphemes派生词素Addedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.把词素添加到现有单词表创建一个字,这种构词法称为派生词。8.inflectionalmorphemes曲折词素Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories.曲折词缀和曲折词素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴。9.prefix前缀Prefixoccuratthebeginningofaword.Itmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,excepttheprefixes"be-",and"en-".前缀发生在一个单词的开头,它改变词干的意思,但通常不改变原词的词性,除了be和en10.suffix后缀Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.后缀一般加在词末,改变词的意思,一般情况下改变词的词性。\n11.compounding复合Likederivation,compoundingisanotherpopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.如同衍生,复合是另一种流行的形成新的英语单词的方法,复合可以看做是两个或两个以上的词来创建新的单词。12.Orthographically书写特征Acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.一个复合词可以写成中间有连字符号,或者分开写。13.Syntactically句法特征Thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.一个复合词的语音一般由二元部分的语音确定。14.Semantically句义特征Themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.一个复合词的意义一般是地道的,都不是其构成成分的意义的总合。15.phonetically语音特征Thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.复合词的重音往往落在第一个元素。Chapter41.syntax句法Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.句法是语言学的一个分支,研究句子的形成规律。2.SentenceAsentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.句子是一个结构上独立的单位,通常包含几个单词组成一个完整的语句问题或命令。3.Subject主语Thereferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsubject.是指在语法上称为主体。4.Predicate谓语Thepartofasentencewhichcompriseafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.句子的一部分包含限定动词或动词词组,这被称为谓语。5.Asimplesentence(FiniteClause定式句)consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.简单句6.Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”,“but”,“or”.Thetwoclausesinacoordinatesentencearestructurallyequalpartsofthesentence;neitherissubordinatetotheother并列句7.Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.\nThetwoclausesinacomplexsentencehaveunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.复杂句8.Syntacticmovementandmovementrules句法位移和移位规则Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentinasentencemovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules.当句子中的一个成分从它的移动中移动时,发生了句法运动;句法运动是由规则决定的,传统上称为移动规则。9.transformationrules转换规则Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformationalrules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.句法运动受转换规则的支配,转换规则的操作可能会改变一个句子的句法表达。Chapter51.semantics语义学Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.语义学可以简单定义为语言意义的研究。2.sense意义Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和,它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。简单地说,意义是词汇内在的,抽象的,游离于语境之外的意义。3.reference所指Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西;涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说,所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。□Senseandreferencearetworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.□意义和所指是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。4.synonymy同义词Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。5.polysemy一词多义现象Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义,这就是我们所说的一词多义,这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用,它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。6.antonymy反义关系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。7.componentialanalysis成分分析法Componentialanalysisisawaytoanalyzewordmeaning.Itwasproposedbystructuralsemanticists.成分分析法是一种用来分析单词意义的方法,它是由结构语义学家提出的。8.Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析法\nItisanapproachproposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leechforsententialmeaninganalysis.述谓结构分析法是一种由英国语言学家GLeech提出的句子意义分析方法。9.predication谓词Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication.Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.在句子的语义分析中,基本单位称为谓词,谓词是句子意思的抽象。10.thegrammaticalmeaning句法意义Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.一个句子的句法意义是指它的语法性,即语法合法性。由语法规则。11.semanticmeaning语义Thesemanticmeaningofasentenceisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.句子在语义上是否有意义是受被称为选择限制的规则支配的。Chapter61.pragmatics语用学Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.语用学可以被定义为对语言使用者如何使用句子进行成功交流的研究。2.context语境,上下文Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedbythespeakerandthehearer.语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的。一般来说,它是说话人和听话人的知识共享。3.utterancemeaning话语意义Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.话语基于句子的意思,它是在一个真实的交际环境中,或是在一个词境中的抽象意义的实现。4.locutionarycat言内行为Alocutionaryactistheactofutterancewords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexionandphonology.言内行为是言语行为的词语、短语、句子。它是通过句法表达字面意义的行为、词汇、音韵。5.illocutionaryact言外行为Anillocutionaryactistheactexpressingthespeaker’sintention;Itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为,是在说话过程中完成的行为。6.perlocutionaryact言后行为Perlocutionaryactreferstotheintendedeffect/happeningofanillocutionaryact.言后行为是指预期的效果,是言外行为的发生。7.principleofconversation会话原则人物:PaulGriceAmerican philosopher Paul Grice concluded that natural language had its own logic. His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle (CP). 美国哲学家Grice\n提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。他认为会话的最高原则是合作,称为合作原则。Chapter71.historicallinguistics历史语言学Historicallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.历史语言学是研究语言变化的一个分支。2.clippedwords缩略词(burger—hamburger)Clippedwordsarecreatedbydroppingoneormoresyllablesfromapolysyllabicword;缩略词通常指一个多音节的词扔掉一个或几个音节,然后变成的词语。3.coinage创新词(KodakXerox)A new word can be coined to fit some purpose.一个新词可以为了一些目的被创造出来。4.blending紧缩法(motel=motor+hotel)Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords..紧缩法的词是由其它词的部分组成的。5.acronyms词首字母缩略词(CEO=ChiefExecutiveOfficer)Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.词首字母缩略词是来自几个单词的缩写词。6.back-formation逆构词法(todonate—derivedfromdonation)New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.从已经存在的词减去一个词缀形成一个新的词称为逆构词法。7.functionalshift功能性变化(noun→verbtobrake)Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes,whichisalsocalledconversion.语言没有词缀的添加可以从谈话的一部分转移到另一部分,也就是所谓的转移。8.borrowing借用(tea,guitar,prince,balloon,alcohol)When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.当不同的文化相接触,词经常从一门语言借到另一门语言,这也被称为借词、外来词。9.languagechange语言变化Language change is essentially a matter of change in the grammar. We refer to the change in the grammar of a language as linguistic change. Linguistic change occurs in all components of the grammar, including changes in the sound, morphological, syntactic, lexical and semantic systems. 语言变化实质上是语法变化。我们把一种语言的语法变化称为语言变化。语言变化包括语音系统、形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部分的变化。Chapter81.sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontext.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支,它研究社会环境中的语言。2.speechcommunity言语社区A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a \nparticular variety of language. 言语社区被定义为一个社区(人数小到一个家庭,大到一个国家)使用同样的语言或语言的某种变体的一群人。3.speechvariety言语变体speech variety is sometimes used instead of standard language, vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creole, etc. Speech variation moves on a scale of the national language, dialect, and individual ways of communication. 语变体可以指一种不同的语言,如标准语、方言、洋泾浜等,可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体,如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等,也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体,如法律语体、正式语体等。4.regional variation 地域变异Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable. 语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。5.social variation 社会变异Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories which reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational and ethnic background, as well as their sex and age. 语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。6.stylistic variation 文体变异There are differences associated with the speech situation: who is speaking to whom about under what circumstances for what purpose. 有一些差异是说话者本人的言语在不同的言语情景中所具有的差异:言语情景即在什么情况下,为了什么目的,谁与谁讲什么。7.idiolectal variation 个人言语变异When an individual speaks, what is actually produced is a unique language system of the speaker, expressed within the overall system of a particular language. Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect. 一个人在说话时,他在一种特定语言的总的体系内表达,但他实际上所说出的是他自己的独特的语言体系。这种个人方言被称为个人习语。8.register 语域Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations, for that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects. 语域是在特定的言语情景中使用的语言变体,因此,语域也称为语域方言。9.languageplanning语言规划Onewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguagestandardizationknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystem,acrossregionalboundaries.交际困境的出路之一就是语言规范化,也就是语言规划。这就意味着,某些机关,比如政府或政府机构,选择一个特定的语音种类,并使用它,包括其发音和拼写,跨越地域界限。10.idiolect个人习语\nSuchapersonaldialectisreferedtoasidiolect.个人方言被称为个人习语。11.standardlanguage标准语Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia.标准语是一种方言的重叠,它是由政府和司法机构、大众媒体使用的语言。12.nonstandardlanguage非标准语言Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvernacular,languages.除了标准语以外的语言变体被称为非标准的或者是白话的语言。13.linguafranca通用语Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.通用语是一种在不同语言背景的人群中作为交际媒介的语言。14.pidgin皮钦语Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.皮钦语是语言的一种变体,通常被以其他语言为母语的人作为一种交流的媒介。1.Creole混合语ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunication.混合语本来是一种皮钦语,现在已经成为一种交际语言。2.diglossia 双言现象Diglossiausuallydescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunication,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.双言现象通常描述一种语言非常不同的两个品种共存的情况,在言语交际中,每一个有着不同的纯社会功能和适当的某些情况。18.bilingualism 双语现象Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.双语现象指个人或社区群体可以同时使用两种标准语言的现象。19.ethicdialect民族方言Anethniclanguagevarietyisasocialdialectofalanguage,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferences民族语言是一种社会方言,它经常跨越地域差异。20.socialdialect社会方言Socialdialect,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.社会方言是一种属于特定的社会阶层的人所使用的语言种类。21.slang俚语Slangisacausaluseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinageandfigureofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.俚语是一种语言,包括传神但不标准的语言,通常任意使用,华而不实。\n22.taboowords禁忌词Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.语言禁忌是指“有礼貌”的社会所禁止的一个词或一个表达方式。23.euphemism委婉语EuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordeuphemismos,meaning“tospeakwithgoodwords”.Aeuphemism,then,ismild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutewhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.委婉语来自希腊语,意思是“说好听的话”,一个委婉的说法是温和的、间接的。Chapter91.psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind.Asthesuggests,psycholinguisticsisviewedastheintersectionofpsychologyandlinguistics,drawingequallyuponthelanguageweacquire,produceandcomprehend.心理语言学是一种语言与思维的关系的研究。作为建议,心理语言学是心理学和语言学的交叉口,我们获得、产生和理解语言。1.culture文化Culture,inabroadsense,meansintegratedpatternofhumanknowledge,belief,andbehaviorthatisbotharesultofandintegraltothehumancapacityforlearningandtransmittingknowledgetosucceedinggenerations.文化,从广义上说,是指人类的知识、信仰和行为的综合模式,是人类学习和传播知识的人类能力的结果和整体。2.linguistic relativity语言相关性A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.人类认识世界完全或部分是通过他们的本土语言的结构确定的。3.acculturation同化过程Acculturationistheprocessofchanginginmaterialculture,traditionalpractices,andbeliefsthatoccurswhenonegroup’sculturesysteminterfereswiththatofanother,directlyorindirectlychallengingthelattertoadapttothewaysoftheformer.同化过程是物质文化变迁的过程,是当一个群体的文化系统干扰另一个群体的文化系统时传统的做法和信念,直接或间接地挑战后者以适应前者的方式。4.assimilation同化Assimilationistheprocesswherebyindividualsorgroupsofdifferingethnicityareabsorbedintothedominantcultureofasociety—thoughnotalwayscompletely.同化是指个体或群体不同种族的过程被吸收到社会的主流文化中的过程——尽管并非总是完全的。5.amalgamation文化融合Amalgamationoccurswhenasocietybecomesethnicallymixedinawaythatrepresentsasynthesisratherthantheeliminationorabsorptionofonegroupbyanother.融合发生在一个社会成为的一种方式,是一个综合而不是另一个或一组吸收消除种族混合。6.linguisticimperialism语言学中的帝国主义\nLinguisticimperialismisakindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthepromulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworldwideexpansionofonelanguage.语言帝国主义是一种“语言歧视,可以定义为全球意识形态的传播通过一种语言的全球扩张。Chapter101.languageacquisition语言习得Languageacquisitionisconcernedwithlanguagedevelopmentinhumans.Ingeneral,languageacquisitionreferstochildren’sdevelopmentoftheirfirstlanguage,thatis,thenativelanguageofthecommunityinwhichachildhasbeenbroughtup.语言习得与人类语言发展有关。一般说来,语言习得是指儿童的第一语言的发展,即儿童所产生的社会的母语。2.languageacquisitiondevice(LAD)语言习得机制A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.一个假设每个正常的孩子出生起就被允许得到语言的机制。3.motherese保姆式语言(childdirectedspeech=CDS) A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc一种成人对孩子的特殊语言,特点是语速慢,间隔时间长,语调丰富,短和句子结构简单。4.under-extension Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.用一个比它寻常外延范围少的词。5.over-extensionExtension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.对超越领域的儿童所应用的词义延伸。6.telegraphicspeech电报式言语Theearlymultiwordutteranceofchildrenhaveaspecialcharacteristic.Theytypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexicalcategories.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestylyoflanguagefoundintelegrams,utteranceatthisacquisitionstageareoftencalledtelegraphicspeech.儿童早期的说话方式有一种特殊的特征,大多缺乏曲折语素和大多数未成年人的词汇范畴,因为他们和电报有相似的风格,这个习得阶段的话语通常被称为电报式言语。7.contentwords实词Contentwordsprovidelistenerswithsomeinformation.实词为听者提供一些信息。8.holophrasticsentence单词语句Children'sone-wordutterancesarealsocalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.儿童发出的一个词也可以被称为单词语句,因为它们能够表达概念或论断,起到成人语言中一句话的作用。Chapter111.secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)第二语言习得It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to \nhis native language.它指的是对在一个人习得他的母语之后如何获得第二语言的系统研究。2.secondlanguage第二语言A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.第二语言是指一门不是母语但是在这个国家内被广泛使用的语言。3.foreignlanguage外国语A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.外国语是指作为一门学校的课程学习但是并不被广泛使用的语言。4.acquisition习得Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. 习得指的是日常交际环境中通过自然的运用第一语言能力而逐步地、下意识地发展这种能力。5.learning学习Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. 学习则被定义为在学校环境中有意识地积累第二语言知识的过程。6.transfer转移Naturally, learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer. 学习者在学第二语言的过程中总是下意识地运用第一语言的知识,这种现象叫做语言转移。7.positivetransfer积极迁移(正迁移)Positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language pattern.如果第一语言和目的语的模式相同或相似时,就很可能出现积极迁移。8.negativetransfer消极迁移(负迁移)Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. Negative transfer is a process more commonly known as interference.如果第一语言的模式和目的语中相应的模式不同时出现的就是负向转移,即人们常说的干扰。9.ContrastiveAnalysis对比分析法TheContrastiveAnalysisapproachwasfoundedonthebeliefthat,byestablishingthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguagesystem,itwaspossibletopredictwhatproblemslearnersofaparticularsecondlanguagewouldfaceandthetypesoferrorstheywouldmake.对比分析的方法是建立在这样的信念,通过建立母语和目标语言系统之间的语言差异,它是可以预测的问题,学习者的一个特定的二语将面对和他们会犯错误的类型。10.interlanguage中介语(人物:Selinker)Interlanguageisdefinedasanabstractsystemoflearners’targetlanguagesystemandithasnowbeenwidelyusedtorefertothelinguisticexpressionslearnersproduce,especiallythewrongornotidiomaticonesorlearnerlanguage.中介语指的是学习者的目的语系统的一个抽象的系统现在已经被广泛用来指语言学习者产生,尤其是错误的或不地道的人或学习语言。\n11.fossilization语言石化现象Fossilizationhasbecomeoneofthemainfeaturesofinterlanguage.语言僵硬现象已经成为中介语的主要特征之一。12.overgeneralization概括过头Overgeneralizationisdefinedastheuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituation.概括过头是指在新形势下使用以前可用的策略。13.interference干扰Theyfoundthedifferencesorsimilaritiesbetweennativeandtargetlanguageswouldeitherleadtopositivetransferornegativetransfer,alsoknownasinterference.他们发现母语和目标语言之间的差异或相似会导致积极的转移或负迁移,也被称为干扰。14.erroranalysis错误分析Thestudyandanalysisoferrorsmadebysecondandforeignlanguagelearnersinordertoidentifycausesoferrorsorcommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning..外语学习者错误的研究与分析,以找出语言学习中的错误或共同的困难。15.interlingualerror语际错误,受母语影响的错误Errors,whichmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticaletc.错误,主要是由于从不同的层次,如语音,词汇,语法等跨语言干扰。16.intralingualerror语内错误Errors,whichmainlyresultfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Thetypicalexamplesareovergeneralizationandcross-association.错误,主要是由于错误或部分学习的目标语言,独立的母语。典型的例子是概括过头和互相联想。17.cross-association互相联想Somewordsaresimilarinmeaningaswellasspellingandpronunciation.Thisinternalinterferenceiscalledcross-association.有些单词在意思上和拼写和发音上有着相似的意思。这种内部干扰称为互相联想。1.error错误Theproductionofincorrectformsinspeechorwritingbyanon-nativespeakerofasecondlanguage,duetohisincompleteknowledgeoftherulesofthattargetlanguage.由于他对这一目标语言规则的不完全了解,不正确的语言或非英语母语的人写的不正确的形式。19.mistake错误Mistakes,definedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible,suggestfailureinperformance.错误,定义为有意或无意的变异形式和自我改正的,表明故障性能。20.input输入languagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.学习者听到或接收到的语言,或是他或她可以学习的语言。21.intake纳入Theinputwhichisactuallyhelpfulforthelearner.对学习者有帮助的输入。22.InputHypothesis输入假说(人物:Krashen)AhypothesisproposedbyKrashen,whichstatesthatinsecondlanguagelearning,it’snecessary\nforthelearnertounderstandinputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.Eventuallytheabilitytoproducelanguageissaidtoemergenaturallywithoutbeingtaughtdirectly.Krashen提出的一个假设,即在第二语言学习中,对学习者理解输入的语言项目是稍微超出学习者的语言能力是必要的。最终,产生语言的能力是说出来的,而不被直接教。23.acquisition习得Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnersarehardlyawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusinglanguagetocommunicate.Itisalsocalledimplicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning.习得是一个过程,类似于儿童获得他们的第一语言。这是一个潜意识的过程,没有一分钟学习的语法规则。学习者不知道自己的学习,但他们使用的语言来交流。它也被称为内隐学习、非正式学习或自然学习。24.learning学习learningisaconsciouslearningofsecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.学习是通过学习规则和谈论规则的知识学习的二语知识。25.comprehensibleinput可理解的语言输入Inputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.输入语包含了略高于学习者语言能力的语言条目。26.languageaptitude语言能力(倾向)Thenaturalabilitytolearnalanguage,notincludingintelligence,motivation,interest,etc.学习语言的自然能力,不包括智力、动机、兴趣等。27.motivation动机Motivationisdefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.动机被定义为学习者的态度和情感状态或学习驱动。28.instrumentalmotivation工具性动机Themotivationthatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguageforinstrumentalgoalssuchaspassingexams,orfurtheringacareeretc.人们学习外语的动机,如通过考试,或促进事业等。29.integrativemotivation融合型动机Thedrivethatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguagebecauseofthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture.人们学习外语的目的是为了与目标文化的认同。30.resultativemotivation结果型动机Thedrivethatlearnerslearnasecondlanguageforexternalpurposes.激励学习者学习第二语言的外在目的。31.intrinsicmotivation内在动机Thedrivethatlearnerslearnthesecondlanguageforenjoymentorpleasurefromlearning.学习者学习语言的乐趣和学习的乐趣。32.learningstrategies学习策略Learningstrategiesarelearners’consciousgoal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.\n学习策略是学习者自觉的目标导向和解决问题的努力,以实现学习效率。33.cognitivestrategies认知策略Strategiesinvolvedinanalyzing,synthesis,andinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.参与分析、综合的策略,并内化所学。34.metacognitivestrategies元认知策略Thetechniquesinplanning,monitoringandevaluatingone’slearning.计划,监督和评估一个人的学习的技术。35.affect/socialstrategies影响/社会策略Thestrategiesdealingwiththewayslearnersinteractorcommunicatewithotherspeakers,nativeornon-native.学习者与其他人、本地人或非本地人进行互动或交流的策略。Chapter121.neurolinguistics神经语言学Itisthestudyofrelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguagelearning,howandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.这是研究大脑与语言的关系。它包括研究大脑的结构如何影响语言学习,如何以及大脑语言的部分被存储,以及对大脑的损害如何影响使用语言的能力。2.psycholinguistics心理语言学Thestudyoflanguageprocessing.Itisconcernedwiththeprocessesoflanguageacqisition,comprehensionandproduction.对语言处理的研究。这是关于语言习得的过程,理解和生成。3.brainlateralization大脑侧化Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptivefunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrain.大脑半球特定半球的认知和感知功能的定位。4.dichoticlistening双耳分听Atechniqueinwhichstimulieitherlinguisticornon-linguisticarepresentedthroughheadphonestotheleftandrighteartodeterminethelateralizationofcognitivefunction.在这一技术刺激的语言或非语言是通过耳机的左右耳确定认知功能偏侧化。5.rightearadvantage右耳优势Thephenomenonthattherightearshowsanadvantagefortheperceptionoflinguisticsignalsidknownastherightearadvantage.右耳优势显示了一个右耳的语言信号的感知被称为是右耳优势。6.splitbrainstudies裂脑研究Theexperimentsthatinvestigatetheeffectsofsurgicallyseveringthecorpuscallosumoncognitionarecalledassplitbrainstudies.探讨手术切断胼胝体对认知的作用的实验被称为裂脑研究。7.aphasia失语症Itreferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesionscausedbyatumor,anaccidentandsoon.它是指由于肿瘤、交通事故等导致的脑损伤而引起的一些语言障碍。8.non-fluentaphasia非流利失语症Damagetopartsofthebraininfrontofthecentralsulcusiscallednon-fluentaphasia.\n在中央前沟部分的脑损伤被称为非流利性失语。9.fluentaphasia流利性失语症Damagetopartsoftheleftcortexbehindthecentralsulcusresultsinatypeofaphasiacalledfluentaphasia.左大脑皮质部分的损伤导致了一种称为流利性失语的失语。10.Acquireddyslexia习得性失读症Damageinandaroundtheangulargyrusoftheparietallobeoftencausestheimpairmentofreadingandwritingability,whichisreferredtoasacquireddyslexia.顶叶和周围的角回损伤往往会导致阅读和写作能力,这被称为习得性失读症。11.phonologicaldyslexia拼音性失读症Itisatypeofacquireddyslexiainwhichthepatientseemstohavelosttheabilitytousespelling-to-soundrules.这是一种获得性阅读障碍的患者似乎已经失去了能力,使用拼写的声音规则。12.surfacedyslexia浅层诵读困难Itisatypeofacquireddyslexiainwhichthepatientseemsunabletorecognizewordsaswholebutmustprocessallwordsthroughasetofspelling-to-soundrules.这是一种习得性失读症的患者似乎无法识别的话,作为一个整体,但必须处理所有的单词通过一组的拼写,以健全的规则。13.spoonerism斯本内现象,首音互换Aslipoftongueinwhichthepositionofsounds,syllables,orwordsisreversed,forexample,Let’shavechishandfipsinstendofLet’shavefishandchips.一种声音,音节或单词的位置的一种滑动。14.priming启动Theprocessthatbeforetheparticipantsmakeadecisionwhetherthestringoflettersisawordornot,theyarepresentedwithanactivatedword.在参与者做出决定前的过程中,字母串是否是一个字,它们被一个激活的单词呈现。15.frequencyeffect词频效应Subjectstakelesstimetomakejudgementonfrequentlyusedwordsthantojudgelesscommonlyusedwords.Thisphenomenoniscalledfrequencyeffect.受试者对常用词作判断的时间要比判断不常用词的时间少。这种现象被称为词频效应。16.lexicaldecision词汇判断,词汇确定法Anexperimentthatletparticipantsjudgewhetherastringofletterisawordornotatacertaintime.让参与者判断一个字符串是否是一个单词或不在某个时间段的实验。17.theprimingexperiment启动实验Anexperimentthatletsubjectsjudgewhetherastringoflettersisawordornotaftershowedwithastimulusword,calledprime.让受试者判断一个字符串的字母是否是一个字或不显示一个刺激的话,称为启动。18.primingeffect启动效应Sincethementalrepresentationisactivatedthroughtheprime,whenthetargetispresented,responsetimeisshorterthatitotherwisewouldhavebeen.Thisiscalledtheprimingeffect.由于精神表示是激活的,当目标被激活时,响应时间短,否则会一直。这就是所谓的启动效应。19.bottom-upprocessing自下而上加工,自下而上处理\nAnapproachthatmakesuseprincipallyofinformationwhichisalreadypresentinthedata.一种方法,利用主要的信息已经存在于数据。20.top-downprocessing从上而下处理,从上至下加工Anapproachthatmakesuseofpreviousknowledgeandexperienceofthereadersinanalyzingandprocessinginformationwhichisreceived.一种利用以前的知识和经验的读者在分析和处理信息。21.gardenpathsentences花园小径句Asentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordorphrasebutdiscoverslaterthattheassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobacktrackandreinterpretthesentence.一句话,理解者假定一个特定的一个词或短语的意义却发现以后,这个假设是不正确的,强迫者回溯和重新诠释的句子。22.slipofthetongue口误Mistakesinspeechwhichprovidepsycholinguisticevidenceforthewayweformulatewordsandphrases.在演讲中为我们制定的单词和短语提供心理依据错误。二.填空题Chapter one 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language .2. The study of language as a whole is often calledgeneral linguistics 3. The study of_sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics. 4. The study of meaning is known as semantics. 5. Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology . 6. The study of applications is generally known as applied linguistics. 7. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive . 8. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic. 9. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 10. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 11. Linguistic is descriptive while traditional grammer is prescriptive . 12. Modern linguistic regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. 13. Many of the rules of traditional grammer apply only to thelanguage. written14. When the study of meaning is conducted ,not in isdation ,but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics. 15. Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. Chapter Two 1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; if is concerned\nwith all the sounds that occur in the world’s language. 2. The three branches of phonetics are labeled articulation phonetics , auditory phonetics and acousfic phonetics respectively. 3. English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of placeofarticulation . 4. Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of languagethe speech sounds_. 5. The different throes which can represent a phoneme in different phonetics environments are called the allo phones of that phoneme. 6. The assimulation rules assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a_sequential phoneme; thus making the two phones similate. 7. The assimulation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciationof the alvedar nasal in some sound combinations. 8. The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it isorthographically represented_. 9. Language is first perceived_through its sounds. 10. The letter [P] in terms of place of articulation__ bilabial in terms of manner of articulation is stops _. 11. phonetic similarity , not phonetic identity is the ctciterion with which we operate the phonological analysis of language 12. The greatest source of modification of the air stream is founding the oral cavity_____. 13. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of _ tenseandlox vowels . 14 A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of_simultaneous distinctive features_____. 15. Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a _compound nounand a phrase consisting of the same elements. ChapterThree1.Linguistsdefinethewordasthesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.2.Morphemeisthe_smallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction.3.Therootconsistutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentsofitsmeaning.4.Morphemeareusuallyarbitrary:thereisnonatureconnectionbetweentheirsoundandmeaning.5.Whenderivationalmorphemesareconjoinedtoothermorpheme(orwords),anewwordsarederived,orformed.6.Derivationisanaffixationalprocessthatformawordwithmeaningandcategorydistinctfromthatofitsbases.7.Unlikephonemesandsyllableswhicharetheelementsofsound,wordscarrymeaning.8.Wordsarethefoundationbuildingblocksofalanguage.9.Linguistsusethetermmorphologytorefertothepartofthegrammerthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.10.Thecontentwordsoflanguage,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives_andadverbs,aresometimescalledopenclasswords.\n11.Affixesdonotbelongtoalexicalcategoryandarealwaysboundmorpheme.12.Boundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmakersandsignifysuchconceptsastense,number,casearecalledinflectionalmorphemes.13.Derivation,compoundsandfreemorphemescombinearethemajorwaystoproducenewwords.14.Thewayswordareformedarecalledmorphologicalrules.15.Whentwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory.Chapterfour1.Todetermineaword'scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed:meaning,inflection,distribution.2.TheXPruleisXP→(specifier)X(complement).3.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.4.TheSruleisS→NPVP5.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththesubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure.6.questionsbeginwithawh-wordarecalledquestions.7.Correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofsentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsufficestructure.8.Iftheheadisaverb,thenthespecifierisqualifier.9.Wordlevelcategoriesaredividedintotwokinds:majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategories.10.Syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases.11.Thestructureswhichformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesometypewiththehelpofaconjunctionarecoordinatestructures.12.Theinformationaboutaword’scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsubcategorization.13.Theelementwhichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofhandismodifiers.14.Aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanotheristransformation.15.Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphrasesisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.Chapterfive\n1.Accordingtothenamingtheory,wordsarejustnamesorlabeisforthings3.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.4.IntheEnglishvocabularytherearetwocategoryofwords:nativewordsandborrowedwords.5.SynonymscanbedividedintotheDialectalsynonyms,stylisticsynonymsandemotivesynonymscollocationalsynonyms.6.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.7.Swperordinateismoregeneralinmeaning,buthyponymsismorespecific.8.threekindsofantonymyarerecognized:Gradableantonymys,complementaryantonymsandrelationalopposites.9.Therearefourcertainrelationsbetweensentences,theyare:synonymous,inconsistence,entailsandpreswpposes.10.Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.11.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yistrue,ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse,wecalledtherelationisentails12.Apolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword.Thevariousmeaningofthewordarerelatedtosomedegree.Completehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.13.Referencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticwordofexperience.14.J.R.Firthheldtheviewthat“weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps15.semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.1.These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively. 语音学的三个分支分别被称为发音语音学,听觉语音学和声学语音学。2.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics. 在语音学的这三个分支里,建立历史最长,迄今发展最完善的就是发音语音学。3.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” , which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants, such as [b], [z],[m]. 这种声带的颤动导致一种语音音色的产生——“浊音”,这是所有元音和诸如[b], \n[z],[m]之类的辅音所共有的特征。4.Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only.( dictionaries and teachingtextbooks ). 宽式标音法:一套是仅用字母符号来标音的方法。(字典、教科书)5.Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.( the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds ). 严式标音法:一套字母符号和附加符号一起用来标音的方法。(语音学家们在对语音的研究中使用的)6.Major periods in the history of English :Old English,Middle English,Modern English英语历史发展的主要阶段:古英语阶段,中英语阶段,现代英语阶段。7.Childlanguageacquisitiontheries:thebehaviorist,theinnatist,theinteractionistviews.儿童语言习得理论:行为论,天赋论,互动论。三简答题1.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学中的一些重要的区别△prescriptive/descriptive(规定性和描写性)△synchronic/diachronic(共时性和历时性)△speech/writing(口语和书面语)△language/parole(语言和言语)人物:F.deSaussure△competence/performance(语言能力和语言运用)人物:N.Chomsky△traditionalgrammar/modernlinguistics(传统语法和现代语言学)人物:F.deSaussure2.Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构特征△arbitrariness(任意性)△productivity(多产性)△duality(二重性)音与意的层次△displacement(不受时空限制的特征)△culturaltransmission(文化传递性)3.Threemainfunctionsoflanguage语言的三大主要功能△descriptivefunction(描述功能)【congnitive(认知)、referential(指称)、propositional(命题)function】△expressivefunction(表达功能)△socialfunction(社会功能)4.RomanJakobson’ssixelements△addresser(发话人)——emotive(表情功能)\n△addressee(受话人)——conative(意动功能、意欲功能)△context(语境)——referential(指称功能、传递信息)△message(信息)——poetic(诗学功能)△contact(交流互动)——phaticcommunion(寒暄功能)△code(语码)——metalinguistic(元功能、用语言解释语言)5.Threemacrofunctionsoflanguage语言的三大宏观功能人物:M.A.KHalliday△theideational(概念功能)△theinterpersonal(人际功能)△thetextual(语篇功能)6.Whatarevowelsoundsdifferentiatedby?元音是怎样区别的?Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:①thepositionofthetongueinthemouth;②theopennessofthemouth;③theshapeofthelips;④thelengthofthevowels7.Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?语言和言语的主要区别Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.8.Competence能力:theidealusers’knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance运用:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Same:BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandactuallyuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemseriousstudy.Differences:Saussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.9.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?现代语言学与传统语法区别?Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive;itisbasedon"high"writtenlanguage.Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive;Itsinvestigationauthentic,andmainlyspokenlanguagedata.传统语法是规范性的,它是基于高级的书面语言;现代语言学是描写性的,它的研究内容是真实的,主要是口头语言。10.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?你如何研究共时性研究和历时性研究的区别?Asynchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime,adiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.共时性研究是一种特殊的语言,在一定是时间内,历时性研究是对语言历史发展的研究。11.Speechenjoyspriorityoverwritinginmodernlinguisticsstudyforthefollowingreasons:语言在现代语言学中的写作,有以下三个原因:△speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution在进化方面,语言先于写作△alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechtaninwriting人们进行了大量交流△speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage语言是婴儿习得母语的形式12.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类\nBilabial双唇音Labio-dental唇齿音Dental牙齿Alveolar齿龈Palatal硬腭Velar软腭Glottal声门Stops(塞音)VLptkVDbdgFriction(摩擦音)VLfshVDvzAffricates(破擦音)VLVDNasals(鼻辅音)VDmnLiquids(流音)VDl,rGlides(滑音)VDwj【VL=voicelessVD=voiced】13.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning语义研究的几种主要理论△Thenamingtheory命名论ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.命名论是最原始的语义理论,是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。△Theconceptualistview意念论Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.意念论认为,语言形式及其所代表的对象之间(即语言与现实世界之间)没有直接联系;确切地说,在理解语义时,是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。△Contextualism语境论Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.语境论以这样的假设为基础:人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种:情景语境和语言语境。语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境,语义不是抽象的,它存在于语境之中,它来自语境,取决于语境。△Behaviorism行为主义论Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处,它也把语义放到语境中去研究,但它更注重人的心理活动,认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。\n14.Majorsenserelations主要意义关系△Synonymy同义词①dialectalsynonymy——synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.方言同义词——用在不同地域方言中的同义词。Eg:autumn—fallflat—department②stylisticsynonymy——synonymsdifferinginstyle.语体同义词——在语体上有差异的同义词。Eg:Oldman—daddy—dad—father—maleparent③Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。Eg:Collaborator合作者——Accomplice同谋者,帮凶④Collocationalsynonyms——synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.搭配同义词——同义词在其搭配上各不同,即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不同。Eg:Accuse…ofcharge…withrebuke…for⑤Semanticallydifferentsynonyms——synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.语义上不同的同义词——同义词的意义非常接近,但却有细微差别。Eg:Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑astound暗示难以置信Escape意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事flee意味匆匆离开△Ploysemy一词多义现象Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义,这就是我们所说的一词多义,这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用,它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。Eg:table:木板等意义△Homonymy同形同音异义Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.同形异义是指意义不同的词有着相同的语言形式的现象,即不同的词发音上或拼写上,或者两个方面都相同。两个单词在发音上相同时,叫同音异义词。两个单词在拼写上相同时,叫同形异义词。两个单词在发音和拼写上都相同时,叫完全同形异义词。Eg:Homophones同音异义词:rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peaceHomographs同形异义词:bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.Completehomonyms完全同形异义词:fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.△Hyponymy下义关系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.上下义关系是指一个具有一般性、包容性的词与一个更为具体的词之间的意义关系。意义更具有一般性的词叫上义词,意义更为具体的词叫下义词。同一个上义词的多个下义词叫并列下义词。Eg:上义词:flower下义词:rose(玫瑰花),tulip(郁金香),carnation(康乃馨),lily(百合花),\n上义词:animal下义词:dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bear△Antonymy反义词①Gradableantonyms分级反义词Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.一些反义词是级别上的对立,因为一对这样的反义词中间常有其它表示程度的词。意义相反实际上只是程度问题。Eg:Old和young是反义词,但它们代表两个极端,中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式,如middle-aged,mature,elderly.②Complementaryantonyms互补反义词Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.互补反义词具有这样的特征,否定其中一个就意味着肯定另一个。也就是说,是一个非此即彼、非彼即此的问题。Eg:Male/femalealive/dead③Relationalopposites关系反义词Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.在意义上现实出逆向关系的一对词语叫关系反义词。Eg:Wife/husbandfather/sonteacher/pupildoctor/patientbuy/sellabove/below15.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的意义关系△XissynonymouswithYX和Y是同义关系Eg:X:Heisabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.如果X是真的,Y也是真的,如果X是假的,Y也是假的。△XisinconsistentwithY.X和Y是前后矛盾关系Eg:X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.如果X是真的,Y就是假的,如果X是假的,Y就是真的。△XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)X蕴涵Y(Y是X的蕴涵)Eg:X:Johnmarriedablondheiress(女继承人).Y:Johnmarriedablond.蕴涵是一种包含关系。如果X蕴涵Y,X的意义就为Y所包含。△XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX)X预示Y(Y是X的先决条件)Eg:X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.△Xisacontradiction.X是个矛盾句Eg:\nX:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtobachelor.X句子本身自相矛盾,它永远是假的。△Xissemanticallyanomalous.句子X在语义上反常Eg:X:Thetablehasbadintentions.X在语义上反常,它就是荒唐的。1.American philosopher-linguist John Searle classified illocutionary acts into five general types Each type has a common, general purpose. 美国的哲学语言学家Searle把言外行为分为五类,每一类行为都有一个共同的、普遍的目的。△representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true 阐述类:陈述或描述说话者认为是真实的情况 Eg: I have never seen the man before. / the earth is globe. △directives: trying to get the hearer to do something 指令类:试图使听话者做某些事情 Eg:Open the window! / Would you like to go to the picnic with us? △commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action 承诺类:说话者自己承诺未来要有一些行为。 Eg:I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail. △expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state 表达类:表达对某一现状的感情和态度。 Eg:I’m sorry for the mess I have made. / It’s really kind of you to have thought of me. △declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something 宣告类:通过说话引起骤变。 Eg:I now declare the meeting open. / I fire you.2.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle在最高原则,即合作原则下,人们在交际中要遵守如下四个准则:△The maxim of quantity 数量准则 l ①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). 使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。 l ②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。 △The maxim of quality 质量准则 l ①Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说自己认为不真实的话。 l ②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。 △The maxim of relation 关联准则 l Be relevant. 说话要贴切,有关联。 △The maxim of manner 方式准则 ①Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免晦涩的词语。 l② Avoid ambiguity. 避免歧义。③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 说话要简要(避免累赘)。 l④Be orderly. 说话要有条理。\nEg1: Do you know where Mr. X lives? Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city. 违反数量准则 Eg2: Would you like to come to our party tonight? I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today. 违反质量准则 Eg3: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they? 违反关联准则 Eg4: Shall we get something for the kids? Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. 违反方式准则 1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的和意义△The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. 研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。 △Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages. 历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系,为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。△The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change. 历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素,如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。19.Linguistic change in English 英语语言系统的变化△Sound change 语音变化①Vowel sound change 元音变化②Sound loss 语音消失③Sound addition 语音增加④Sound movement 语音移位△Morphological change 形态变化①Affix loss 词缀消失eg:-baere-bora-yan②Affix addition 词缀增加eg:-able-ment-ze△Syntactic change 句法变化①Rule loss 规则消失\n②Rule addition 规则增加eg:Particle movement rule. 小品词移位规则③Rule change 规则变化△Lexical change 词汇变化①Lexical addition 词汇增加(详见chapter7名词解释)△Semantic change 语义变化①semantic broadening 词义的扩大eg:holiday,tail②semantic narrowing 词义的缩小eg:deer,meat,corn③semantic shift 词义的转移eg:nice=ignorant1.The causes of language change 语音变化的原因△Sound assimilation 语音的同化△Rule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一△Internal borrowing 内部借用△Elaboration 规则的细化△Sociological triggers 社会因素△Cultural transmission 文化传播△Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童语法接近成年人语法22.Major functions of language 语言的主要功能 Language provides a means for the expression or communication of thought and in particular, as serving two major functions, namely, interpersonal communication and intrapersonal communication. 语言提供了一种表达和交流思想的工具,它尤其具有两个主要功能,那就是,人际交流和自我交流。