英语语言学笔记-(24272) 130页

第一章Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsTeachingaims:letthestudentshavethegeneralideaaboutlanguageandlinguistics.Teachingdifficulties:designfeaturesoflanguage;someimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsTeachingprocedures1.language1.1Whystudylanguage?为什么学习语言Atoolforcommunication交流的工具Anintegralpartofourlifeandhumanity人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.Ifwearenotfullyawareofthenatureandmechanismofourlanguage,wewillbeignorantofwhatconstitutesouressentialhumanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2Whatislanguage?什么是语言1.2.1differentsensesoflanguage语言的不同意义1.whatapersonsays(concreteactofspeech)aperson’sconsistentwayofspeakingorwritingaparticularlevelofspeakingorwritinge.g.colloquiallanguageanabstractsystem2.Awebster’sNewDictionraryoffersafrequentlyusedsenseoftheword“language”:a.humanspeech人类的言语b.theabilitytocommunicatebythismeans通过言语来交流的能力c.asystemofvocalsoundsandcombinationsofsuchsoundstowhichmeaningisattributed,usedfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtsandfeelings;用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d.thewrittenrepresentationofsuchasystem系统的文字\n表达3.thebarestofdefinition,languageisameansofverbalcommunication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Languageisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact.Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemiosticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcues,motivation,andsocio-culturalroles.Languagedistinguishesusfromanimals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2definitionsLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Whatiscommunication?Aprocessinwhichinformationistransmittedfromasource(senderorspeaker)toagoal(receiverorlistener).Asystem----sinceelementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrulessystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Theycannotbearrangedatwill.e.g.Hethetablecleaned.(×)bkli(×)Whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Arbitrary----thereisnointrinsic(logic)connectionbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning,betweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thisexplainsandisexplained\nbythefactthatdifferentlanguagehavedifferentwordsforthesameobject,itisgoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.itisonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethearbitraryoflanguageisafamousquotationfromshakepeare’splay:”RomeoandJuliet:Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----wordsarejustthesymbolsassociatedwithobjects,actions,andideasbynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvovalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Vocal--------theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound,nomatterhowwelldevelopedtheirwritingsystemsare.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeakandlistenbeforetheywriteorreadalsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Peoplewithlittleornoliteracycanalsobecompetentlanguageusers.Human----languageishuman-specific.Humanbeingshavedifferentkindsofbrainsandvocalcapacity.“LanguageAcquisitionDevice”(LAD)二.Whatcharacteristicsoflangaugedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprenhensivedefinitionoflanguage?Languageisarule-governedsystem;langaugeisbasicallyvocal;\nlangaugeisarbitrary;langagueisusedforhumancommunication.1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构特征Designfeatures------referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity/productivity,displacement,cluturaltransmissionandinterchangeability.Designfeatures-----arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)TheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.Whatisarbitrariness?任意性a.arbitrariness【'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】----arbitrariness(任意性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)ItwasdiscussedbySaussurefirst.Thelinkbetweenthemisamatterofconvention.E.g.“house”uchi(Japanese)Mansion(French)房子(Chinese)(1)arbitrarybetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a.By“arbitrary”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。Agogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupof\npersonshaduseditforagig.Languagethereforeislargelyarbitrary.b.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang””crash””roar””rumble””cakle”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.”onomatopoeia拟声词---wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词c.somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitaryeither.“type”and”write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.arbitraryandonometopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。Eg.Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。(2)Arbitraryatthesyntacticlevel句法上的任意性Accordingtosystematic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionlists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。Syntax-----itreferstothewaysthatsentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammarofarrangement.句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。(3)Aribrtaryandconvention任意性和约定性Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。Theothersideofcoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality.任意性的相反面，即约定性。conventionality----Itmeansthatinanylanguagethereare\ncertainsequencesofsoundsthathaveaconventionallyacceptedmeaning.Thosewordsarecustomarilyusedbyallspeakerswiththesameintendedmeaningandunderstoodbyalllistenersinthesameway.Arbitrainessoflangaugemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。Therearetwodifferentschoolsofbeliefconcerningarbitrariness.Mostpeople,especiallystructurallinguistsbelievethatlanguageisarbitrarybynature.Otherpeople,however,holdthatlanguageisiconic,thatis,thereisadirectrelationorcorrespondencebetweensoundandmeaning,suchasonomatopoeia.(cuckoo;crash)Forthemajorityofanimalsignals,theredoesappeartobeaclearconnectionbetweentheconveyedmessageandthesignalusedtoconveyit,Andforthem,thesetsofsignalsusedincommunicationisfinite.b.duality【djuː'ælətɪ】(二重性):---onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchasunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指拥有两层结构的这种特性,底层结构是上层结构的组成成分,每层都有自身的组合规则.)duality----languageissimultaneouslyorganizedattwolevelsorlayers,namely,thelevelofsoundsandthatofmeaning.thehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningfulthelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.Dog:woof(butnot“w-oo-f”)Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemost\neconomicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableofproducingaverylargenumberofsoundcombinations(e.g.words)whicharedistinctinmeaning.Theprincipleofeconomy经济原则Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagesofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.).Atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHUZHUANGLIN,languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels,oneofsoundandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticwords/units,andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.这些意义单位组成无数个句子。(Notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanmialcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.Totalkaboutdualitywemustnoticethatlanguageishierarchical.说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级性。lic.Creativity----languageisresourceful.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(novelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.)non-humansignals,ontheotherhand,appearstohavelittleflexibility.creativity(创造性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,bycreativitywemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.(指语言的能产性,因为语言有二重性和递归性.)productivity----productivityreferstotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.人们能够利\n用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。e.g.anexperimentofbeecommunication:Theworkerbee,normallyabletocommunicatethelocationofanectarsource,willfailtodosoifthelocationisreally‘new’.Inoneexperiment,ahiveofbeeswasplacedatthefootofaradiotowerandafoodsourceatthetop.Tenbeesweretakentothetop,shownthefoodsource,andsentofftotelltherestofthehiveabouttheirfind.Themessagewasconveyedviaabeedanceandthewholegangbuzzedofftogetthefreefood.Theyflowaroundinalldirections,butcouldn’tlocatethefood.Theproblemmaybethatbeecommunicationregardinglocationhasafixedsetofsignals,allofwhichrelatedtohorizontadistance.Thebeecannotcreatea‘new’messageindicatingverticaldistance.Noonehasneversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusproductivityisalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。d.displacement(移位性):onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.(指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体,时间和观点.)Beecommunication:Whenaworkerbeefindsasourceofnectarandreturnstothe\nhive,itcanperformacomplexdanceroutinetocommunicatetotheotherbeesthelocationofthisnectar.Dependingonthetypeofdance(rounddancefornearbyandtail-waggingdance,withvariabletempo,forfurtherawayandhowfar),Theotherbeescanworkputwherethisnewlydiscoveredfeastcanbefound.Beecommunicationhasdisplacementinanextremelylimitedform.However,itmustbethemostrecentfoodsource.Displacement,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealorunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限制。Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeak,thatmeanslanguagehasthefeatureofdisplacement.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butit’sanunspeakabletinysharee.Culturaltransmission----genetictransmissionYouacquirealanguageinaculturewithotherspeakersandnotfromparentalgenes.Theprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegeneration\ntothenextisdescribedasculturaltransmission.Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.（人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的本能而获得的。）Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。f.interchangeability互换性interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereisdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog/dogsis/are“speaking”andwhichlistening.\nWhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?Arbitrariness----asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof.Duality----afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication.Creativity----animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.Displacement----noanimalcantalkaboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation.Culturaltransmission-----detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“Americansignlanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidnotmakethelinguistscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notenenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.1.4Originoflanguage语言的起源1.5functionsoflanguage语言的功能Jakobsondefinedthesixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent,namely:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。\nJakobsonestablishedawell-knownframeworkoflanguagefunctionsbasedonthesixkeyelementsofcommunication,namely:Referentialfunction-----toconveymessageandinformation所指功能：传达信息Poeticfunction-----toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake诗学功能：完全就语言而语言Emotivefunction----toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情Cognitivefunction----topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties意动功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人Phaticfunction----toestablishcommunionwithothers交感功能：与他人建议交流Metalingualfunction-----toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings元语言功能：弄清意图、词语和意义Theycorrespondtosuchcommunicationelementsascontext,message,addresser,addressee,contactandcode.它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码等。Hallidayproposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage,thatis,languagehas:韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即语言有：Ideationalfunction----constructsamodelofexperienceandconstructslogicalrelations;概念功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系Interpersonalfunction-----enactssocialrelationships人际功能：反映了社会关系textualfunctions----createsrelevancetocontext.语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系Hallidayproposedsevencategoriesoflanguagefunctionsbyobservingchildlanguagedevelopment,thatis,instrumental,regulatory,representational,interactional,personal,\nheuristicandimaginative.他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。Function(功能):theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,etc.Languagefunctionsinclucleinformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction.(用语言交流,思考等.语言功能包括信息功能,人际功能,施为功能,感情功能,交感性功能,娱乐性功能和元语言功能.)languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunications,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld;atoolbywhichpeoplecreatart.1.5.1Informativefunction信息功能Whatistheinformativefunction?Languageservesan“informativefunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabeledastrueorfalse.AccordingtoP.Grice’s“cooperativeprinciple”,oneoughtnottoviolatethe“maximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.Informativefunctionisalsocalledideationalfunctionintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。Hallidaynotesthat“languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’”:thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.韩礼德指\n出“语言为表达‘内容’服务：这个‘内容’就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识的内部世界。“Itrequiressomeintellectualefforttoseetheminanyotherwaythanthatwhichourlanguagesuggeststous.它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去做。1.5.2Interpersonalfunction人际功能1.5.3Performativefunction施为功能Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc,areperfomatives.1.5.4Emotivefunction感情功能1.5.5Phaticcommunion交感性谈话phaticcommunion(交感性谈话):onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.(人类语言的功能之一,指语言的社会交互性.)broadlyspeaking,phaticfunctionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslangs,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,switchestosocialandregionaldialects.概况地说，交感性功能是指那些有助于说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，行业话，礼节性的交际，社会地域方言的转化等等。Thephaticfunctionreferstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactsthanforexchanginginformationorideas.Greetings,farewellsandcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandclotinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.,“howare\nyou?”“fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon’tsay“hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“hi”,youruinyourfriendship.1.5.6Recreationalfunction娱乐性功能Whatistheevocativefunction?什么是娱乐性功能？The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuerbutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.1.5.7Metalingualfunction元语言功能metalanguage(元语言):certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudies.用以讲述或描述另一语言等的语言或一套符号。Whatisthedirectfunction?The“directionfunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction.E.g.“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“Indirectspeechacttheory”atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”Whatistheinterrogativefunction?什么是疑问功能？Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalot\nofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listener’sanswer.Whatistheexpressivefunction?The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”；Sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefuncitontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevoluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.1.6.Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisgenerallyascientificstudyoflanguage.Itisamajorbranchofsocialscience.Linguisticsstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanysociety,butthelanguageofallhumansociety,languageingeneral.语言学是对语言进行科学地研究的学科。它所研究的并不是某种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言的共性。Ascientificstudyisonewhichisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Observation------generalization-----hypothesis------testedbyfurtherobservation------theoryAlinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguage,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagvariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhuman\nlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities.Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguageingeneral.Linguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthenticlanguagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelinguisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciple:exhaustiveness,consistency,economyandobjectivity.(1)Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.(2)Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.(3)Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenisispossible.(4).Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybe\nsubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.1.7Mainbranches(scope)oflinguistics语言学的主要分支Lingusiticsshouldincludeatleastfivebranches,namely:phonologic,morphologic,syntactic,senmanticandpragmatic.语言学至少包括五个分支：语音、形态、句法、语义、和语用。Generallingusitics普通语言学-------thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsappliableinanylinguisticstudy.把语言作为一个整体来研究的学科被称为普通语言学，它是语言学研究中探索人类语言的普遍性质和规律的学科。1.7.1phonetics语音学-----studiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成，传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接等等。Phonetics----Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunityledtoestablishmentofabrachoflinguisticscalledphonetics.Howspeechareproducedandclassified.1.7.2phonology音系学（音位学）-----studiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeasthepointofdeparture.Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Englishhasapproximatelyforty-fivephonemes.研究的是语音和音节的结构，分布和序列，它将音位视为起止点，来处理语言的语音系统。音位是语音的最小的语言学单位，它能够区分意义的不同。英语大概有45个音位。\nPhonology------howsoundsformsystemsandunctiontoconveymeaningincommunication.Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsoundsthatthehumanvoiceiscapableofcreatingwhereasphonologyisthestudyofasubsetofthosesoundsthatconstitutelanguageandmeaning.语音学是研究在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音，而音系学则是研究这些语音中能形成语言和意义的一个子集。Phoneticsfoucusesonchaoswhilephonologyfocusesonorder.语音学是无序的语音，音系学则注重有序。1.7.3morphology词法学----isconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning----morphemesandword-formationprocessess.涉及词语的内部组织，它研究意义的最小单位---语素和成词过程。Morphology------thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedtofromwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.Howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords.1.7.4syntax句法学----isaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences.Theformorstructureofasentenceisgovernedbytherulesofsyntax.Theserulesspecifywordorder,sentenceorganization,andtherelationshipbetweenwords,wordclassesandothersentenceelements.句法是形成和理解正确的英语句子的规则。句子形成或结构受制于句法规则，这些规则规定了词语顺序、句子组织、以及词之间，词的格之间，和其他句子成分之间的联系。Syntax-----thecombinationofthesewordstoformpermissiblesentencesinlanguageisgovenedbyrules.Thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticstudies,i.e.,syntax.Howmorpehemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences.1.7.5semantics语义学----examineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Itisnotonlyconcernedwithmeaningsofwords\naslexicalitems,butalsowithlevelsoflanguagebelowthewordandaboveit,e.g.meaningofmorphemesandsentences.Keyconcepts:senmanticcomponent,denotationofwords,senserelationsbetweenwordssuchasantonymyandsynonymy,senserelationsbetweensentencessuchasentailmentandpresupposition.考察的是意义如何在语言中编码。它关心的不仅仅是字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和词之下的其他成分的意义，如语素和句子的意义。关键性概念：语义成分，词的所指，反义和同义等词语间的意义联系，诸如蕴涵和预设之类的句子间的意义联系。Semantics-----thestudyofmeaningwasgraduallydevelopedandbecameknownassenmantics.Thestudyofmeaning(inabstraction)1.7.6pragmatics语用学----isthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguageperformancecaninfluenceinterpretation.Inotherwords,pragmaiticsisconcernedwiththewaylanguageisusedtocommunicateratherthanwiththewaylanguageisstructured.在语境中研究意义。它是在特定的场景中处理特定的话语，尤其注意于不同社会场景影响语言诠释的方法。换句话说，语用学关心的是语言被用来交际的方法，而不是语言组成的方式。Pragmaticsregardsspeechperformanceasprimarilyasocialactruledbyvarioussocialconbentions.Somekeyconcepts:reference,force,effect,andcooperativeprinciples。语用学主要将言语行为看成是被各种社会常规所制约的一种社会行为。主要概念：所指、强制、效果和合作原则。Pragmatics----thestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextofuse.研究语言与语言使用者和语言语境的关系。1.8macrolinguistics(宏观语言学):theinteractingstudybetweenlanguageandlanguage-relateddisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,thescienceoflawand\nartificialintelligenceetc.Branchesofmacrolinguisticsincludepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,computationallinguisticsetc.(心理学,社会学,人种学,法学和人工智能等等语言学有关联.宏观语言学的分支包括心理语言学,社会语言学,人类语言学,计算语言学等等.)1.8.1Psycholinguistics心理语言学-----investigatestheinterreationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.Thereisthepsycholinguisticstudyofgrammar.Thepsycholinguisticsconstrainsontheformofgrammararestudied.Italsostudieslanguagedevelopmentinthechild,suchasthetheoriesoflanguageacquisition;biologicalfoundationoflanguage;andabigtopic----therelationshipbetweenlanguageandcognition.心理语言学考察语言和意识的相互关系，如话语的处理和产生，以及语言习得等。还有语法的心理语言学研究，即研究心理语言学对语法形式的限制。心理语言学还研究儿童语言的发展，如语言习得理论、语言的生物学基础和认知的关系等。Psycholinguistics----itrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemind.研究语言的产生和理解。语言习得等问题。1.8.2Sociolinguistics社会语言学-----isthestudyofthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,thecharacteristicsoftheirfunctions,andthecharacteristicsoftheirspeakersasthesethreeconstantlyinteractandchangewithinaspeechcommunity.研究语言多样性的特征、它们的功能特征和说话者的特征以及者三者在言语社团中持续的交互作用和变化。Sociolinguistics-----thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.研究语言与社会文化的产生。1.8.3Anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学1.8.4Computationallinguistics计算语言学-----isaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage(alsoknownas“naturallanguage”,todistinguishitfromcomputerlanguages.)\n一跨学科的领域，它以计算机处理和产生人类语言（即自然语言，与计算机语言相区别）这一应用为中心。Appliedlinguistics应用语言学-----theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.研究语言学习和语言教学等问题。1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive描写式”和“规定式”prescriptive(规定式):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.(规定事情应该是怎样的.)descriptive(描写式):akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.(描述事情是怎样的.)Descriptivevs.prescriptive“描写式”和“规定式”Theyrepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Whatmakestraditionalgrammardifferentfrommodenlinguistics?ModernlinguisticsstartedwiththepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearlyth20century.SoSaussureisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Theydifferinseveralbasicways:Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhat\nissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof“correctness”.Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwouldbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind.1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic“共时”和“历时”synchronic(共时的):akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.(共时的描写以一个固定的时间(通常,但非必须是现在)为它的观察角度,大多数的语法书属于此类型.).diachronic(历时的):studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.(在语言的历史过程中研究语言.)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g(1)anessayentitled“OnthesueofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalernation.(2)astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakepeare’stimeandwouldbeasynchronicstudy,anda\nstudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.1.9.3langue&parole“语言”和“言语”langue(语言):thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.(说话者的语言能力.)parole(言语):theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).(语言的实际现象或语料.)ThedistinctionwasmadebytheSwisslinguistSaussureinththeearly20century.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse,ortheactualoractualizedlanguage.语言是一个语言社会的所有成员共同使用的抽象语言系统。言语是对于这些抽象语言系统的实际运用。Whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.(1)Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，是因人而异的。(2)Languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccruingevent.(3)Languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusntosuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportant,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.1.9.4Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用\ncompetence(语言能力):alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)performance(语言应用):theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)ThedistinctionisdiscussedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“compentence”istheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage理想的语言使用者的抽象语言知识and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterance,inlinguisticcommunication.语言使用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际运用。Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspearker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompentence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?\nBothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolediffertoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.de.Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticspointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissurespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.索绪尔的理论与乔姆斯基的理论的不同之处在于索绪尔是从语言的社会学角度来谈论语言；而乔姆斯基是从语言的心理学角度来谈论语言的。1.9.5Eticvs.Emicetic(非位的):atermincontrastwithemicwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Beingeticmansmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,justaswasoftenthecasewithphoneticvs.phonemicanalysisinlinguisticsproper.(术语来自于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分.他更容易面临”非位”而不是”位学”的倾向,也就是实践中弄出来过多的不重要的区别,严格的语言学中有关语言和音位的分析就是这样的例子.)4.emic(位学的):atermincontrastwitheticwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Anemicsetofspeechactsand\neventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator’singenuityorintuitionalone.(言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的,是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的.)whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwirting?Why?Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimaryofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary,becauseitexistedlonglongbforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsoundsindividualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.Incontrasttospeech,spokeformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,givelanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messangescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowuff,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarAPoe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional,whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.Mostmodernlinguisticsanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtehretofore.Speechenjoyspriorityoverwritinginmodernlinguisticstudyforthefollowingreasons:(1)Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution\n(2)Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.(3)Speechistheforminwhichimfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.Whatislinguisticpotential?whatisactuallinguisticbehaviour?Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,weremadebyM.A.KHallidayinthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarllytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.“hisactuallinguisticbehaviour”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaidlinguisticpotential.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?Language,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventins;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisialbebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans”knowing”,abdlinguisticpotentialsetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”ro“performingactions”.Theyaresimilarinthattheyrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterance,thatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Parole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthan\ndifferences.第二章（添加）Chapter2SpeechSounds-PhoneticsandPhonology2.PHONETICS2.1ScopeofphoneticsPHONETICSisthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.SPEECHSOUNDSmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,threebranchesofphonetics,articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphoneticsandacousticphonetics.2.1.1ArticulatoryphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromthepointofviewofthespeaker,thatis,wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.ThisaspectofphoneticsiscalledARTICULATORYPHONETICS.2.1.2AuditoryphoneticsAmeaningfulactofspeechhasanotherend–thereceptionend.Thesoundsproducedbythespeakerwillbereceivedbythehearer.Speechsoundsthereforemayalsobestudiedfromthehearer’spointofview.Wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.ThisareaofresearchisknownasAUDITORY\nPHONETICS.2.1.3AcousticphoneticsTomakeaspeechsoundvisiblesothatwecanmeasureitscomponentsobjectivelywemustthengointothedomainofACOUSTICPHONETICS,whichstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Instruments,suchastheoscillographandthesoundspectrograph,havebeenusedtotranslateasoundintoavisualrepresentationofitscomponentsintermsoffrequencyandintensity.Thesoundspectrographwill,inaddition,showtheformantsofvowels.2.2TheVocalOrgansThevocalorgans(seeFig.1),orthespeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.2.2.1Theinitiatoroftheair-streamThefirstrequisitefortheproductionofaspeechsoundisthatthereisanair-stream.2.2.2ThevocalcordsTheair-streamprovidedbythelungshastoundergoanuntoerofmodificationstoacquirethequalityofaspeechsound.Thefirstpointwhereitispossibletomodifytheair-streamisatthetopofthewindpipe,whichendsinabonystructurecalledtheLARYNX.InsidethelarynxaretheVOCALCORDS.Theyareinfacttwofoldsofmembrane(hencealsothenamevocalfolds),whicharefixedtogetheratthefrontbut\nhorizontallymoveableattheback.ThespacebetweenthevocalcordsistermedtheGLOTTIS.Inspeechthevocalcordshavethreemainfunctions.(1)Thevocalcordsmaybeclosedtightlysothattheairstreamfromthelungsisblockedandtheairpressurebehindthembuildsup.ThisphenomenoniscalledtheGLOTTALSTOPandsymbolizedas[?].Thusthesoundisinaudible,butithasitseffectonsurroundingsegments.InEnglish,itoftenoccursinitiallytopronounceawordlike‘idiot’whichbeginswithavowel.(2)Ifthevocalcordsarebroughttogethertotheextentthatthereisonlyanarrowpassagebetweenthem,thepressureoftheairstreamwillsettheminvibration.Theresultisasound.Thesoundhasaregularwaveformandthenumberofvibrationsinasecondisfixed,sothatwecanperceiveitspitch.Inphonetics,thissoundiscalledVOICE,andsoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledVOICEDSOUNDS.ConsonantslikeEnglish[b,m,z]arevoiced.Vowelsareusuallyvoiced,too.ThePITCHofasounddependsontherateofvibrationofthevocalcords,whichinturnisdeterminedbythelengthofthevocalcords.Whenthevocalcordsarenotvibratingatthetimeofitsproduction,theresultantsoundiscalledaVOICELESSSOUND.Consonantslike[f,s,p]arevoicelesssounds.\n2.2.3TheresonatingcavitiesInthehumanspeechmechanism,therearethreeresonatingcavities:thePHARYNS,theNASALCAVITYandtheORALCAVITY.2.2.3.1ThepharynxThePHARYNXstretchesfromthetopofthelarynxuptothebackofthenasalcavityandservesasthecontainerofavoiumeofairwhichcanbesetintovibrationinharmonywithvibrationscomingfromthevocalcords.2.2.3.2ThenasalcavityTheNASALCAVITYisoffixeddimensionsandshape,anditscontributiontospeechisentirelyamatterofresonance.2.2.3.3TheoralcavityTheORALCAVITYisbyfarthemostimportantofthethreecavities;itisherethatmostofthedistinctionsofarticulatespeecharefashioned.Theoralcavityisboundedatthetopbyadome–shapedstructure–thePALATE.Thefrontpartofthepalateisbonyandfixed,hencethetermHARDPALATE;itsbackpart,theSPFTPALATE,ismuscularandmoveable.ThesoftfleshytipofthesoftpalatehangingdownatthebackofthemouthiscalledtheUVULA.Onthehardpalatejustbehindtheteethonecanfeelaprominentridge.Thiscoverstherootsoftheteethandiscalledtheteethridgeor,morelearnedly,theALVEOLARRIDGE.Movingfurtheroutwards,wecometotheteeth,andtheoutmostarethelipsformingthefrontexitoftheoralcavity.Atthebottomoftheoralcavityliesacomplexmuscularstructure–theTONGUE.\nWhenthetongueisatrest,withitstiplyingbehindthelowerteeth,thepartwhichliesoppositethehardpalateiscalledtheFRONTandthatwhichfacesthesoftpalateiscalledtheBACK.ThetaperingsectionfacingtheteethridgeiscalledtheBLADEanditsextremitytheTIP.ThesystemofvocalorgansisalsotermedtheVOCALTRACT.Thepartwhichisabovethelarynxiscalledthesupraglottaltractandthepartbelowthelarynxthesubglottaltract.ThesupraglottalisfurtherdividedintotheORALTRACTandtheNASALTRACT,thedividinglinebeingthesoftpalateinitsraisedposition.ThevocalorgansintheoraltractaretechnicallyknownasARTICULATORS,thosewhicharemoveableareactivearticulatorsandthosenotmoveablearepassivearticulators.2.3ConsonantsSpeechsoundsmaybeclassifiedintotwomajortypesintermsoftheirarticulatorycharacteristics.ThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledCONSONANTS.Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheair-streampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledVOWELS.2.3.1Placesofarticulation(1)BILABIAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythetwolips,suchasintheproductionof[p,b,m]oftheEnglishwords“pie,buy,my”.(2)LABIODENTAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth,suchasintheproductionof[f,v]oftheEnglishwords“fie,vie”.\n(3)DENTAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth,suchasintheproductionof[]oftheEnglishwords“thigh,thy”.(4)ALVEOLAR---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge,suchasintheproductionof[t,d,1,n,s,z]oftheEnglishwords“tie,die,lie,nigh,sigh,zyme”.(5)RETROFLEX---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbytheundersideofthetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.Thetipofthetonguecurledupandback.InthestandardpronunciationofSouthernBritishEnglish,knownasRECEIVEDPRONUNCIATION(RP),retroflexsoundsarenotusuallyused.Aretroflexr-soundistypicalofmanyAmericanspeakers.(6)PALATO-ALVEOLAR---theobstructionoftheair-streamiscausedbythetonguebladeandthebackofthealveolarridge,suchasintheproductionof[∫,3]oftheEnglishword“shy”andtheFrenchword“genre”.(7)PALATAL---thefrontofthetongueisraisedtowardsthehardpalatetoobstructtheair-stream,suchasintheproductionof[j]oftheEnglishwords“yes,you”.(8)VELAR---thebackofthetongueisraisedsothatittouchesthesoftpalatetoobstructtheair-stream,suchasintheproductionof[k,g,η]oftheEnglishwords“sick,zig,sing”.\n(9)UVULAR---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythebackofthetongueandtheuvular,suchasintheproductionof[R]or[R]oftheFrenchwords“rouge,rose”.(10)GLOTTAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythevocalcords,suchasintheproductionof[?],theglottalstopmentionedbefore.Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthatofthebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermedLABIAL-VELAR.2.3.2Mannersofarticulation(1)PLOSIVE---intheproductionofaplosive,theair-streamisobstructedcompletelvbothintheoralandnasaltracts,sothatwhentheclosureintheoraltractissuddenlyreleased,thecompressedairrushesoutandproducesanexplosivesound.Accordingtotheplaceoftheoralclosure,plosivesmaybebilabial[p,b],alveolar[t,d],velar[k,g],glottal[?],etcAplosivecanalsobecalledanORALSTOP.(2)NASAL---intheproductionofanasal,theair-streamiscompletelyobstructedintheoraltractbutnotinthenasaltract,sothattheairpassesthroughthenosefreely.e.g.bilabial[m],alveolar[n],velar[ŋ],etc.AnasalcanalsobecalledaNASALSTOP.(3)TRILL---intheproductionofatrilltheobstructionoftheair-streamiscausedbyairpressurewhenaflexibleorgantouchesandleavesafirmersurfaceinveryquickmovementsrepeatedly.(4)LATERAL---intheproductionofalateraltheair-stream\nisobstructedalongthecentreoftheoraltract,butoneorbothsidesofthetongueareawayfromtheroofofthemouth,sothattheaircangothroughthemouthlaterally.Forinstance,[1]oftheEnglishwords“lie,low”isnormallyproducedwithoutaudiblefriction,soitismorepreciselycalledaLATERALAPPROXIMANT.(5)FRICATIVE---intheproductionofafricativetwovocalorgansarebroughtveryclosetogethersothattheairstreamforeingitswaythroughtheresultingnarrowingbecomesturbulent,andthisturbulenceisheardasafricativenoise.InEnglishthemostfrequentlyusedfricativesarelabiodental[f,v,],dental[θ,ð],alveolar[s,z],andpalatal-alveolar[∫,з].Amongthem,[s,z,∫,з]aremadewitharatherhigh-pitched,hissykindoffrictionandaresometimesreferredtoasSIBILANTS;theothers,havingalesshissy,morediffusekindoffriction,arereferredtoasnon-sibilants.(6)APPROXIMANT---intheproductionofanapproximantthespacebetweentwoapproximatingvocalorgansisalittlewiderthanthatforafricative,justwideenoughtoavoidcausingfrictionwhentheair-streampassesthroughthem.InEnglish,[r]inwordslike“red,right”ismoreoftenpronouncedasanapproximant.Intheproductionofthesesounds,theair-streamisnotinfactobstructed,whichisacharacteristicofvowels,therefore[j]and[w]werecalledSEMIVOWELS,and[j]FRICTIONLESSCONTINUANTinthepast.(7)AFFRICATE---Astherearesoundsinvolvingtwoplacesofarticulation,sotherearesoundsinvolvingtwomannersofarticulation[t∫,dз]oftheEnglishwords“church,judge”,for\nexample,areeachacombinationofaplosiveandafricative.2.3.3Theclassificationofconsonantsbilabiallabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatoalveolarpalatalvelarglottalmnŋpbtdkgfvθsz∫зhðt∫dз(w)rj1Soacompletedescriptionofaconsonantincludesfivefactors:1)thestateofthevocalcords(voicedorvoiceless);2)theplaceofarticulation;3)thecourseoftheescapingoftheair-stream(centralorlateral);4)thepositionofthesoftpalate(oralornasal);and5)themannerofarticulation.Thusthethreeconsonantsintheword“final”maybedescribedinthefollowingway:12345[f]:voioelesslabiodental(central)(oral)fricative[n]:voicedalveolar(centralnasal(plosive)[l]:voicedalveolarlateral(oral)(approximant)\n2.4Vowels2.4.1CardinalvowelsOfthevariousCARDINALVOWELsystems,themostsatisfactoryistheonedevisedbyDanielJones.Thefirstfiveofthesevowelsarepronouncedwiththelipsunroundedandtheremainingthreearepronouncedwiththelipsrounded.FrontBack2.4.2TheclassificationofvowelsThreefactorswereemployedtodistinguishbetweenvowels.Theyare:(1)theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low),(2)thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);and(3)thedegreeofliprounding(rounded,unrounded).Intermsofthesethreedimensions,theEnglishvowel[i]maybedescribedasanunroundedhighfrontvoweland[]aroundedlowbackvowel.Foramorepreciseclassificationofvowelsinthelanguages,therearethreeadditionalfactorsworthmentioning.Theyare:(1)whetheravowelisoralornasal;(2)whetheravowelislongorshort;and(3)whetheravowelispureorgliding.Cardinalvowelsareproducedwiththesoftpalateraised.Thatistosay,thereisaclosurecausedbythevelum—avelicclosure,theair-streamcannotgothroughthenasalcavity,socardinalvowelsarealloralvowels.InEnglishtherearealsocontrastsbetweenlongandshortvowels.Butherethedifferenceisnotentirelyamatteroflength,itisacombinationofbothqualityandlength.The\nso-calledshortvowel[i]isnotonlyshorter’butalsopronouncedwiththefrontofthetongueinalittleopenerandmorecentralpositionthan[i:].ThedistinctionbetweenpureandglidingvowelsisknownmorefamiliarlyasonebetweenMONOPHTHONGSandDIPHTHONGS.Agliding(ordiphthongal)vowelinvolvesachangeinqualitywithintheonevowel.Itglidesfromoneelementtoasecondelement,andusuallythefirstpartismoreprominentthanthesecond.Whileapurevowelhasanunchangingquality,whichcanbeprolongedatwill,thequalityofaglidingvowelisnotthesameattheendasitwasatthebeginning.2.5PhonetictranscriptionPHONETICTRANSCRIPTIONisamethodofwritingdownspeechsoundsinasystematicandconsistentway.Inphoneticstudiesitservesasanaidtothedescriptionofspeechsounds.2.5.1TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetOnthebasisofthephoneticalphabetproposedatthetime,theInternationalPhoneticAssociationdevisedtheINTERNATIONALPHONETICALPHABET(both,incidentally,areabbreviatedasIPA)in1888.SincethentheIPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.2.5.2NarrowandbroadtranscriptionsInhisHandbookofphonetics,Henrysweetmadeadistinctionbetweennarrowandbroadtranscriptions,whichhecalledNARROWROMICandBROADROMIC.NarrowRomicismeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingtheminuteshades,whileBroadromicisintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundswhicharecapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordorone\nshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaPHONEME.Thetranscriptioninwhichonlythephonemesarerepresentedisphonemic.Thedifferentmembersofaphoneme,soundswhicharephoneticallydifferentbutdonotmakeoneworddifferentfromanotherinmeaning,areALLOPHONES.Thetranscriptionthatshowstheallophonicdifferenceisanallophonictranscription.Thetranscriptionsindictionariesusedtobephonetic,butarenowinterpretedasphonemic,asshowninLongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglishandOxfordAdvancedLearner’sDictionaryofCurrentEnglish.Exercises1.Definethefollowingterms:articulatoryphoneticsplaceofarticulationvoicingIPAconsonantdiphthongarticulatorphonetictranscriptionmannerofarticulationbroadtranscription2.Describethefollowingconsonants:t,d,m,n,l,θ,p,g,h.3.Whatarecardinalvowels?4.Circlethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired:(a)abilabialconsonantmadsadbadradpadhadlad(b)avelarconsonantnodgodcodpodrod(c)alabiodentalconsonantratfatsatmatchatvatpat(d)analveolarconsonantnick,lick,sick,tick,kick,quick(e)adentalconsonantliebuythighthytierye(f)apalato-alveolarconsonant\nsipshiptipchiplipzip(g)alateralmulllullhulllight(h)anapproximantonewaryolkrush5.Circlethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:(a)africativepayhosetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemassage(b)anasaltrainbangleaflimb(c)astopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtip(d)anaffricateracksuchridgebooze6.Circlethewordsthatcontainasoundasrequired(a)AhighvowelMatlotmeatmudboot(b)AlowvowelReedpadloadmapcrudecod(c)AfrontvowelFateboughtsatbitbutbet7.NametheconsonantsoundsinthemiddleofeachofthefollowingwordsasindicatedintheexampleVoicedorPlaceofMannerofvoicelessarticulationarticulationvoicedalveolarstopadderbrothersunnyhopperitchinglodger\ncallingsingingrobberetherutter3.PHONOLOGY3.1DistinctivenessinspeechsoundsPHONOLOGYisthestudyofsoundsystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Speechsounds,aswehaveseen,aredifferentfromeachotherinanumberofways,suchas,placeofarticulation,mannerofarticulation,voicing,nasality,aspiration,tongueheight,etc.Someofthedifferencesaredistinctiveinthattheyservetodistinguishbetweenwordsinagivenlanguage.InEnglish,forexample,thedifferencebetween/p/and/b/,/i/and/e/,/n/and/η/aredistinctive.Substitutingonefortheotherchangesthemeaningofaword:“pin”wouldbecome“bin”,“pen”or“ping”DistinctivesoundsofthiskindaretermedPHONEMES.Definition:Whiletheactualproductionofaspeechsoundmayvaryslightly,itscontrasttoothersoundswithinasystemmustbedistinctenoughtodifferentiatemeaning.Thesesystematicunitsofdistinctsoundarecalledphonemes.Ifasounddifferencedoesnotcauseameaningdifferenceinalanguage,thenitisnondistinctive.Inthepreviouschapter,wesaidthatthe/1/inEnglishwords“let”,“play”,“tell”arepronounceddifferently,andthesubstitutionofsay,[l]for[l]wouldnotmakeadifferentword,\nthoughnativespeakersmayfindthepronunciationabitstrange.Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme,andareknownasALLOPHONES.Theallophoneisaphoneme-subtype,aparticularwayaphonemeisnormallyutteredinagivenphonologicalenvironment,suchasaspiratedandaspirated[t].hSincetheydifferassounds,wemightusetwosymbols:[t]hand[t].Thephoneme/t/inEnglishhastheallophones[t]and[t-]Phonology,differentfromphonetics,islanguagespecific.Itdealswithspeechsoundswithinthecontextofaparticularlanguage.3.2ThephonemetheoryThephonemeisthebasicunitinphonologicalanalysis.Phonologists,however,differgreatlyinregardtothenatureanduseofthephoneme.Somelookuponthephonemeasaphysicalphoneticentity;someemphasizethefunctionalsideofthephoneme;andotherstakethepsychologicalpointofview,maintainingthatthephonemeis“amentalreality”,“theintentionofthespeakerortheimpressionofthehearer,orboth.”3.2.1MinimalpairsTofindoutthedistinctivesounds,thecustomarypracticeistotrytofindMINIMALPAIRS—wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Foeexample:inEnglish,“pin”and“bin”,‘pin’and‘pen’areeachaminimalpair.ContrastivedistributionhAsthesubstitutionof[b]for[p],[e]for[I],or[η]forh[n]changesthemeaningofthewordconcerned,thepairsof[p]and[b],[i]and[e],[n]and[η]areeachsaidtobein\nCONTRASTIVEDISTRIBUTION.Soundsincontrastivedistributionshouldbeassignedtohdifferentphonemes,so[p],[b],[i],[e],[n],[η]inEnglishbelongtodifferentphonemes,whicharetranscribedas/p/,/b/,/i/,/e/,/n/,/η/.3.2.2FreevariationIfhowever,twosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,thatis,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thenthetwosoundsareinFREEVARIATION.Forexample,theplosivesinEnglishmaynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal,suchasinthewordsandphrases“act”,“apt”,“thatboy”,“goodmorning”.oooTheseunexplodedplosivesmaybetranscribedas[k],[p],[t],o[d],witharaisedcircleontheright.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.Whateverthevariation,twoprinciplesguidetheidentificationofphonemes:Complementarydistributionandphoneticsimilarity.3.2.3ComplementarydistributionandPhoneticsimilarityNotallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwowordsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeinCOMPLEMENTARYDISTRIBUTION.hhForexample,inEnglish,theaspiratedplosives[p],[t],h[k]neveroccurafter/s/,andtheunaspiratedones[p],[t],[k]neveroccurinitially,suchasinthepairs“spot”and“pot”;“stop”and“top”,“school”and“cool”,etc.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothehhsamephoneme,asisthecasewiththeEnglish[p]and[p],[t]\nhand[t],and[k]and[k].Theallophones[l],[l],[f]of/1/arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,suchasinthewords“light’,“glad”,“failure”;andthevoiceless[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”;andthedark[f]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”.Butcomplementarydistributionisnottheonlyconditiontoidentifytwosoundsasofthesamephoneme.Themustsatisfysomeotherconditionsaswell.Oneconditionfortwosoundsincomplementarydistributiontobelongtothesamephonemeisthattheymustbephoneticallysimilar.Onewell-knowncaseinthisregardistheEnglishsounds[h]and[η].Intermsofdistribution,theyarecomplementarytoeachother:[h]occursonlyatthebeginningofasyllable,suchasinthewords“head”,“heart”,“enhance”,“perhaps”,and[η]havelittleincommonexceptthattheyarebothconsonants.[h]isvoicelesswhile[η]isvoiced;[h]isafricativewhile[η]isa(nasalplosive;[h]isoralwhile[η]isnasal;[h]isglottalwhile[η]isvelar.PHONETICSIMILARITY,however,islargelyamatterofdegree.Itisdifficulttodecidetowhatextentthesimilaritycounts.Andwhenasoundissimilartotwoothersounds,itisdifficulttodecidewhichofthetwoitshouldbegroupedtogetherwith.Anotherexample:phoneticsimilarityandcomplementarydistribution.Thefirstsaysthatthedental/n/oftenth,thealveolar/n/often,andpalatal/n/ofinchareenoughaliketobeclassedtogether.Thesecondisawayofdisposingofthefeaturesthatdiffer.\nThedistributionofdental/n/andpalatal/n/arenotthesameasthatofalveolar/n/;insteadtheycomplementeachother:Eachoccurswherethetwoothersdonot—theydonotcontrastwithoneanotherinthesameenvironment,as/nηm/doinran-rang-ram.Sotheyare“thesame/n/”withdifferentallophones.3.2.5PatterncongruityIncasesliketheEnglishunaspirated[p],[t],[k],wemusttakeintoconsiderationthegeneralpatternofthephonemesinthelanguage.Ifwechoosetoclassifythemwith[b],[d],[g],thatis,toassignthemasallophonesof/b/,/d/,/g/,thenweshouldhavetotranscribe[spot]phonemicallyas/sbop/,and[sku:l]as/sgu:l]/.HoweverthisrecognitioniscontrarytothegeneralpatterninEnglish,namely,inconsonantclustersofplosivesandfricatives,theyusuallysharethesamevoicefeature,eitherbotharevoicedorbotharevoiceless.Whatismore,inviewofthetotalityofthephonemesinEnglish,thefeatureofvoiceismoreimportantthanthefeatureofaspiration.hThereforeitispreferabletoclassify[p],[t],[k]with[p],hh[t],[k].ThetermPATTERNCONGRUITYhasalsobeenusedinthesensethatotherthingsbeingequal,themoresymmetricalaphonologicalsystemisthebetter.InEnglish,thereisapairofaffricates/t∫/and/dэ/.Whydowenottreatthemascombinationsofsinglephonemesintheway[ts]and[dz]aretreated?Itappearsthatthesound[dэ]shouldbetreatedasasinglephonemewhile[t∫]couldbetreatedasacombinationoftwophonemes.Butifwedidthat,thepatternofEnglishconsonants\nwouldappearasymmetrical:Onthegroundsofpatterncongruity,therefore,[t∫]isbettertreatedasasinglephonemetoo.3.3AfunctionalapproachAfunctionalapproachtowardstheconceptofphonemewasproposedbythePragueSchool,agroupoflinguistsactiveinthe20sand30softhiscenturyatPrague.Theydeclare:“Thephonemecanbedefinedsatisfactorilyneitheronthebasisofitspsychologicalnaturenoronthebasisofitsrelationtothephoneticvariants,butpurelyandsolelyonthebasisofitsfunctioninthesystemoflanguage.”(NikolaiTrubetzkoy,PrinciplesofPhonology:41)Weshalltouchupononlytwooftheirviewpoints:neutralizationandarchiphoneme;distinctivefeatures.3.3.1NeutralizationandArchiphonemePhonemesarecapableofdistinguishingbetweendifferentwordsbecausetheythemselvesaredifferentfromoneanother.ThisdifferencebetweenphonemesiscalledphonologicaloppositioninthePragueSchool.Intheirdiscussionofphonologicaloppositions,theynoticethatsomeoppositionsareeffectiveinallcontextsandsomeareeffectiveonlyincertaincontexts.Theycalltheformertypeconstantoppositionandthelatterneutralizableopposition.Forexample,inEnglish,/p/and/b/aretwodistinctivesounds;substitutingonefortheothergenerallychangesthemeaningofaword.Butinthecontextof/s-/,thisoppositionislost,i.e.neutralized.NotwoEnglishwordsaredistinguishedbythepresenceof/sp/inoneandthepresenceof/sb/intheother.Thereisonlyonesoundoccurringafter/s/,whetheritisgroupedwiththephoneme/p/or/b/.InPragueSchoolphonology,aphonemeisdefinedbythe\noppositionitenters.Sincetheoppositionisdifferentwhenitisneutralizedfromwhenitisnot,thephonemeintheneutralizedpositioncannotbethesameasthephonemeinthenon-neutralizedposition.Thatistosay,theEnglishphonemeoccurringafter/s/shouldnotbethesameaseither/p/or/b/.PragueSchoollinguistsuseaspecialsymbolforit–thecapitalized/p/,andtermitARCHIPHONEME.3.3.2DistinctivefeatucesPhonemeshouldcontainonlythephonologicallyrelevantproperties.hForexample,inEnglish,thesound[p]containsthephoneticpropertiesofvoicelessness,bilabiality,plosiveness,andaspiration,etc.Butonlythefirstthreearephonologicallyrelevant,whichdifferentiateitfrom/t/(avoicelessalveolarplosive),/m/(avoicedbilabialnasal),and/b/(avoicedbilabialplosive).hAspirationin[p]isphonologicallyirrelevant.Itdoesnotenteraphonologicalopposition;therearenowordswhicharedifferentiatedbythisphoneticpropertyinEnglish.Aphonemeisthesumofthephonologicallyrelevantpropertiesofasound.Thus,thephoneme,thoughdefinedastheminimalunitintermsoflinearity,i.e,notsuccessivelydivisible,canneverthelessbeanalysedintosmallercomponentssimultaneously.ThesesmallercomponentsofaphonemearetechnicallytermedDISTINCTIVEFEATURES.PragueSchoollinguistsproposethatthephonologicaloppositionsintheworld’slanguagescouldbeaccountedforbytwelvedistinctivefeatures.Thesefeafureshavethreecharacteristics.First,theyarephonological.Second,theyareallbinary.Third,theyarebothacousticallyandarticulatorilybased.\n3.4SuprasegmentalphonologySUPRASEGMENTALPHONOLOGYreferstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesofunitslargerthanthesegment–phoneme,suchasthesyllable,wordandsentence.4.4.1ThesyllableTheSYLLABLEconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAKandtheCODA.Inasyllablesuchas/mn/,/m/istheonset,//isthepeak,and/n/isthecoda.Thepeakistheessentialpart,whichasyllablemustcontain,whiletheonsetandcodaaremargins,whichmaybeabsentfromit.Thepeakisusuallyformedbyavowel,hencethesymbolV.Butinwordssuchas‘apple’,‘hidden’and‘rhythm’,/l/,/n/and/m/alsofunctionaspeaks.Theyaresaidtobesyllabicandsymbolizedas/l/,/n/and/m/.Asyllablewithoutacoda,thatis,asyllableendinginavowel,isanOPENSYLLABLE.AndasyllablecheckedorarrestedbyaconsonantisaCLOSEDSYLLABLE.Eachsyllablehasoneandonlyonepeak,thereforewhentherearetwovowelsinaword,theymustbeseparatedintotwosyllables.InEnglishtheremaybeatmostthreeconsonantsbeforethepeakandfourafterit---CCCVCCCC.Thereare24consonantsinEnglishbutonlyalimitedfewcanco-occurasthreeconsonantCLUSTERSinthesyllableinitialposition.Theyare:prS+t+lkjwThisstudyofsyllablestructure,thepossiblecombinations\nofphonemes,isknownasPHONOTACTICS,orSYNTAGMATICPHONOLOGY.3.4.2StressTheprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesareSTRESS,LENGTH,PITCH,andconcurrentpatterningsofthreearecollectivelyknownasINTONATION.STRESSisafeatureforwhichthesmallestunitofapplicationisthesyllable.Whenwesayacertainsyllableisstressed,wemeanitispronouncedwitharelativelygreateramountofenergy.3.4.2.1WordstressStressisarelativenotion.Asyllablecanbestressedonlywhenthereisanothersyllablewhichisnotstressed.SomonosyllabicwordscannotbesaidtohaveWORDSTRESS.Insomelanguagesthepositionofthesyllableinaworddetermineswhetheritisstressed.Stressisfreeinthatitisnottiedtoanyparticularsyllableofaword.Itmayfallonthefirstsyllableinsomewords,onthesecondinothers,andonthethirdinstillothers.LanguageslikeRussianandEnglishareofthistype.Thereareotherfactorswhichdeterminetheplacementofstress.First,theysyntacticclassofawordprovidessomecluetothepositionofstress.InEnglish,forexample,adifferentsyllableisstressedwhenawordisusedasanounfromwhenitisaverb.SimilaralternationsofstressoccurbetweencompoundsandphrasesinEnglish.A“blackbird”,withthefirstelementstressed,isacompoundreferringtoaparticularkindofbird,whichmaynotnecessarilybeblackincolour;buta“blackbird”,withthesecondelementstressed,isaphrase,capableofreferringtoanykindofbirdwhichisblackincolour.Second,themorphologicalmake-upofawordaffectsitsstress\npattern.Forexample,inEnglishwordswiththefollowingendings,themainstressfallsontheprecedingsyllable:-ity,-ion,-ian,-ic,-ify(Verb),-ible,-igible,-ish.Andverbsofthreeormoresyllablesendingin“-ate”,throwthemainstressbacktwosyllables,whereasverbsoftwosyllablesendingin“ate”placethestresson“ate”.3.4.2.2SentencestressSENTENCESTRESSdiffersfromwordstressintwoways:(1)monosyllabicwordsmaytakesentencestress,(2)polysyllabicwordsmayhavethestressonadifferentsyllablefromwhereitisinisolationortheymayloseitcompletely.Sentencestressisnotwhollyrandomeither;therearealsorulestofollow.First,sentencestressdependsontherelativeimportanceoftheword.Themoreimportantawordis,thestrongerisitsstress.InEnglishtheimportantwordsareusually(intheabsenceofspecialemphasis)nouns,adjectives,mainverbs,adverbsanddemonstrativepronouns.Othercategoriesofwords,forexample,auxiliaryverbs,conjunctions,prepositions,etc.arenotnormallystressed.Second,reythmicconsiderationsinfluencetheplacementofstress.Thereisatendencytoavoidhavingstressestooclosetogether.Thistendencymaycauseawordtobestressedononesyllableinonesentenceandonanotherornoneatallinanothersetence.Theword‘went’isstressedin“Hewentaway”,butunstressedin“Johnwentaway”.Third,thesyntacticstructureofasentencehasabearing\nonitsstresspattern.Forexample,phrasesofaparentheticalnatureareoftenunstressed.IntheEnglishsentences“Hashegonetotownthismorning?”“Howdoyoudo,Mr.Smith?”,and“‘Yes’,hesaid”;thewords“thismorning”,“Mr.Smith”and“hesaid”usuallydonotreceivestress.4.4.3PitchPITCHisanothersuprasegmentalfeature,whosesmallestdomainofapplicationisthesyllable.Whenthevocalcordsarelooselyclosed,theairfromthelungswillsettheminvibration.Differentratesofvibrationproducewhatisknowninacoustictermsasdifferentfrequencies,andinauditorytermsasdifferentpitches.Pitchvariationsmaybedistinctivelikephonemes,thatis,theymaycontributetodistinguishbetweendifferentwords.Inthisfunction,pitchyariationsarecalledTONES,andlanguagesusingtonesarecalledTONELANGUAGES,ofwhichChineseisone.3.4.4IntonationWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasINTONA-TION.Intonationhasfourgrammaticalfunctions:First,itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.Intagquestions,oneasksforconfirmationwithafallingtone,andasksforinformationwitharisingtone.Second,sometimesthedifferentpitchdirectionmayindicateconnotativemeanings.Thesentence"Ican'teatanything"equalsto"Icaneatnothing”whenSaidwithafallingtoneon"anything",butitmeans"Icanonlyeatsomeparticularthings"whensaidwithafall-risetoneon"anything".\nThird,itmayimposedifferentstructureonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits.Forexample,if"Johndidn'tcomebecauseofMary"issaidwithinoneintonationunit,theadverbial"becauseofMary”isinthesamestructurewith"not''andnegatedbyit,soitmeans"Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMary".Ontheotherhand,ifitissaid.withtwointonationunits,dividedbetween"come"and"because”,"not"negates"come”,anditmeans"MarywasthereasonwhyJohndidn'tcome".Fourth,intonationmaybringpartofasentenceintoprominencebyplacingthenucleus(themajorpitchchange)onthesyllableconcerned.Intonationalsohasattitudinalfunctions.Itmayindicatetheemotionalstateofthespeaker—whetherheiscalmorexcited,happyorsad.Forexample,thefallingtoneindicatesmatter-of-factstatements,downrightassertions,commands:therisingtoneindicatespoliteness,encouragement,pieadingandsoon.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext,bothofthesituationandofthespeaker'spersonality.Exercises1.Definethefollowingterms:Allophonedistinctivefeaturephonemesuprasegmentalminimalpairsyllablefreevariationstresscomplementarypitchdistribution\n2.Answerthefollowingquestions.A.Howisaphonemedifferentfromaspeechsound?B.Underwhatconditionswilltwosoundsbeassignedthesamephoneme?C.Howdowedeterminesentencestress?D.Whatarethegrammaticalfunctionsofintonation?3.TranscriptionA.Whichofthetwotranscriptionsbelowisthenarrower?Bettycriedassheleftintheredplane.(a)['beti:'kraxdazIi'leftm6a'red'plem](b)['bedi:'kraldazSi'leftI06a'red'plem]B.Staterulesforconvertingthetranscription(a)intothatin(b).Makeyourrulesasgeneralaspossible,sothattheycovernotonlythispairoftranscriptionsbutalsoothersimilarsentences.ex.[t][d]whenitoccursafterastressedvowelandbeforeanunstressedvowel.(a)(b)(c)(d)4.Decidewhethertheunderlinedvowelsarestressed(S),unstressed(U)orreduced(R).ex.depreciate(S)create(U)deprecate(R)(a)implicit()simplistic()implication()(b)explanation(')chaotic()explain()(c)tempestuous(U)allegation()allege()(d)fantastic()emphasis()emphatic()(e)demonstrable.()prognosis()demonstration(f)confront()confrontation()umbrella()\n(g)confirmation()verbose()confirm()(h)recitation()recite()citation()(i)computation()circular()compute()第三章Chapter3Lexicon词汇Teachingaims:letthestudentshaveabriefknowledgeaboutmorphemesandthebasicword-formationmethodsFocalpoints:definitionandclassificationofmorphemes;majorword-formationmethodsTeachingprocedureLexicon：Initsmostgeneralsense,lexiconissynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,itdealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords.Word3.1WhatiswordWordisaunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.词是个表达单位，不管是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人对词有种普遍的直觉识别能力。3.1.1Threesensesof“word”“词”的三种含义a.aphysicaldefinableunit:是自然的有界限单位wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanks.词可以看作是两个间隔或空白之间的音段成分或字母的组合群。b.thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms是支配一组形式的共同因素。Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme.词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。lexicon:alistofallthewordsinalanguageassignedtovariouslexicalcategoriesandprovidedwithsemanticinterpretation.lexeme(词位):Aseparateunitofmeaning,usuallyintheformofaword(e.g.”doginthemanger”)Lexeme-----ispostulatedastheabstractunitunderlyingthe\nsmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts.词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。e.g.boyboys;check,checks,checking,checked;write,writes,wrote,writing,written;fat,fatter,fattestboy,check,write,andfatarethelexemes.c.agrammaticalunit是一个语法单位。e.g.Itiskindofyou,MissHou.Everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence.3.1.2Identificationofwords词的识别1.stability稳定性Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure,thatis,theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement,comparedwiththerelativepositionalmobilityoftheconstituentsofsentencesinthehierachy.Butitisallrightforustorearrangetheconstituentsinasentencetoacertaindegree.所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就其内部结构来说，跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但是句子成分却可以做一定程度的重新排列。e.g.Thechairmanlookedattheaudience.主席看观众Theaudienceloookedatthechairman.观众看主席。2.Relativeuninterruptibility相对的连续性Byuninterruptibility,wemeannewelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.Norisallowedtousepausesbetweenthepartsofaword.连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。3.Aminimumfreeform最小的自由形式ItwasfirstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfield.Headvocatedtreatingsentenceas“themaximumfreeform”andword”theminimumfreeform”,wordbeingthesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作“最大的自由形式”，把词看作“最小的自由形式”。词是能独立构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。3.1.3Classificationofwords词的分类a.Variablevs.invariablewords可变化词和不变词Wordscanbeclassfiedaccordingtotheirvariability.根据可变性可以对词进行分类。Invariablewords-----onecouldfindorderedandregular\nseriesofgramarticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.Thus,eachorderedseriesconstitutesparadigm.关于可变化词，人们可以找到一系列整齐而有规则的词形，它们在语法上是不同的；另一方面，词的一部分相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。Invariablewords------refertothosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.不变词指since,when,seldom,through,hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。b.Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords语法词和词汇词Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedintoGrammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords.就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。Grammaticalwords/functionwords------thosewhichexpressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns,aregrammaticalwords.(表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.)Lexicalwords/contentwords--------thosewhichhavelexicalmeanings,thatis,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,relexicalwords.(具有词汇意义指物质,动作和性质的是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词.)Asthelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguagewhilethegrammaticalonesservetolinkitsdifferentpartstogether,thelexicalwordsarealsoknownascontentwordsandgrammaticalonesfunctionwords.词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。c.Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords封闭类词和开放类词Thedistinctionofgrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsleadstodistinctionof“colsed-class”wordsand“open-class”words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。Closed-classword(封闭词类):------awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc..(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)\nopen-classword(开放类词):-------awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.d.Wordclass词类Classifywordseitherbyanalyzingthevariousgrammatical,semantic,andphonologicalproperitesofthewordsinlanguage,orbygroupingthemintoclassesonthebasisofformalsimilaritiesinPARTOFSPEECHintraditionalgrammar.要划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。在传统语法中词类partofspeech是封闭的。Particles、Auxiliaries、Pro-form、Determiners助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词3.2Theformationofword词的形成3.2.1MorphemeandMorphology语素和形态学Thesmallestcomponentsareknownasmorphemes.Buttheythemselvescannotfurtheranalyzed.最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。Morpheme----isthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.(就表达和内容之间的关系看,语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义.)Morpheme:theminimalunitofmeaning,thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.词素是形态学研究的最基本的单位。Morphemeisthesmallestmeaning-bearingunitoflanguage.词素是单词的最小的有意义的组成部分。Theword”boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and”-es”,\nneitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Therefore,amorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.Morphology----istheimmediateconcernofabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。Whatismorphology?什么是形态学？Morphologyisthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphology,andlexical/derivationalmorphology.Inflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflectionsandlexical/derivationalmorphologystudiestheword-fromation.形态学是语法学的一个分支，研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。形态学有两个分支：曲折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。曲折形态学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；派生形态学研究单词的构成和词义的表达。Whatdoesmorphologystudy?Theinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesthatgoverntheirformation.Thetwofields：Inflectionalmorphology曲折形态学:thestudyofinflectionsDerivationalmorphology:派生形态学thestudyofword-formation3.2.2Typesofmorphemesmorphemefree:freerootboundboundrootrootaffixinflectionalderivationalprefixsuffix1.freemorphemeandboundmorpheme自由语素和粘着语素\nMorphemescanbeclassifiedintotwotypesintermsoftheircapacityofoccuringalone.根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类。freemorpheme(自由语素):-------Thosemorphemeswhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstituewordsbythemselves,arefreemorphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成词的,叫做自由语素.)Freemorphemes:morphemeswhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselvesboundmorpheme(粘着语素):-sindogs,-alinnational,anddis-ndisclose,cannotoccuralone.Theymustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme,andarecalledboundmorphemes.(dogs中的-s,national中的-al,disclose中的dis-不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素.)Boundmorphemes:morphemeswhichcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwords.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme?A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes).2.root,affixandstem词根，词缀和词干（1）root(词根):thebasefromofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Thatistosay,itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.(词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根。Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素。Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.词根，粘着语素的一种，往往被看作是一个单词的一个部分。它本身有清楚，确定的意义，却不能被单独使用，而只能与另外一个词根结合\n在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在一起才能形成一个单词。（2）affix(词缀):thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffix,andinfix,dependingontheirpositionwithreferencetotherootorstemoftheword.语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。Prefix前缀----prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.dis-;un-;mis-para-;mini-;前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。Exception:be-;en-;em-;Addedtoadjectivesornounstheyturnthewordsintoverbs.Forexample:little----belittle;large---enlarge;rich---enrich;body---embodySuffix后缀:-----suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems;theymodifythemeaningoftheorginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.-ly;-ness;-tion;-ise;后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的意义，并且大所数情况下改变词性。Infix中缀:foot/feet;goose/geese;–oo-;-ee-;somelanguagesalsohaveinfixes,affixmorphemesthatareinsertedintorootorstemmorphemestodividethemintotwoparts.tatawa“apersonwhowilllaugh”tumatawa“apersonwhoislaughing”ngitad“dark”ngumitad“tobedark”Inthislanguage,theinfix–um-isinsertedafterthefirstconsonantofanounoradjective.(fikas-“strong”fumikas--“tobestrong”（3）Stem(词干):anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.(词干是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合.)astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生词缀可加在已存在的形式词上形成的一个新词，原来存在的形式词被称为词干。词干可以是粘着词根，自由词\n素和一个派生词。Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix?A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.An“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).3.Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix曲折词缀和派生词缀Inflection/inflexion(屈折变化):------themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.(屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现,如数,人称,有定性,体和格,屈折词缀不会改变所附加词语的语法类.)Inflectionalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemeswhichmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.E.g.workers,children;walking,walked;biggest;John’sderivation(派生词):------themanifestionofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.Differentfromcompounds,derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.(通过增加派生词素来表明词干与词缀关系的构词法。跟复合词不同,派生词则能表明词根和词缀之间的关系.)Derivationalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemes,addedto\nexistingformstocreatenewwords.Therearethreekindsaccordingtopositioninthenewwords,:prefix,suffixandinfix.3.2.3Inflectionandwordformation屈折变化和词的形成TherearetwofieldsMorphologyconcerns:形态学涉及两个领域：(1)thestudyofInflections(alsocalledinflectionalMorphology)研究屈折变化(2)thestudyofword-formation(oftenreferredtoaslexicalorderivationalmorphology)研究词的形成，常指词汇形态学或派生形态学1.Inflection屈折变化Whatisinflection/inflexion?“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现，如数，人称，有定性，体和格，屈折词汇不会改变所附加词语的语法类。2．wordformation词的形成Word–formation,initsrestrictedsense,referstothepropcessofwordvariationssignallinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compond)andthederiationaltype(derivation).词的形成，从严格意义上讲，指词形变化的过程，这些词形变化是标志词项之间的关系的。这可以进一步分为复合类（复合词）和派生类（派生词）两种。A.Compond复合词Compond,onethewhole,referstothosewordsthatconsisitofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.整体上说，复合词指那些由一个以上的词汇语素构成的词，或者由两个独立的词连接起来构成新的形式。Incompounds,thetwolexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.复合词中，两个词汇语素可能是不同的词类。compound(复合词):polymorphemicwords(多语素词)whichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,sucaspaymaster,moonwalk,babysist,godfather,sunflower,classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.(组成成分都是自由语素的多语素词.)B．Derivation派生词Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.派生词能表明词根和词缀之间的关系。3.2.4Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology音系学和形\n态学的对立1.morphemeandphoneme(p93-95)语素和音位Aphonemeisthesmallestunitofsound;amorphemeisthesmallestunitingrammar音位是语音中最小单位；语素是语法中的最小单位。Morphonology形态音系学;morphophonemics形态音位学Asinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.单个的音位可以代表一个语素，但他们并不总是一致的。2.Morphemicstructureandphonologicalstructure语素结构和音位结构Morphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstrucutresotherthanasinglephoneme.语素也可以不用单个音位表示，而用音位结构表示。Thesyllabic(phonological)structureofawordanditsmorphemic(grammatical)structuredonotnecessarilycorrespond.一个词的音节（音位）结构和语素结构不一定是一致的。3.allomorph语素变体Amorphemeisalinguisticabstraction;itisaconcept.Itneedstoberepresentedincertainphonologicalandorthographicforms.Thoseformsarecalledmorphs.Inmorphemictranscription,morphemesintheabstractnotionareputbetweenbraceslikeAllomorph:Amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Thevariantformsofthesamemorphemearecalleditsallomorphs.allomorph(语素变体):anyofthedifferentformofamorpheme.Forexample,inEnglishthepluralmorthemeisbutitispronounceddifferentlyindifferentenvironmentsas/s/incats,as/z/indogsandas/iz/inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and/iz/areallallomorphsofthepluralmorpheme.3.MorphophonologyorMorphophonemics形态音系学，又叫形态音位学Morphophonology(Morphonology)orMorphophonemics\n(Morphonemics)isabranchoflinguisticsreferingtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,and,correspondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes.Atanyrate,itstudiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenphonologyandmorphology.形态音系学或形态音位学，是语言学的一个分支，指对影响语素形式的音位要素的分析和分类，以及对影响音位形式的语法要素的分析和分类。总之，它是研究音系学和形态学之间的相互关系。a.Phonologicallyconditioned音位的限制Theformorshapeofmorphemesmaybeconditionedbyphonologicalfactors.语素的形式可能会受到音位要素的限制。.dissimilation(异化作用):theinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.(指一个音段影响了另一个音段的清晰度,以致语音变得不太相似或不同.)b.Morphologicallyconditioned形态的限制Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph?The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc.Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary?\n“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.[itiz‘w](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence).AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords;(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,etc.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;(3)closed-classandopen-classwords.Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabstractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:“write”,\n“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.”“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.Whatiscollocation?“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.3.3Lexicalchange词汇变化3.3.1Lexicalchangeproper特有的词汇变化Majorwaystocreatenewwords:Compounding:aprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsintoonelexicalunit.blackboardgodfatherbaby-sitcross-culturalDerivation:theprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotherootsorwords.e.g.finalizewidenhospitalizeclockwise(顺时针)Blending混成法:aprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.blending(混成法):arelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.(混成法是一种相对复杂的混合形式,由两个单词混合而成,一般是一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来,或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来.)transistor(transfer+resister)晶体管;smog(smoke+fog)烟雾;positron(positive+electron)正电子;boatel(boat+hotel)水上旅馆；brunch(breakfast+lunch)早午餐；smaze(smog+haze);\ntelecast(television+broadcast)电视广播;motel(motor+hotel)；cremains(cremated+remains)骨灰；telex(teleprinter+exchange)电报，电传打字机；modem(modulator+demodulator)调制解调器；anacom(analog+computer)分析计算机；digicom(digital+computer)数码计算机；insulac(insulating++lacquer)绝缘材料Fusion溶合法，混成法的一种,eg.Stample(trample+stampon);crackdown(crackup+breakdown)Abbreviation缩写词:ashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform.e.g.TV(television)Dr(doctor)hr(hour)ft(footorfeet)clipping截断法:akindofabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases。AnewwordiscreatedbyA.Cuttingthefinalpart(orwithaslightvariation)截掉后面的部分（或有些小的变化）memorandum---memoadvertisement---ad;bicycle----bike;professor—proffantic--fanB.Cuttingtheinitialpart删去开头的部分telephone---phone;omnibus—bus;helicopter—copter;aeroplane---planeC.Cuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly删去开头和结尾相应的部分e.g.electronicmail---e-mailhighfidelity---hi-fi;influenza—flu;refrigerator---fridgeAcronym缩略语:awordcreatedbycombiningtheinitiallettersofanumberofwords.acronym(缩略词):ismadeupformthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.(缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的,而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语.)e.g.UNESCO联合国教科文组织；APECSarsCDlaser\nradar(radiodetectingandranging)；WB世界银行Initialism:VOABBCWTOCIAEEC欧洲经济共同体；Back-formation逆构词法:aprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword.back-formation(逆构词法):anabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.(构词法中一种不规则的类型,即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀,由此造出一个较短的单词.)televise(fromtelevision)donate(fromdonation)enthuse(fromenthusiasm)Analogicalcreation类推构词Borrowing借词:thetakingoverofwordsfromotherlanguagesA.loanword(借词):aprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation,insomecases,tothephonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.(借词的形式和意义都是借用的,有时为了适应新语言的音位系统,可以有些细小的改变.)B..loanblend(混合借词):aprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.(指借词的一部分来自本国语,另一部分来自外来语,但是意义全都是借来的.)C.loanshift(转移借词):aprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.(转移借词的意义是借用的,但是形式是来自本国语.)D.Loantranslation(翻译借词):aspecialtypeofborrowing,inwhicheachmorphemeorwordistranslatedintheequivalentmorphemeorwordinanotherlanguage.(翻译借词是一种特殊的借\n用,每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或单词对等地翻译过来的.)Calque仿造词Coinage:theinventionofanewword3.3.2Phonologicalchange音位变化Changesinsoundsleadtochangesinform(1)vowelsoundchange:GreatVowelShiftinhistory(2)loss(脱落)----:thelossofsoundcanfirstretertothedisappearanceoftheverysoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystem.(语音脱落首先可以指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失.)(3)soundaddition添加(4)metathesis换位(5)assimilation(同化作用):referstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.(指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化,更明确的叫法是”接触同化”或“邻近同化.”)3.3.3Morpho-syntacticalchange形态句法变化(1)Morphologicalchange形态变化(2)Syntacticalchange句法变化3.3.4Semanticchange语义变化ThechangeofmeaningofawordBroadening词义扩大Narrowing词义缩小Meaningshift词义转移:aprocessinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning.Classshift(conversion变换)词性变换:zero-derivation零派生Elevationanddegradation.folketymology(俗词源):achangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.(指词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推,导致了新的意义的产生.)3.3.5Orthographicchange拼写的变化\n第五章第五章Chapter5Meaning意义Teachingaims:enablethestudentstohaveabetterunderstandingofsemanticsandwordingmeaning.Focalpoints:Leech’ssevenclassificationsofmeaning,semantictriangle,senserelationsbetweenwordsandsentencesTeachingdifficulties:senserelationsbetweensentences,differenttypesofantonymyTeachingprocedureThesubjectconcerningthestudyofmeaningiscalledsemantics.关注意义研究的学科.Inthischapter,wewillstudyanotherbranchoflinguistics-----semantics..AnIntroductionDefinition:Inlinguistics,itisthestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。Itsgoalistorevealhowlanguageismatchedwiththeirpropermeaningsbythespeakersofthatlanguage.Semanticsisanoldandyoungbranch.DatingfromPlato,thestudyofmeaninghasalonghistory.Philosophers,psychologists,andsociologistsallclaimadeepinterestinthestudyofmeaning,althoughtheydifferintheirfocusofinterest.Philosophers:therelationbetweenlinguisticexpressionandwhattheyrefertointherealworldandevaluationofthetruthvalueofit.Psychologists:understandingtheworkingofhumanmindthroughlanguage.Soyoumanyfindseveralbooksbearingthetitle“semantics”buttalkingaboutdifferentthings.Herewejustfocusonlinguisticsemantics.Inlinguistics,comparedwithotherbrancheswehavediscussed,semanticsisveryyoungandnew.Thetermsemanticsisarecent\nadditiontotheEnglishlanguage.Ithasonlyahistoryofover100years.1893FrenchlinguistBrealcoined“semantique”1897Brealfirstuseitasthescienceofmeaning.1900itsEnglishversioncameout1980ssemanticsbegantobeintroducedintoChina“Cinderellaoflinguistics”(Kempson)OneofthemostfamousbooksonsemanticsisTheMeaningofMeaningpublishedin1923.Semantics----semanticsreferstothestudyofthecommunicationofmeaningthroughlanguage.Orsimply,semanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.语义学是研究语言意义的学科，它主要是对词义和句子两方面进行研究。5.1.Meaningsof“meaning”“意义”的意义P1581whatismeaning?Whatisthemeaningof“desk”?√Ididn'tmeantohurtyou.(intend)Lifewithoutfaithhasnomeaning.(value)ItwasJohnImeannotHarry(referto)√Thoughitisdifficulttodefine,“meaning”hasthefollowingmeaning:(1)anintrinsicproperty;(2)theconnotationofaword;(3)thewordsputafteradictionaryentry;(4)thepositionanobjectoccupiesinasystem;(5)whatthesymboluseractuallyrefersto;(6)whatthesymbolusershouldreferto;(7)whatthesymboluserbelievesheisreferringto;(8)whatthesymbolinterpreterrefersto;(9)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievesitrefersto;(10)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievestheuserrefersto…linguistsarguedabout“meaningofmeaning”fiercelyintheresultof“realism”,“conceptualism/mentalism”,“mechanism”,“contextualism”,“behaviorism”,“functionalism”,etc.Mentionoughttobemadeofthe“SemanticTriangleTheory”ofOgden&Richards.Weuseawordandthelistenerknowswhatitreferstobecause,accordingtothetheory,theyhaveacquiredthesameconcept/referenceofthewordusedandoftheobject/referent.2.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?(1)Thenamingtheory命名论----oneoftheoldestnotionsconverningmeaning,andalsoavery\nprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelforthings.命名论是最原始的语义理论，该理论是把词看作所指事物的名称。Thelimitationsofthenamingtheory:a.firstofall,thenamingtheoryseemsappliabletonounsonly.Nounscanbeconsideredasnamesorlabels,butverbs,adjectives,andadverbs,suchas“think”“hard”“slowly”aredefinitelynotlabelsofobjects.b.Besides,withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworldatallsuchas“ghost”“dragon”“unicorn”andalsonounsthatdonotdenoteconcretethings,butabstractnotionssuchas“joy”“impulse”.命名论只能适用于名词，对于动词、形容词、副词就无法解释了。即使是在爱名词范围内也无法解释世界上本不存在的东西，例如“ghost”“dragon”“unicorn”之类和一些抽象的概念，例如“高兴joy”“冲动impulse”等。(2)theconceptualistview意念论------Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.意念论认为词汇与该词汇所指的事物之间的关系不是直接的，而是间接的，是靠人脑中的意念来连接的。词汇是通过意念来指称事物，意念便是词汇的意义。TheconceptualistviewisbestillustratedbytheclassicsenmantictriangleortriangleofsignificancesuggestedbyOdgenandRichards.意念论可由著名的语义三角形来表述。语义三角形是论述和解释语义现象的一种经典理论。SemantictriangleProposedbyOgden&Richardsintheir“TheMeaningofMeaning”.Theysawtherelationshipbetweenthewordandthethingitreferstoisnotdirect.It’smediatedbyconcept.thoughtorreferencesymbolreferentInthisdiagram,thesymbolorformreferstolinguisticelements\n(words,phrases),thereferentreferstothethingsintherealworld,andthoughtorreferencerefersto“concept”.e.g.Thedogovertherelooksunfriendly.Theword“dog”isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind,i.e.whata“dog”islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothereferent(theparticulardog)inthisparticularcase.Thus,thesymbolofawordsignifiesthingbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofalanguage,andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.语义三角形最大的问题在于词语与所指事物没有必然的联系。同一个事物可能或者可以用不同的词来表示。(3)contextualism语境论Whatiscontextualism?“Contextualism”isbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfrom,orreduceitto,observablecontext:the“situationalcontext”andthe“linguisticcontext”.语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义存在与语境之中。语义不是抽象的，它是由语境所决定的。Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatial-temporalsituation,asthefollowingfactorsarerelatedtothesituationalcontext:它的前提是假设人们可以从语境中推知词义的意义，四个核心因素：(1)thespeakerandthehearer;讲话人和听话人(2)theactionstheyareperformingatthetime;当时双方在做的事情(3)variousexternalobjectsandevents;其他外在的事件或事物(4)deicticfeatures.指示成分（语境中的代词）The“linguisticcontext”isanotheraspectofcontextualism.Itconsiderstheprobabilityofoneword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanother,whichformspartofthemeaning,andanimportantfactorincommunication.Foxexample:themeaningoftheword“black”differinthetwo\ncollocationof“blackhair”and“blackcoffee”(4)Behaviorism行为主义论ThebehaviorismviewisillustratedbyBloomfield.Behaviorismreferstotheattmpttodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.Behaviorismsomewhatclsoetocontextualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.行为主义论和语境论的相似之处，行为主义论也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对所接受的话语的反应。3.Howmanykindsofmeaningdidlinguistsfindandstudy?C.C.Fries(1952)makesatraditionaldistinctionbetweenlexicalmeaningandstructuralmeaning.Theformerisexpressedbythose“meaningful”partsofspeech,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,andisgiveninthedictionaryassociatedwithgrammar.Thelatterexpressesthedistinctionbetweenthesubjectandtheobjectofasentence,oppositionsofdefiniteness,tensethenumber,andthedifferencebetweenstatements,questionsandrequests.Inaword,“thetotallinguisticmeaningofanyutteranceconsistsofthelexicalmeaningoftheseparatewordsplussuchstructuralmeaning…”G.Leech(1981)categorizessevenkindsofmeaning,fiveofwhicharebroughtunderthe“associativemeaning”.Differentfromthetraditionalandthefunctionalapproach,F.R.Palmer(1981)andJ.Lyons(1977)suggestwedrawadistinctionbetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning,theformerbeingdirectlypredictablefromthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofthesentence,whilethelatterincludesallthevarioustypesofmeaningnotnecessarilyassociatedthereto.4.G.Leechrecognizesseventypesofmeaninginhis<>asfollows:(1)Conceptualmeaning------Logical,cognitive,ordenotationcontent逻辑的，认知的，或者外延的内容conceptualmeaning:thecentralpartofmeaning,whichcontainslogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.Associativemeaning:联想意义(2)Connotativemeaning------whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.内涵意义：通过语言所指所传达的意义(3)Socialmeaning-----whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义\n(4)Affectivemeaning-----whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer.感情意义：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义(5)Reflectedmeaning------whatiscommunicatedthroghtassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.反射意义：通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义(6)Collocativemeaning------whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.搭配意义：通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。(7)Thematicmeaning----whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.主题意义：通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义5.Leechsaysthatthefirsttypeofmeaning-----conceptualmeaning----makesupthecentralpart.Itis“denotative”inthatitisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orreferto.Inthissense,conceptualmeaingoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionofreference.利奇指出，意义的第一种类型----概念意义----构成了意义的中心部分。这种意义是“外延“的，因为它关注词和他所指事物之间的联系。从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指称相交叉。6．Philosophersuseconnotation,oppositetodenotation,tomeanthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.Forexample,thedenotationofhumanisanypersonsuchasJohnandMary,anditsconnotationis“biped”,“featherless”,“rational”,etc.哲学家们用内涵和外延相对，表示词所指实体的性质。例如，人的外延是任何人，如约翰和玛丽；内涵是“两足动物”“无羽毛的”“有理性的”等等。7.“connotative”-----referstosomeadditional,especiallyemotive,meaning.内涵指的是一些附加的，尤其是感情的意义。denotation:thecoresenseofawordoraphradethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworld.connotation:aterminacontrastwithdenotation,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.Typesofmeaning(G.Leech)5.2.Thereferentialtheory指称论1.Thereferentialtheory------thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandfor,isknownasreferentialtheory.把词语意义和它所指或所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称论。2.whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?.reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressapropostion,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.\nsense:theliteralmeaningofawordoranexpression,independentofsituationalcontext.Sense------senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,whichisacollectionofsemanticmeanings,abstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdectionarycompilersareinterestedin.意义是词汇意义的一个侧面，它是指词汇内在的抽象，独立于语境之外的意义，也是词典字意。Reference----referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealphysical,itisamatteroftherelationshipbetweentheformandthereality,betweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指意义是词汇意义的另一个侧面，它是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。所指也叫“参照”“或“指称”，是指词和它们所代表的客观事物或现象的关系，它表现于一定的上下文之中。(1)linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Forexample:Iwasoncebittenbyadog./Mindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.有着同样意义的词，在不同的情景中，它的所指也不相同。(2)linguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.Forexample:“morningstar”and“eveningstar.”有时所指相同，但意义却不同。３．Whatisthedifferencebetweenmeaning,concept,connotation,sense,implication,denotation,notation,reference,implicatureandsignification?“Meaning”referstotheassociationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealword.“Concept”or“notion”istheimpressionofobjectsinpeople’smind.“connotation”istheimpliedmeaning,similarto“implication”and“implicature”.“Sense”isthelexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.“Denotation”,like“sense”,isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjects,butmakestheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.“Reference”istheword-objectrelationship.“Implicature”,initsnarrowsense,referstoconversationalimplicatureachievedbyintentionallyviolatingoneofthefourCPmaxims.“Signification”,incontrastwith“value”,meanthemeaningofsituationmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue,like“What’sthis?”４．Sense&reference\nsenseandreferencearethetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense-----theinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;It’sabstractandde-contextualized.It’stheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Itisconcernedwiththeintra-linguisticrelations.Reference-----Whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementsandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Forexample,theword“dog”isgiventhedefinition“acommondomesticanimalkeptbyhumanbeingsforwork,huntingetcorasapet”.Thisdoesn’trefertoanyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedinthedefinition,sothisisthesenseoftheword“dog”.Butifwesay“Thedogisbarking”,wemustbetalkingaboutacertaindogexistentinthesituation,theword“dog”referstoadogknowntoboththespeakerandthehearer.Thisisthereferenceoftheword“dog”inthisparticularsituation.Tosomeextent,wecansayeverywordhasasense,i.e.someconceptualcontent.Butnoteverywordhasareferencee.g.grammaticalwordslikebutifetc,don’trefertoanything.Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.e.g.Iwasonebittenbyadog.Mindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.Herethetwo“dog”bearthesamesense,buthavetwodifferentreferencesinthetwoutterances.Sometimeslinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsensee.g.“morningstar”and“eveningstar”canrefertothesamestar“Venus”5.3MajorSenserelations涵义关系WordsareindifferentsenserelationswitheachotherTherearegenerally3kindsofsenserelations:samenessrelation,oppositenessrelationandinclusivenessrelation一般来说有三种公认的涵义关系：即相同关系，对立关系和内包\n关系。5.3.1.synonymy同义关系1.Samenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.synonymy:isthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.同义关系：相同关系的专业术语synonymy同义词----synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsthatarecloseinmeaning.指意义相同或相近的词。2.Whatissynonymy?“Synonymy”isusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Dictionarymakers(lexicographers)relyontheexistenceofsynonymyfortheirdefinitions.Somesemanticiansmaintain,however,thattherearenorealsynonyms,becausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects:Inshadesofmeaning(e.g.,finish,complete,close,conclude,terminate,finalize,end,etc.);Instylisticmeaning;Inemotivemeaning(oraffectivemeaning);Inrangeofuse(orcollocativemeaning);InBritishandAmericanEnglishusages[e.g.,autumn(BrE),fall(AmE)].SimeonPottersaid,“Languageislikedress.Wevaryourdresstosuittheoccasion.Wedonotappearatafriend’ssilver-weddinganniversaryingardeningclothes,nordowegopuntingontheriverinadinner-jacket.”Thismeansthelearningofsynonymsisimportanttoanyonethatwishestousehislanguagefreelyandwell.3.whatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?Completesynonyms绝对同义词------synonymsthataremutuallysubstitutableunderallcircumstantces,arerare.Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:(1)Dialectalsynonyms-----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects地域性同义词：在不同的地域方言中所用的同义词Thesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarientiesoftheEnglishlanguage.Examples:BritainEnglish:autumanliftluggagelorrypetorlflatwindscreentorchrailway\nAmericanEnglish:fallelevatorbaggagetruckgasolineapartmentwindshieldflashlightrailroadGirl—lass/lassie;liquor/whiskey(2)stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle文体同义词：用于不同文体的同义词Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.Examples:Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparent;start,begin,commence;kid,child,offspring;chap,pal,friend,companion;room,chamber;kickthebucket,popoff;die,passaway,decease;(3)emotivesynonyms----synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning感性同义词：在感性或评价方面不同的同义词Thesearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatiingtheattitudesorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.这些词的意义相同，但表达了使用者不同的感情，表明了使用者对他所谈论事情的态度。Examples:a.“collaborator”and“accomplice”aresynonymousinthattheysharethemeaningof“apersonwhohelpsanother”,buttheydifferinthatatcollaboratorhelpsanotherindoingsomethinggood,whileanaccomplicehelpsanotherinacriminalact.b.economical,frugal,thrifty,mean,miserly,stingyHehasbeenaverythriftypersonallhislife.Don’tyouexpectaloanfromsuchamiserlyman.c.like,love,admire,adore,worshipHeisanicemanandallthepupilslikehim.Thepopsingerisespeciallyworshippedbyteengers.(4)Collocationalsynonyms-----somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation.搭配区别上的同义词：在搭配上有区别的同义词i.e.inthewordstheytotogetherwith.thisisamatterofusagewhenwewanttosaythatsomeonehasdonesomethingwrongorevencriminal,wecanuseexamples:a.accuse…of;charge…with;rebuke…forb.thewordweusetodescribefoodthathasgonebadandisnotfitforeating:rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbacon/butter,sourmilk(5)semanticsynonyms----semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义上有差异的同义词Thesearesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.\nExamples:a.thetwowords“amaze”and“astound”areverycloseinmeaningtotheword“surprise”,buttheyhavesubtledifferences.”Amaze”suggestconfusionandbewilderment,“astound”suggestsdifficultyinbelieving.Amaze：表示的是一种困惑，不解；astound：表示的是难以置信的情感。b.“escape”and“flee”bothmean“togetaway”escape:meanstogetawayfromsomethingunpleasantordangerous;flee:meanstogetawayhurriedly5.3.2Antonymy反义关系OppositenessofmeaningWordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.Oppositenesscanbefoundondifferentdimensions.WhatisAntonymy?Howmanykindsofantonymsarethere?antonymy反义词------Theterm“antonymy”isusedforoppositionsofmeaning;wordsthatstandoppositeinmeaningarecalled“antonyms”,oropposites反义词是指那些在意义上既相互对立又相互联系的词。Antonymyfallintherecategories1)gradableantonyms(e.g,good-bad);(2)complementaryantonyms(e.g.,single-married);(3)relationalantonyms(e.g.,buy-sell).①Gradableantonymy(mainlyadj.)等级反义关系------memberofthiskindaregradable.Someantonymsaregradablebecausetheyareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,soitisamatterofdegree.两个意义形成对立的等级，但在两级之间呈现着一定的梯度关系。good/bad(so-so/average)long/short,narrow/widebig/small;fat/thin;hot/cold(cool,warm,lukewarm);old/young(middle-aged,mature,elderly)Theyaregradable.Thatis,themembersofapairdifferintermsofdegree.Thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthem.②complentaryantonymy:互补反义关系-------membersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachfieldcompletely,成员彼此互补alive/dead,male/female,present/absent,pass/fail,boy/girlup/downmarried/singleinnocent/guiltyodd/evenhit/missItischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheotherandtheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother.\nInotherwords,itisnotamatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes,butamatterofeitheroneortheother.中间不存在过渡性③.relationalopposites关系反义词/相关对立反义词----pairsofwordsthattheexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationshipopposites.不仅意义相反，都有一种语义上相互依存的挂你。一般大多涉及社会关系和空间关系。Lend/borrow;give/receive;host/guest;before/after;above/below;right/left;employee/employer;parent/child;wife/husband;give/take;father/daughter;:converseantonymyinreciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelations,temporalandspatialrelations.Therearealwaystwoentitiesinvolved.Onepresupposestheother.Theshorter,better;worse.etcareinstancesofrelationalopposites.关系对立：反向反义关系典型地表现在相互社会角色亲属关系，时间和空间等方面，它总是涉及两个实体，一个预设了另一个。Converseantonymy(relationalopposites)converseantonymy反向反义关系-------:aspecialkindofantonymyinthatmemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition,suchasbuy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.反义关系的一种特殊类型，因为对中成员并不一定构成肯定否定的对立。buy/sell,lend/borrow,before/after,teacher/student,above/belowThemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.5.3.3Hyponymy(amatterofclassmembership)上下义关系：一种类和成员之间的关系thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificwords.cow/animal,rose/flower,honesty/virtue1.hyponymy:-----arelationbetweentwowords,inwhichthemeaningofoneword(thesuperordinate)isincludedinthemeaningofanotherword(thehyponym).2.Superordinate上坐标词:theupperterminhyponymy,i.e.theclassname.Asuperordinateusuallyhasseveralhyponyms.Thesemembersofthesameclassareco-hyponyms.Underanimal,forexample,therearecats,dogs,pigs,etc,thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.位于上下义关系上位的词语，即类名。一个上坐标词通常有很多下义词。同类中的成员叫做同下义词。3.hyponyms下义词------thelowertermsinhyponymy居于下位的\n是成员，叫做下义词。Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.4.Explainwithexamples“homonymy”,“polysemy”and“hyponymy”.“Polysemy”多义词-----referstothesemanticphenomenonthatawordmayhavethanonemeaning.Polysemyreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning;thesameoenwordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,suchawordiscalledapolysemicword.多义词是指一个词具有两个或两个以上的一样。在英语中一词多义是普遍的，而一词单义则是极少数的。Examples.:(1)“negative”a:astatementsayingormeaning“no”;b:arefusalordenial;c:oneofthefollowingwordsandexpressions:no,not,nothing,never,notatall,etc.d:anegativephotographorfilmButwecansometimeshardlytellifaformhasseveralmeaningsoritisadifferentwordtakingthisform;hencethedifferencebetweenpolysemyandhomonymy.Homonymy同形异义------Homonymyreferstowordsareidenticalinformeithersoundorspelling,orinboth,butdifferentinmeaning.同形异义指两个或两个以上的词同形或同音但不同义的现象。Homophones------twowordsareidentialinsound.同音rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace;leak/leek;dear/deerHomographs-------twowordsareindentialinspelling.同形bow(v)/bow(n);tear(v)/tear(n);lead(v)/lead(n);bank(afinancialinstitution)/bank(sideofariver)Completehomonyms-----twowordsareindenticalinbothsoundandspelling.Fast(adj)/fast(v);scale(n)/scale(v)Hyponymy上下义关系------referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.上下义关系实际是指两词意义之间的关系分别表示的是逻辑上的属的概念与种的概念。Examples:superordinate:furnitureHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,setee,……Auto-hyponym:自我下义词5．Whatishyponymy?Whatisahyponym?Whatissuperordinate?\n“Hyponymy”involvesusinthenotionofmeaninginclusion.Itisamatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay,whenXidakindofY,thelowertermXisthe“hyponym”,andtheuppertermYisthe“superordinate”.Twoormorehyponymssharingthesameonesuperordinatearecalled“co-hyponyms”.Forexample,“flower”isthesuperordinateof“tulip”,“violet”and“rose”,whicharetheco-hyponymsof“flower”.5.4Componentialanalysis成分分析Semanticfeatures语义特征semanticcomponents语义成分1.Analysisofmeaningincludes:a.componentialanalysis成分分析------awaytoanalyzelexical-meaningb.predicatinanalysis述谓结构分析-------sentencemeaning2.whatiscomponentialanalysis?什么是成分分析？“Componentialanalysis”----definesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.Componentialanalysisreferstoanapproachadoptedbystructuralsemanticistsindescribingthemeaningofwordsorphrases.Thisapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthetotalmeaningofawordcanbeanalyzedintermsofanumberofdistinctelementsormeaningcomponents(calledsemanticfeatures)成分分析法：是一种分析词汇抽象意义的方法。成分分析法研究的是“概念上”的词汇-----语义关系(conceptual---lexicalrelations)的一种尝试。其基本特点是，所有实词的意义都可以分解成一些“语义成分”。这种语义成分也可称作语义特征（Semanticfeatures）、语义标示（SemanticMarkers）、或义素（Sememes）Semanticfeaturesareparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.Plus(+)andminus(-)signsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthosefeaturessymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Thestudyofmeaninginanylanguageshowsthatlexicalitemsoverlapinmeaningandsharecommonpropertiese.g.Lionsandtigersbothcontainanelementof“wildanimalness”.Calfpuppyandbabycanbeconsideredasallsharinganelementofnonadultness,whilecow,womanandtigressallcontaininganelementof“femaleness,Butbecauseofotherpropertieseachwordcontains,noneofthemwillbesaidasbeingsynonymoustoanyoneoftheothers.\nOneattempttoaccountforthisphenomenonistoassumethatlexicalitems,likephonemesaremadeupoutofanumberofcomponentparts.Componentialanalysisisoftenseenasaprocessaimingatbreakingdownthemeaningofawordintoitsminimaldistinctivefeaturesorproperties,whicharealsocalledcomponentsbysomelinguists.Onewayofdescribingthecomponentsofawordistousefeaturesymbols,whichareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters,with“+”“-“beforethem,plussignindicatesthepresenceofacertainproperty,andminussignindicatestheabsenceofit.Forexample,wemay“clip”thefollowingwords“Man”,“Woman”,“Boy”and“Girl”sothatwehaveonlyseparatepartsofthem.man:+HUMAN+ADULT+MALEwoman:+HUMAN+ADULT-MALEboy:+HUMAN-ADULT+MALEgirl:+HUMAN-ADULT-MALEwordslikefather,mother,daughterandson,whichinvolvesarelationbetweentwoentities,maybeshownasfollows:father=PARENT(X,Y)&MALE(X)mother=PARENT(X,Y)&MALE(X)verbscanalsobeanalyzedinthisway,forexampletake=CAUSE(X,(HAVE(X,Y))give=CAUSE(X,(HAVE(X,Y)))•Advantages:byspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,wemaybetteraccountforsenserelations,Synonymy----havingthesamesemanticcomponentsAntonymy-----havingacontrastingcomponentHyponymy-----havingallsemanticcomponentsofanother.•Disadvantages:Itwouldbesenselesstoanalyzethemeaningofeverywordbybreakingitintoitsmeaningcomponents.3.semanticcomponent语义成分:----adistinguishableelementofmeaninginawordwithtwovalues,e.g<+human>又叫语义特征。.compositionality组合原则-----:aprincipleforsentenceanalysis,inwhichthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定的。.selectionrestriction选择限制-----:semanticrestrictionsofthenounphrasesthataparticularlexicalitemcantake,e.g.regretrequiresahumansubject.4.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?\nInthelightofcomponentialanalysi,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures;theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures:itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaning.similarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesound-features;aphonemecanbebrokedownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditisthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.5.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的语义关系SenserelationshipsalsoexistbetweensentencesSixmajorsenserelationsbetweensentences.(1)AissynonymouswithB同义句关系Examples:a.A:Hewasabachelorallhislife.B:Henevermarriedallhislife.AisthesamewithB.b.A:Theboykilledthedog.B:Thedogwaskilledbytheboy.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifAistrue,Bistrue,andifAisfalse,Bisfalse.(2)AisinconsistentwithB对立句关系A:JohnismarriedB:JohnisabachelorA:Thisismyfirstvisittoyourcountry.B:Ihavebeentoyourcountrybefore.Intermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,BisfalseandifAisfalse,Bistrue.(3).AentailsB(AisanentailmentofB)蕴涵句关系Entailment衍推------relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother.E.g.“Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings“Maryisnotstandingstill.”A:HehasbeentoFrance.B:HehasbeentoEurope.A:Johnpickedatulip.B:Johnpickedaflower.Entailmentisarelationofinclusionifxentailsy,themeaningofxisincludediny.两个命题之间的语义关系或逻辑关系。Intermoftruthvalue:Ifxistrue,yisnecessarilytrue;Ifxisfalse,ymaybetrueorfalse;Ifyistrue,xmaybetrueorfalse,IfYisfalse,xisfalse.Informula:A→B-B→-A(4)Presupposition(ApresupposesB)预设句关系APresupposesB(BisprerequisiteofA)A:ThequeenofEnglandisold.B:Englandhasaqueen.\nA:Isyourfatherathome?B:Youhaveafather.A:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.B:Johnhasabike.Itreferstothekindofmeaningwhichthespeakerdoesn’tassertbutassumesthehearercanidentifyformthesentence.Presupposition------Similartoentailment,presuppositionisasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.Theabove-mentionedA,Bisalsotruewithpresupposition.Intermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,Bmustbetrue.IfAisfalse,Bisstilltrue;IfBistrue,Aiseithertrueorfalse.IfBisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutA.Informula:A→B-A→B(5)Aisacontradiction矛盾关系WhenAiscontradiction,itisinvariablyfalse.Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.(6)Aissemanticallyanomalous语义上的不规则关系WhenAissemanticallyanomalous,itisabsurdinthesensethatitpresupposesacontradiction.Thetablehasbadintentions.Theblackboardhasabadtemper.5.5.Sentencemeaning句子意义1．Thedefiningofsentencemeaninghasturnedouttobeamorecomplicatedissuethanthedefiningofthemeaningsofindividuallexicalitems.Themeaningofasentenceisthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitcomponents.Themeaningofasentenceisaproductofbothlexicalandgrammaticalmeaning.Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.2．Whatispredicationanalysis?Whatisaone-placepredicate?Whatisatwo-placepredicate?Whatisano-placepredicate?Whataredown-gradedpredications?“Predicationanalysis”isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.“Predication”isusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commands,etc.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argument(logicalparticipant)andpredicate(relationelement).The“predicate”isthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.Wemaynowdistinguisha“two-placepredicate”\n(whichgovernstwoarguments,e.g.,subjectandobject),a“one-placepredicate”(whichgovernsoneargument,i.e.,subject)anda“no-placepredicate”thathassimplynoargument(norealsubjectorobject).述谓结构分析：所谓述谓是指句子的抽象的语义内容，绝大多数的句子内容都是由一个人或物以及对这个人或物的表述构成的。从语义结构角度看，这两部分分别称为论元（argument）和谓语（predicate）。所谓述谓结构分析是指通过对这两部分的分析以达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。“述谓”和“谓语化”是所有的健全语句（如命题、即肯定句、否定句、疑问句和祈使句等）的共同特征。因此，语义学家就用“述谓”这一范畴并把它分解成变元和谓语，前者是“逻辑参加者”，后者是“关系因素”，负责把变元联系起来。5.5.1Anintegratedtheory一个整体理论theprincipleofcompositionality组合原则-----theideathatthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombinedisusuallyknownastheprincipleofcompositionality.句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定，这一观点通常叫做组合原则。5.5.2Logicalsemantics逻辑语义学1.prepositionallogic命题逻辑:----alsoknownasprepositionalcalculusorsententialcalculus,isthestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositions:howthetruthofacompositepropositionsandtheconnectionbetweenthem.也叫命题演算或句子演算，研究命题的真值条件“复合命题真值是如何由成分命题真值及成分命题之间的关系决定的。proposition命题;-----whatistalkaboutinanutterance,thatpartofthespeechactwhichhastodowithreference.命题是陈述句并用语叙述事件时所表达的意义。predicatelogic谓词逻辑------:alsopredicatecalculus,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofsimple.也叫谓语演算，它研究简单马那瓜体的内部结构。\nPrepositions-----whateverisseenasexpressedbyasentencewhichmakesastatement.Itispropertyofpropositionsthattheyhavetruthvalues.2.Whatisalogicaloperator?“Logicaloperator”makeonlyonekindofthe“logicalfactors”or“logicalmeans”,othersbeing“definiteness”,“coreference”,“tense”and“time”,sincepredicationisnotthewholeofasentenceorproposition.Allthesefactorsplayapartinprepositionalactualizationofthepredication---thepiningofapredicationdownaclaimaboutreality.Exampleoflogicaloperatorsare“not”,“and”,“or”,“some”,“if”,“false”,etc.Theterm“logicaloperation”reflectsthefactthatthesemeaningelementsareoftenthoughtofasperformingoperations,controllingelementsofthesemanticsystem,sotospeak.3.Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?Grammaticality-----thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconformstothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisnotnecessaritysemanticalywell-formed,ie.Itmaynotmakesenseatall.4.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis:(1)Themansellsice-cream.------twoplacepredicationconsistingoftwoarguments:MANandICE-CREAM,andthepredicate(SELL)(2)Isthebabysleeping?-----one-placepredicationBABY(SLEEP)(3)Itissnowing.-----no-placepredication:(SNOW)(4)Thetreegrowswell.----one-placepredication:TREE(GROW)(5)Theoldmansellstoys.-----Two-placepredication:MANandTOYSarepredicate(SELL)(6)Itisraining.---No-placepredication(7)Itislate.-----No-placepredication.(8)Isthebabycrying?-----One-placepredication:BABY(CRY)(9)Theflowersmellssweet.----One-placepredication:FLOWER(SMELL)5.Sentencemeaningisthattherearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.\nSelectionalrestrictions------whetherasentenceissenmanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrules,i.e.,constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.Insemanticanalysiofasentence,itebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargumentandpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.6.AccodingtoJ.Lyons,“Apropositioniswhatisexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.”Inthissense,wemayverylooselyequatethepropositionofasentencewithitsmeaning.根据J.Lyons，“命题是陈述句被用于陈述事件时所表达的意义。“在这一意义上，我们可以非常不严格地把句子的命题和它的意义等同起来。7．Averyimportantpropertyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.Itiseithertrueoffalse.Andthetruthvalueofacompositepropositionissaidtobethefunctionof,orisdeterminedby,thetruthvaluesofitscomponentpropositionsandthelogicalconnectivesusedinit.命题的一个极为重要的性质是有真值，它要么真要么假。复合命题的真值据称是成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词的函数，通俗地说，其真值由成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词决定。HomeworkExercises:Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:A:Tom’swifeispregnant.B:Tomhasawife.A:Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced.B:Mysisterisamarriedwoman.A:Helikesswimming.B:Helikessports.A:Johnisanorphan.B:Johnhasnofather.第六章Chapter6LanguageProcessinginMind语言的心理过程\n6.1Introduction绪言1.Languageisamirrorofthemindinadeepandsignificantsense.从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说，语言是思维的镜子。2.Languageisaproductofhumanintelligence,createdanewineachindividualbyoperationthatliefarbeyondthereachofwillorconsciousness.语言是人类指挥的结晶，通过意志和意识觉察布道的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。3.Psycholinguistics“proper”canperhapsbeglossedasthestorage,comprehension,productionandacquisitionoflanguageinanymedium(spokenorwritten)“准确的”心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介（口头的或书面的）进行的语言储存，理解，产生和习得过程的研究。4.Psycholinguisticsisconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructures.心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。5.Thedifferencesbetweenpsycholinguisticsandpsychologyoflanguage.心理语言学和语言心理学的区别：(1).Itisperhapsusefultodistinguishpsycholinguisticsfromthepsychologyoflanguage,whichdealswithmoregeneraltopicssuchastheextenttowhichlanguageshapesthought,andfromthepsychologyofcommunication,whichincludesnon-verbalcommunicationsuchasgesturesandfacialexpressions.区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题；而且从交际心理学角度看，它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非语言交际。(2)Apossibledividewithinpsycholinguisticsisofthosewhostylethemselvescognltivepsycholinguistsasopposedtoexperimentalpsycholingusists.Theformerareconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferencesaboutthecontentofthehumanmind,whereasthelatteraresomewhatmoreconcernedwithempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoparticularword.在心理语言学内部，一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作“认知心理语言学家”，以与“实验心理语言学家”相对。前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论，后者则更关心经验主义的事实比如对一个特定\n的单词的反应速度。6.psycholinguistics:心理语言学isconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructure.Psycholinguisticscanbedividedintocognitivepsycholinguistics(beingconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferencesaboutthecontentofhumanmind,andexperimentalpsycholinguistics(beingconcernedsomehowwhthempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoaparticularword).6.1.1Evidence论据1.Linguiststendtofavordescriptionsofspontaneousspeechastheirmainsourceofevidence,whereaspsychologistsmostlypreferexperimentalstudies.语言学家赞同从共时言语描写中汲取论据；而心理学家则更倾向于实验研究。2.Thesubjectsofpsycholinguisticinvestigationarenormaladultsandchildrenontheonehand,andaphasics----peoplewithspeechdisorders-----ontheother.Theprimaryassumptionwithregardtoaphasticpatientthatabreakdowninsomepartoflanguagecouldleadtoanunderstandingofwhichcomponentsmightbeindependentofothers.心理语言学的研究对象一方面是正常的成人和儿童，另一方面是有语言障碍的失语症人群。关于失语症患者的一个基本假设是：语言能力某方面的缺失，可能会引导我们发现大脑中拿部分独立于其他部分而起作用。6.1.2Currentissues近期主题1.Thehumanlanguagesystemislikelytobe“modular”,inthesenseofbeingconstitutedoutofanumberofseparatebutinteractingcomponents.人类语言系统可能是“模块化”的，因为它由一些相互独立并且相互作用的部分组成。2.modular模块:whichaassumesthatthemindisstructuiedintoseparatemodulesorcomponents,eachgovernedbyitsownprinciplesandoperatingindependentlyofothers.3.encapsulation分隔4.therelationshipbetweenstructureandprocess结构和过程之间的关系Itisgenerallyagreedthatthemindislikelytocontain\ncertainlinguisticstructureswhichareutilizedinthecourseofvarious“processes”,suchascomprehendingorproducingspeech.Someresearcheshavearguedthatstructuresandprocessesarelinkedonlyindirectly,othersthattheconnectioniscloseone.Thisdebateisoftenahuman“grammar”,andtheextenttowhichtheformerhaspsychologicalreality.普遍认为，思维中可能容纳了一些确定的语言结构以用于各种“过程”----如理解或产生言语的过程。一部分研究者坚持结构和过程只有间接联系，另一部分则认为该联系是紧密的。对着仪分歧人们经常用语言学家的语法和普通人的“语法”两者间的关系来形容；并且从这个角度上说，前者具有心理现实性。5．psycholinguisticreality心理语言现实:therealityofgrammar,etc.asapurportedaccountofstructuresrepresentedinthemindofaspeaker.Oftenopposed,indiscussionofthemeritsofalternativegrammars,tocriteriaofsimplicity,elegance,andinternalconsistency.6.Thethreemajorstrandsofpsycholinguisticresearcharethecomprehension,production,andacquisitionlanguage.心理语言学研究的三个主要分支是语言理解，语言产生和语言习得。languageperception语言感知---:languageawarenessofthingsthroughthephysicalsenses,esp,sight..languagecomprehension语言理解:----oneofthethreestrandofpsycholinguisticresearch,whichstudiestheunderstandingoflanguage..languageproduction语言产生:-----agoal-directedactivety,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordetomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformationandsoon.(1)Howdopeopleusetheirknowledgeoflanguage,andhowdotheyunderstandwhattheyhearorread?人们如何运用他们的语言知识，如何弄懂他们所听到或谈到的？(2).Howdotheyproducemessagethatotherscanunderstandinturn?人们如何生产出他人作为接受者所能理解的信息？(3).Howlanguageisrepresentedinthemindandhowlanguageisacquired?语言在思维中如何表现、它是怎样习得的？\n6.2LanguageComprension语言理解1.Mostofpsycholinguisticresearchandtheoriesareconcernedwiththecomprehensionoftext,buttheassumptionisthattheyarealsorelevanttospeechcomprehension.大多数心理语言学的研究和理论关注于语篇的理解，但其前提是它们也和言语理解相关。TextComprension语篇理解6.2.1Wordrecognition词语识别1.Aninitialstepinunderstandinganymessageistherecognitionofwords.理解任何信息的初始步骤都是词语的识别。2.cohorttheory集群理论-------:theoryoftheperceptionofspokenwordsproposedinthemid-1980s.Itsaaumesa“recognitionlexicon”inwhicheachwordisrepresentedbyafullandindependent”recognistionelement”.Whenthesystemreceivesthebeginningofarelevantacousticsignal,allelementsmatchingitarefullyacticated,and,asmoreofthesignalisreceived,thesystemtriestomatchitindependentlywitheachofthem,Whereveritfailstheelementisdeactivated;thisprocesscontinuesuntilonlyoneremainsactive.cohorttheory:itreferstohypothesizesthatauditorywordrecognitionbeginswiththeformationofagroupofwordsattheperceptionoftheinitialsoundandproceedssoundbysoundwiththecohortofwordsdecreasingasmoresoundsareperceived.假设自动的词语识别以一组词的形成开始：人们首先感知首音，然后一个接着一个；随着接受的音增多，词语的集群数下降。3.Oneofthemostimportantfactorsthateffectswordrecognitionishowfrequentlythewordisusedinagivencontext.影响词语识别的最重要的因素之一是词语在已知语篇或语境中的出现频率。frequencyeffect-----频率效应:describestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageinthelanguage.频率效应描述了这种附加的效益：一个单词的识别要归因于它在语言中更频繁的使用。4．Recencyeffects近期效应-----describetheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsrepeatedoccurrencein\nthediscourseorcontext.近期效应描述的附加效益是：单词的识别归因于它在语篇或语境中的重复出现。5.AnotherfactorthatisinvolvedinwordrecognitionisContext.词语识别涉及的另一个因素是语境。6.Semanticassociationnetwork语义关联网络-----representstherelationshipsbetweenvarioussemanticallyrelatedwords.Wordrecognitionisthoughttobefasterwhenothermembersoftheassociationnetworkareprovidedinthediscourse.该网络表现了各种语义相关的词之间的关系。当话语提供了关联网络中的其他成员时，词语识别会更快。6.2.2Lexicalambiguity词汇歧义1.lexicalambiguity:词汇歧义-------ambiguityexplainedbyreferencetolexicalmeanings:e.g.thatofIsawabat,whereabatmightrefertoananimalor,amongothers,stabletennisbat.bug(臭虫；窃听器)；rose（玫瑰；rise的过去式）2.Therearetwomaintheories:(1).Allthemeaningsassocatiedwiththewordareaccessed,and(2)onlyonemeaningisaccessedinitially.主要有两种理论：搜索该词所有意义；开始只考虑其中一个意义。3.e.g.:a.Aftertakingtherightturnattheintersection….在路口右转之后；在路口沿正确的方向转弯之后“right”isambiguous:correctvs.rightwardb.Aftertakingtheleftturnattheintersection…在路口左转之后“left”isunambiguous6.2.3Syntacticprocessing句法过程1.Onceawordhasbeendentified,itisusedtoconstructasyntacticstructure.单词一经识别就用来构建句法结构。2.Asalways,therearecinokucatuibsduetotheambiguityofindividualwordsandtothedifferentpossiblewaysthatwordscanbefitintophrases.Sometimesthereisnowaytodeterminewhichstructureandmeaningasentencehas.经常地，由于单个词语有歧义，或者词组成短语有多种可能方式，这一过程变得复杂，有时甚至无法确定句子的结构和意义。\ne.g.Thecopsawthespywiththebinoculars.“withthebinoculars”isambiguity(1)thecopemployedbinocularsinordertoseethespy.警察用双筒望远镜观察间谍。(2).itspecifies“thespyhasbinoculars”.警察看到了带有双筒望远镜的间谍。3.Someambiguitiesareduetotheambiguouscategoryofsomeofthewordsinthesentence.有些歧义归因于句中单词兼属不同范畴。e.g.thedeserttrainstrains(培训；列车)thedeserttrainsmantobehardly.沙漠使人坚韧。Thedeserttrainsseldomrunontime.沙漠列车从不准时。4.Oneinterestingphenomenonconcerningcertainambiguoussentencesiscalledthe“gardenpath”.一个与这种歧义句相关的有趣现象叫做“花园小径。“Gardenpathsentencesaresentencesthatareinitiallyinterpretedwithadifferentstructurethantheyactuallyhave.Ittypicallytakesquitealongtimetofigureoutwhattheotherstructureisifthefirstchoiceturnsouttobeincorrect.Sometimespeopleneverfigureitout.Theyhavebeen“ledupthegardenpath”,fooledintothinkingthesentencehasadifferentstructurethanithas.Reducedrelativeclausesquitefrequentlycausethisfeelingofhavingbeengarden-pathed.花园小径句就是那些实际解释不同于我们一开始所想结构的句子。如果证明开始的选择是错误的，就要花相当长的一段时间来找出另外一种结构。有时甚至永远也找不出来，他们被“引到花园小径中去“了，被”骗“去思索句子的另外一种结构，而非其表面上显示的。降级关系从句经常使人有这种走入花园小径的感觉。e.g.“Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.”Means“thehorsethatwasracedpastthebarnfell.”比赛跨越障碍的马摔倒了。5.theminimalattachmenttheory最小接触理论-------Itwouldbeinefficientforpeopletoassumealltheseinfinitestructuresuntiltheygetsomepositiveevidenceforoneofthem.Andiftheyarbitrarilychosseoneofthepossibilities,theyaremost\nlikelytochoosethesimplest.Theideaisthatpeopleinitiallyconstructthesimplest(orleastcomplex)syntacticstructurewheninterpretingthestructureofsentences.Thisiscalledtheminimalattachmenttheory.如果人们分析所有这些无穷的可能直到发现了确切证据能支持其中一种，效率就将非常低。而如果是从所有可能性中任选一种的话，多数可能选择最简单的。也就是说，人们解释句子结构时，一开始构建的是最简（或者说最小复杂性）句法结构，这种观点叫做最少接触理论。6.2.4Semanticsandsentencememroy语义学和句子记忆assimilationtheory同化理论------:language(sound,word,syntax,etc)changeorprocessbywhichfeaturesofoneelementchangetomatchthoseofanotherthatprecedesorfollows.6.2.5Basicprocessesinreading阅读的基础过程1.Eyemovement眼部移动2.Theperceptualspan感知时距------whichistherangeoflettersfromwhichusefulinformationisextracted.即能够提取到有用信息的字母范围。3.Theimmediacyassumption即时假定immediateassumption即时假定:-------thereaderissupposedtocarryouttheprogressesrequiredtounderstandeachwordanditsrelationshiptopreviouswordsinthesentenceassoonasthatwordinencountered.读者应该每遇到一个单词就马上展开所需过程来理解该单词及它与句中之前单词的关系。e.g.Tomorrowwastheannual,one-dayfishingcontextandfishermentwouldinvadetheplace.Someofthebestbassguitaristisinthecountrywouldcometothisspot.明天是纪念日，有一天的捕鱼竞赛，渔夫们将拥入此地。乡村里一些最好的低音吉他演奏者也将到场。Bass(颅鱼；音调低的)6.3Discourse/textinterpretations话语/语篇解释1.Discourseservesasacontext,affectingsentenceandword-levelinterpretation,tippingtheinterpretationofwhatwouldotherwisebeambiguouswordsorphrasesinacertain\ndirection.话语作为语境，影响句子和词平面的解释，给可能有歧义的词或短语指示一个确定的解释方向。2.contexteffect语境效应-----:thiseffecthelppeoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentherecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.3.Whenwearetryingtounderstandasentence,weoftenmakeuseofinformationthatisnotcontaineddirectlywithinthesentenceitself.Thisisknownascontextualinformation,andwecandistinguishbetweentwokindsofcontext:generalandspecific.人们尝试理解句子时，经常会利用一些句子本身并不直接包含的信息，叫做语境信息；我们可以区分两种语境：常识的和特殊的。Generalcontexteffectsoccurwhenourgeneralknowledgeabouttheworldinfluenceslanguagecomprehension.常识语境效应发生在我们对世界的常识影响语言理解时；Specificcontexteffectsinvolveinformationobtainedfromearlierpartsofadiscourse.特殊语境效应则需要甬道从话语前面部分获取的信息。4.Generalcontexteffectsoccurallthetime,becauseacrucialaspectoflanguagecomprehensioninvolvesmakinguseofanyrelevantgeneralknowledgethatwepossess.常识语境效应随时都在发生，因为语言理解的一个极重要的方面就是要利用我们拥有的任何相关常识。6.3.1Schemataandinferencedrawing图式和推论1.schemataintext语篇图式:packetsofstoredknowledgeinlanguageprocessing存储知识的信息包2.Thefeaturesofschemataareasfollows:(1).Schematacanvaryconsiderablyintheinformationtheycontain,fromtheverysimpletotheverycomplex.图式可以随其存储信息发生相当大的改变，从非常简单到非常复杂。(2).Schemataarefrequentlyorganizedhierarchically;forexample,inadditiontoarathergeneralrestaurantschemaorscript,weprobablyalsohavemorespecificrestaurantschematafordifferentkindsofrestaurant(e.g.fast-foodplaces,up-marketFrenchrestaurants,andsoso.)图式往往是\n分等级地组织起来的：如，在很普通的餐馆图式或底本之外，我们可能也有不同种类的特殊餐馆图式（像快餐店，高档法国餐馆等等。）(3).Schemataoperateinatop-downorconceptuallydirvenwaytofacilitateinterpretationofenvironmentalstimuli..图式以一种自上而下或概念驱动的方式促进对环境刺激物的解释。3.inferenceincontext语篇推论:anyconclusiondrawnfromasetofproposition,fromsomethingsomeonehassaid,andsoon.Itincludesthingsthat,whilenotfollowinglogically,areimplied,inanordinarysense,e.g.inaspecificcontext.6.3.2storystructure故事结构storystructure故事结构-------:thewayinwhichvariouspartsofstoryarearrangedororganizedmacroproposition:宏观命题---generalpropositionsusedtoformanoverallmacrostructureofthestory.macrostructure宏观结构6.4Languageproduction语言产生1.Languageproductionisverydefinitelyagoal-directedactivity,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordertomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformation,andsoon.人们说话或者写文章是为了交朋友、影响别人、传递信息等等，在这个意义上，语言产生无疑是一种目标驱动的活动。2.Thetwoformsoflanguageproductionarespeechproductionandwriting.语言产生的两种形式：言语产生和文字。6.4.1Speechproduction言语产生1.fivedifferentlevelsofrepresentationinvolvedinspeakingasentence,andtheyoccurinthefollowingsequence:themessage-levelrepresentation;thefunctional-levelrepresentation;thepositional-levelrepresentation;thephonetic-levelrepresentation;thearticulatory-levelrepresentation五个不同的表达层面：信息层面表达式；功能层面表达式；命题层面表达式；语音层面表达式；发音层面表达式。2.propositions命题:-----whateverisseenasexpressedbyasentencewhichmakesastatement.Itisapropertyofpropositionsthattheyhavetruthvalues.\n3.parsing解析------:thetaskofassigningwordstopartsofspeechwiththeirappropriateaccidents,traditionallye.g.topupilslearninglatingrammar.4.Theclassicerrorofthistypeisthespoonerism(orslipofthetongue),wheretheinitialletterorlettersoftwowordsaretransposed.属于这种类型的典型错误是首音互换（或叫“舌头打滑”）：两个单词的前个或前几个字母互换了位置。5.Othererrorsalsodemonstratetheexistenceofforwardplanning.Ananticipationerroroccurswhenawordisspokenearlierinthesentencethanitshouldbe(e.g.theschoolisatschool).Asimilartypeoferroristheexchangeerror,inwhichtwoitemswithinasentenceareswapped.(e.g.Thisisthehappiestlifeofmyday.)其他错误也说明了“预先计划”的存在。当一个单词先于它应该出现的位置出现在句中时，预期错误就产生了。一种相似的错误类型是交换错误，即句中两个词项交换了位置。6.Giventhissequence,itwouldbepossibleforthegrammaticalstructureofaspokensentencetobecorrecteventhoughsomeofthewordswereincorrectlypositioned.Preciselythisisfoundwithmorpheme-exchangeerrors,inwhichtherootsorbasicformsoftwowordsareswitchedleavingthegrammaticalstructureunchanged.(e.g.Hehasalreadytrunkedtwopacks.)说出的句子语法结构正确而一些词位置错误。这一现象准确地说是词素交换错误，其中语法结构没变而两个单词的词根或基础形式交换了位置。（例如，trunk与pack互换了位置。）6.4.2Writtenlanguage书面语1.writingprocess书面语过程:aseriesofactionsoreventsthatarepartofawritingorcontinuingdevelopmeng.2.AccordingtoHayesandFlower,writingessentiallyconsisitsofthreeinter-relatedprocesses:theplanningprocess;thesentencegenerationprocess;therevisonprocess.文字处理本质上由三个相互关联的过程组成：计划过程；句子生成过程；修改过程。3.Ingeneral,theprocessesoperateintheorder:planning,sentencegeneration,andrevision.这些过程按如下顺序工作：计\n划，句子生成，修改。4.Strategicknowledge学习策略知识------whichisknowledgeofthemetodsusedinconstructingawritingplaninordertomakeitcoherhentandwell-organized.它是关于构建写作计划所用方法的知识，使用那些方法可以使写作计划更加连贯，富于组织性。4.Knowledge-tellingstrategy知识讲述策略------wheretheysimplywirtedowneverythingtheycanthinkofthatisrelevanttoatopicwithoutorganizingtheinformationinanyway.即不用任何方式组织信息，只是写出所有能想到的与主题相关的东西。5.Knowledge-transformingstrategy知识转换策略Exercises:Herearesomemoreexamplesofgardenpathsentence.Canyoufigureoutwhatthestructureofthesesentencesis?下面是一些“花园小径”句，请指出其结构。1.Theboatfloateddownstreamsank.Theboat/whichwasfloateddownstream/sank.那只顺流而下的船沉了。2.WhileMarywasmendingthesockfelloffherlap.WhileMarywasmending/thesockfelloffherlap.玛丽正在缝补时，短袜从她膝盖上滑了下来。3.Thedaughteroftheking’ssonadmireshimself.(Thedaughteroftheking)’ssonadmireshimself.国王女儿的儿子崇拜他自己。4.Thefloristsenttheflowerswaspleased.Theflorist/whomwassenttheflowers/waspleased.收到鲜花的种花人非常高兴。5.ThecottonclotingismadefromgrowsinMississippi.Thecotton/whichclothingismadefrom/growsinMississippi.纺织用棉产于密西西比。6.Theytoldtheboythatthegirlmetthestory.Theytoldtheboy/thatthegirlmet/thestory.他们把故事告诉了女孩遇到的那个男孩。Theexamplesofcohorttheory:Graytie------greateye;aname-----anaim;aniceman-----aniceman;Iscream-----icecream;SeeMable----seemable;wellfare----welfarelookout------lookout;decade-----DeckEight\nLayman------laymen;persistentturn------persistandturn第七章chapter7language,culture,andsocitey语言，文化和社会7.1Languageandculture语言和文化7.1.1Howdoeslanguagerelatetoculture?语言如何与文化相联系？1.Ithasbecomeaxiomatictostatethereexistsacloserelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture.语言和文化之间有密切的联系。th2.Somechangewasdevelopedatthestartofthe20century:ananthropologicalorientationinthestudyoflanguagewasdevelopedbothinEnglandandinNorthAmerican.Whatcharacterizedthisnewtraditionwasitsstudyoflanguageasocioculturalcontext.一些变化在20世纪的时候出现了，无论是在英国还是在北美，语言研究都开始了人类学转向，这种新传统的特征就是将语言研究置于社会文化的语境之中。3.BronislawMalinowskiandJonhP.FirthcanberegardedasthepioneersofthismovementinEngland.马林诺夫斯基和弗斯是这一运动的先驱。FranzBoas,EdwardSapir,andBenjaminLeeWhorfarenaturallyseenastherepresentativesofaparallelbutindependenttraditionfromNorthAmerica.鲍阿斯，萨丕尔和沃尔夫是北美代表。4.Firthdevelopendhisowntheoryofcontextofsituation,whichcanbesummarisedasfollows:弗斯提出了自己的情景语境理论，总结如下：A.Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:person,personalities;参与者的相关特征：人物，人品\n(i)Theverbalactionoftheparticipants参与者的言语行为(ii)Thenon-verbalactionoftheparticipants.参与者的非言语行为；B.Therelevantobjects有关事物C.Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.言语活动的影响Firthhereseemedtosuggestthecreativityanddiversityoflinguisticidiosyncrasyinlanguageuse.弗斯在这里指出了语言使用中语言的创造性和多样性。Ontheotherhand,whatFirthemphasizedinthistheoryisquitesimilartoamoreupdatingsociologicalaxiominlanguageuse,namely,“whospeaksorwriteswhatlanguageorwhatlaguagevarietytowhomandwhenandtowhatend.另一方面，弗斯在该理论中所强调的内容十分接近一个更新的关于语言使用的社会学公理，即“谁在什么时候对谁说了或写了什么语言或使用了什么语言变体，得到了什么结果。””5.M.A.K.Halliday,whosecontributionstosociolinguisticscouldbebetterseenfromhisunderstandingoflanguagefromasociallysemioticorinteractionalperspective,hisfunctionalinterpretationofgrammarasaresourceformeaningpotential,andhislinguisticmodelinthestudyofliterature.韩礼德对社会语言学的贡献可以从下列方面更清楚地看出来：他从社会符号或者交互功能方面来解释语言，他将语法解释为具有意义潜势的功能观，以及他在文学研究中建立的语言模型。6.ethnographyofcommunication交际民族学Anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学Sapir-Whorfhypotheses萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说7．linguisticrelativity语言相对性----:oneofthetwopointsinSpir-Whorfhypotheis,i.e.there’snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages..linguisticdeterminism语言决定论:----oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.languagedeterminesthought.Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheother,similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediverse\ntheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.Forthisreason,thishypothesishasalternativelybeenreferredtoaslanguisticdeterminismandlinguisticrelativity-----aviewwhich“wasfirstexpoundedbytheGermanethnologist,WilhelmvonHumboldt”.一方面语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构差异越大，所反映的对世界的认识越不同。因此这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。实际上，这种看法“最早由德国民族学家洪堡特详加阐释”8.ifwewanttodoagoodjobinCrossculturalcommunication,therearefivetypesofsub-cultureweshoudbefullyawareof:如果想出色地完成跨文化交际工作，需要充分认识五种次文化形式：Ecologicalculture生态文化Linguisticculture语言文化Religiousculture宗教文化Materialculture物质文化Socialculture社会文化7.1.2MoreabouttheSapir-Whorfhypothesis萨坯尔-沃尔夫假说1.Thestongversionofthetheory强式说-----referstotheclaimtheoriginalhypothesissuggests,emphasiziingthedecisiveroleoflanguageastheshaperofourthinkingpatterns.指的是这一理论的初始假说，即强调语言在塑造我们的思维方式过程中起到了决定性的作用。2.Theweakversionofthetheory弱式说-----ismodifiedtypeofitsoriginaltheory,suggestingthatthereisacorrelationbetweenlanguage,culture,andthought,butthecross-culturedifferencesthusproducedinourwayofthinkingarerelatives,ratherthancategorical.是初始假说的修正形式，即认为语言、文化和思维之间有相关性，但是产生不同思维方式的跨文化差异只是相对的，而不是绝对的。7.1.3Casestudies个案研究1.getyourhandsdirtymeans:Youarepracticingsomething你在做什么事情Youareengagedindoingsth你在从事什么事情2.haveenoughdumbbells愚蠢的家伙\n7.1.4Towhichextentdoweneedcultureinourlinguisticstudy?文化在语言研究中占什么地位？Motivation动因directionality方向性7.1.5Cultureinlanguageteachingclassroom语言教学中的文化7.2Languageandsociety语言和社会7.2.1Howdoeslanguagerelatetosociety?语言如何和社会联系？Monistic一元性Dualisticview二元观autonomouspursuit自治性7.2.2Asitualionallyandsociallyvariationistperspective情景和社会变异视角1.Wemayexpandthescopeofourobservationbyintroducingsomesocialfactorsthatarebelievedtoinfluenceourlanguagebehaviorinasocialcontext.Amongthesefactors,somemajoronesinclude:class;gender;age;ethnicidentity;educationbackground;occupationandreligiousbelief.我们可以通过引进一些社会因素来扩展我们的详细观察视野。这些因素被认为会在一定的社会背景中影响我们的言语行为，主要包括：阶级；性别；年龄；种族；教育背景；职业；和宗教信仰。2.phonologicalvariations语音变体3.genderdifference性别差异:----adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis”gendendifference”4.linguisticsexism语言性别歧视------:manydifferencesbetweenmeandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.5.variationistlinguistics变异语言学:-----abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.7.2.3Whatshoudweknowmoreaboutsociolinguistics?对于社会语言学我们海应该知道些什么？1.sociolinguisticsofsociety社会语言学;-----oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamininglinguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.2.sociolinguisticsoflanguage语言学社会学:-----oneofthe\ntwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontolanguageuseinasocialcontext.7.2.4Whatimplicationcanwegetfromsociolinguistics?从社会语言学中可以得到什么启示？1.communicativecompetence交际能力:----aspeaker’sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,etc.governingtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.DistinguishedbyD.Hymesinthelate1960sfromChomsley’sconceptofcompetence,intherestrictedsenseofknowledgeofagrammar.2.grmmarians语法学家activelanguageusers能动的语言使用者第八章Chapter8LanguageinUse语言的使用Teachingaims:enablethestudentstohaveabetterunderstandingofpragmaticsanditstwoimportanttheories.Focalpoints:Speechacttheory,thetheoryofconversationalimplicature言语行为理论，会话含义理论Teachingdifficulties:Speechacttheory,thecooperativeprincipleanditsfourmaximsTeachingprocedureAnintroductiontopragmaticsTodayisSunday.Itcanbe1.ananswerfor“whatdayisittoday?”2.statement3.complaint4.reminder5.criticism(reproach)6.question“TodayisSunday?”Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning句子意义vs语句意义Speaker’smeaning说话者意义contextualmeaning语境意义Pragmatics语用学=meaning-senmanticsThestudyoflanguageinuseorthestudyofmeaningoflanguageincontext\nPragmaticsisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics.Itdevelopedinthe1960sand1970s.Morrisfirstproposedtheword“pragmatics”inhis“FoundationsoftheTheoryofSigns”.Hesaidthatthestudyofsemioticsincludesthreeparts:syntax(sign---sign);semantics(sign---word);pragmatics(sign---itsuser).1977JournalofPragmaticspublishedinHollandsignifiedthestartofpragmatics.1.whatispragmatics?Pragmaticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuse.Itisconcernedwiththestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeakerorwriterandinterpretedbyalistenerorreader.Ithas,consequently,moretodowiththeanalysiofwhatpeoplemeanbytheirutterancesthanwhatthewordsorphrasesinthoseutterancesmightmeanbythemselves.Pragmaticsiscomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics;itsdevelopmentandestablishmentinthe1960sand1970sresultedfromtheexpansionofthestudyoflinguistics,expeciallythatofsemantics.Ageneraldefinitionofpragmaticsisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Thescopeofpragmaticstudyincludes“speechacttheory”,“context”,“principleofcoversation”etc.语用学是上个世纪60，70年代兴起的语言学的一个新的分支，它所研究的是语言同其使用者之间的关系，即在一定的交际环境中如何使用语言，包括说出忽然理解实际的话语两个方面。语用学研究范围包括言语行为，会话含义，会话结构等方面。2.whymustwedistinguishusinglanguagetodosomethingandusinglanguageindoingsomething?Thereisawidevarietyofpossibleusesoflanguage,butbeforewesurveythesevarioususes,wemustfirstdistinguishbetweenusinglanguagetodosomethingandusinglanguagindoingsomething.Whenwefocusonwhatpeopleuselanguagetodo,wefocusonwhatapersonisdoingwithwordsinparticularsituations;wefocusontheintentions,purposes,beliefs,anddesiresthataspeakerhasisspeaking.3.whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?Pragmaticsstudieshowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.Thebasicdifferencebetweenpragmaticsandtraditionalsenmanticsisthatwhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Pragmaticsconsidersmeaning\nincontextandtraditionallysenmanticsstudiesmeaninginisolationfromthecontextsofuse.4.Howisthenotionofcontextinterpreted?Context-----contextisregardedasconstitutedbyallkindsofknowledgeassumedtobesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticsstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandhearer.语境是语用学研究中的关键概念。因为语境在很大程度上决定着话语意义或话语意义的正确理解。因此，语境可以理解为交际双方共同拥有的知识。Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:语境分为“上下文”和“情景语境”两类。(1)Theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse(2)Theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.“上下文”语境是指语篇中的上文和下文，即某一词语或话语的前后左右相伴的词语。“情景”语境是指话语说出的前因后果。说话人和听话人双方的关系，双方共同的背景知识，典故，言语意图等。5.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?Sentencemeaning------referstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstrac,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.句子意义是抽象的，是按语法规则生成的，是静态的。Utterancemeaning-----referstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication.Itbecomesanutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyutteredorused.话语意义是指在句子意义的基础上，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，它体现了说话人的意图和目的，它是动态的。Utterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning.Sentencemeaningisconcreteandcontext-dependentandutterancemeaningisabstractandde-contextualized.Forexample:thedogisbarking;mybagisheaven.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.\nMostutterancesarecompletesentencesintermsofsyntax,someutterancesarenot,andsomecannotenenberestortedtocompletesentences.Forexample,“Goodmorning!”“Hi!”and“Ouch!”areallutterances,whichhavemeaningincommunication.If“Goodmorning!”canberestortedto“Iwishyouagoodmorning,”wedonotknowformwhichcompletesentences“Hi!”“Ouch!”havebeenderived.6.Trytothinkofcontextinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:(a)Theroomismessy.Amildcriticismofsomeonewhoshouldhavecleanedtheroom.(b)Ican’tworkunderuntidycircumstances.Arequesttosomeonetotidyupthecircumstances.(c)Itwouldbegoodifshehadagreenskirton.Amildwaytoexpressdisagreementwithsomeonewhohascomplimentedonalady’sappearance.8.1.Speechacttheory言语行为理论atheoryaboutlanguageusedtodothings.ThetheoryoriginatedwithBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthe50’softhe20thcenturyanddevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Accordingtothistheory,weareperformingvariouskindsofactswhenwearespeaking,thuslinguisticcommunicationiscomposedofasuccessionofacts.WhatisSpeechacttheory?“Speechacttheory”wasproposedbyJonhAustinandhasbeendevelopedbyhisstudentJ.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.“言语行为”理论是由英国牛津大学道德哲学教授奥斯汀建立的。他认为人们说话时不仅是传递信息或描述物体，通常是言语本身即是一种行为，即以言行事。Typicalutterancesare“Ido”,“InametheshipElizabeth”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”.Inthesecasestheutteringoftherelevantwordsistheleadingevent,withouttheactionspecifiedcannotbedone.例如，“我答应……”“我打赌……”“就叫她小芳吧！”之类的句子就是典型的行事句。Theconceptofconstativesperformatives,thelocutionaryact,theillocutionaryact,theprelocutionaryactandthefivecategoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Searleconstitutethespeechacttheory.“行事话语”，“述事话语”，“言内行为”“言外行为”“言后行为”以及塞尔勒的关于言外行为的五大分类构成了言语行为理论的核心。\n8.1.1.Performativesandconstatives施为句和表述句Austin’sfirstshotatthespeechacttheoryistheclaimthattherearetwotypesofsentences:performativesandconstatives.奥斯汀理论的第一步是认为句子有两类：施为句和表述句。1.Performatives施为句:InspeechacttheoryproposedbyJohnAustin,it’sanutterancewhichperformsanacts,Performatives----anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstativebywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueorfalse.Performativesaresentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastateandarenotverifiable,inotherwords,performativesareutterancethat“dothings.”施为句是用来实施某种行为的，说话本身就是在做一件事，因此无真假之别，只有是否合适之分。Thesentencescannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteringofthesesentencesis,orisapartofthedoingofanaction,sotheyarecalledperformatives.Andverbslikenamearecalledperformativeverbs.句子并不是用来描述事物的，没有真假。说出这些句子是或者部分是实施某种行为。所以这些句子称为施为句。其中的动词称为施为性动词。E.g.InamethisshipTitanic.我把这只船命名为泰坦尼克号。Ideclarethemeetingopen.我宣布会议开始。Iwarnyoutoleaveaway(suggestion)我警告你快离开。Ibequeachmywatchtomybrother.我把手表遗赠给我弟弟。Ipromisetofinishitintime.我答应按时完成。Iapologize.我道歉。Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.我警告你这头公牛会撞人。Ibetyousixpencesitwillraintommorrow.我用六便士跟你打赌明天会下雨。2.Constatives:utteranceswhichareintendedfornarration,descriptionetc.Constative表述句------anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmaybetrueorfalseConstativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverfiableandconstativesbearingthetruth-value.表述句是指各种陈述，其作用是描写某一件事件，过程或状态，有真假之分。Adescriptionofwhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.Thespeakercannotpouranyliquidintoatubebysimplyutteringthesewords.Hemustaccompanyhiswordswiththeactualpourin.Otherwiseonecanaccusehimofmakingafalsestatement.\nSentencesofthistypeareknownasconstatives.E.g.Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.描述了说话人说话的同时在做什么。说话人不能通过说这句话把液体倒入试管，他必须同时做倒液体的动作。否则，我们可以说他作了虚假陈述。这样的句子叫表述句。例如：我把一些液体倒入试管。Anutterancewhichassertssomethingthat’seithertrueorfalse,suchas“It’sraining”“Thecatisintheroom”.ThefelicityconditionssuggestedbyAustinisasfollows:施为句的合适条件：A.(1)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,必须有一个相应的规约程序；(2)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.相关的参与者和环境是合适的；B.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(1).Correctly;(2)completely.该程序必须正确全面地得到执行；C.Veryoften,通常(1).Therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsadintentions;有关人员必须有相关的思想，感情和意图。(2)mustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.能付诸实际行动。Later,Austinrealizedthatsuchdistinctionisnotscientific,becauseallsentencescanbeusedtodothings.“sayingisperforming”.Insomesenses,constativesarealsoperformatives.e.g.Thecatisonthemat.(implicitperformatives)Itellyouthatthecatisonthemat.(explicitperformatives)I’llbethereattwoo’clock.(implicitperformatives)Ipromisetosethereattwoo’clock.(explicitperformatives)Astinexploredthepossibilityofseparatingperformativesfromconstativesongrammaticalandlexicalcriteria.奥斯汀从语法和词汇上区别施为句和表述句。(1)Typicalperformativesusefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoice,andperformativeverbs.典型的施为句一般是第一人称单数作主语；用一般现在时；用直接语气；用主动语态；动词是施为性动词。Exceptions:Pedestriansarewarnedtokeepoffthegrass.行人禁止践踏草坪。Turnright.向右转。Thankyou.\nYoudidit.你犯了罪。(2)themosttypicalconstativeverbstate,whichisusedtodescribethings,maybeusedtodothings.Inuttering“IstatethatI’maloneresponsible”,thespeakerhasmadeastatementandundertakentheresponsibility.“state”一般被用来表述事物，是最典型的表述动词，却也可以被用来做事。说“IstatethatI’maloneresponsible”（我声明我承担全部责任）的时候，说话人就发表了声明，承担了责任。8.1.2.Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact行事行为理论1.Aspeakerisinmostcasesperforming3actssimultaneouslywhilemakinganutterance.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.？Giveanexample.locutionaryact言内行为:------theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.It’sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely.,theactofsayingsomething:theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.言内行为指的是用句子来叙述，报告，描写。言内行为指话语过程本身，诸如：句法，词汇与发言等。illocutionaryact言外行为:-----theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.Themakingofastatement,offerpromise,etc,inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit.theactofusingasentencetoperformafunctionsuchascommand,request,etc言外行为是指说话过程中通过话语的一些约定俗成的关联力量进行陈述，承诺等。说话带有目的性。perlocutionaryact言后行为----theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperfomedbysayingsomething,thebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudiencebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstances.theresultsoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsth言后行为是指行为本身就是讲话的结果。即讲话所产生的情感，思想，行动等的某种反应。Illocutionaryforce:theintentionorpurposeunderlyingtheactofsayingsth.(speaker’smeaning)e.g.Youhaveleftthedoorwideopenthelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewords“you”“have”“door”“open”etc.andexpressedwhatthewordsliterallymean.locutionary:utteranceofallthe\nwordtheillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsb.toclosethedoor.“ormakingacomplainttheprelocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearergetsthespeaker’smessageandseesthespeakermeanstoasksomeonetoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheprelocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.perlocutionary:thehearerclosethedoororhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsWhatSearle’sclassficationofillocutionaryacts?言外行为的划分WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?Speechactstheoryarousedgreatinterestamongscholarsinthe1960’sand1970’s.OneofthosewhomadenotablecontributiontoitistheAmericanphilosopherlinguistJohnSearle.Hemadeclassificationofillocutionaryacts.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories.Representatives表述句-----:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.说话者保证所表述的命题是真的。Thefilmismoving.Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.Directives指令句:-----tryingtogetthehearertodosth,说话者企图让听话人做某件事。You’dbettergototheclinicOpenthewindow!Commisives受约句----:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction说话者保证将来采取某些行动。Ipromisetocomehereat7:00Expressives表情句------:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.表达说话者的一种心理状态。It’sverykindofyoutohelpme.I’msorryforthemessIhavemadeDeclarations宣布句------:bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsth.说话者的话将引起规约事态的变化。Iappointyoumonitoroftheclass.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen\nRepresentatives----sentencesthatcommitthespeakertothetruthofsomething.Typicalcasesare“Ithinkthetrainismoving.”And“I’msureJohnhasstolenthebook”.Thedegreeofcommitmentvariesfromstatementtostatement.Thecommitmentissmallin“IguessJohnhasstolenthebook”butverystrongin“IsolemnlyswearthatJohnhasstolenthebook.”Directives----sentencesbywhichthespeakertriestogetthehearertodosomething.“Ibegyoutogivemesomehelp”and“Iorderyoutodoitrightnow”arebothattemptstogetsomethingdonebythehearer.Amongtheverbsthatfallintothisgroupare“ask”“plead”“entreat”“command”,or“advise”.Commsives-----sentencesthatcommitthespeakertosomefutureaction.Promisesandoffersarecharacteristicoftheseacts.Interestingly,warningisalsoacommissive,asin“Ifyoudothatagain,I’llhityou”,becauseitalsocommitsthespeakertodoingsomething.Expressives-----sentencesthatexpressthespeaker’spsychologicalstateaboutsomething,verbstypicallyusedforthiscategoryare“thank””congradulate”“apologize”“welcome”“deplore”.Declaratives-----sentencesthatbringaboutimmediatechangeinexistingstateofaffairs.Assoonasanemployersaystoanemployee“Youarefired”,theemployeeloseshisjob.Verbsoftenusedfordeclarationsare“name”“christen”“nominate”“point”or“declare”.Representatives:Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Inotherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhehimselfbelievestobetrue.Stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizingareamongthemosttypicaloftherepresentatives.Forexample:(Iswear)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.(Istate)theearthisaglobe.Directives:Directivesareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,orderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass.Forexample:Openthewindow!You’dbettergototheclinic.Yourmoneyoryourlife!Wouldyouliketogotothe\npicnicwithus?Commissives:Commsivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction,i.e,whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalcases.Forexample:Ipromsetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.Expressives:Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsandexistingstateofaffairs,e.g,apologing,thanking,congratulating.Forexample:I’msorryforthemessIhavemade.It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.Declarations:Thesuccesfulperformanceofanactofdeclarationsbringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.Forexamples:Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Ifireyou!3．Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirforceorstrength.E.g.(1)Iswearheisthekiller.(strongbelief)Ibelieve/thinkheisthekiller.(lessstrongbelief)Iguessheisthekiller.(weakerbelief)(2)ClosethedoorWillyouclosethedoorDoyoumindclosingthedoor?IwouldbeverygratefulifyoucouldClosethedoor!Thedoorisopen!Thedoorplease!Whateveractweperformwithlanguagecanbecategorizedintooneofthese5kinds.8.2.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicature会话含义理论Astheobjectiveofpragmaticstudyistoexplainhowlanguageisusedtoeffectsuccessfulcommunication,conversation,asthemostcommonandnaturalformofcommunication,hasdrawntheattentionofmanyscholars.ThetheorywasproposedbyanotherOxfordphilosopherH.P.\nGrice.inhislecturesunderthetitleof“Logicandconversation”.conversationalimplicature------theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,underatandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.会话含义指话语的言外之意，往往是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意，含有绘画含义的话语，即说者能说，听者能懂的话语，需要具有以下三个条件：A、.双方具有一定的知识。B、说者对准则的违反一次不超过一个C、双方都有或不反对含混，双关，歧义，讽刺，比喻，夸张，幽默等手法。8.2.1.Theco-operativeprinciple(CP)合作原则Gricenoticedthatindailyconversationpeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybutturntendtoimplythem.Hecoinedtheterm“implicature”torefertosuchimpliedmeaning.Andheexploredthequestionhowpeoplemanagetoconveyimplicature,whichisnotexplicitlyexpressed.AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,theparticipantmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetask.ThesegeneralprincipleiscalledthecooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedascp.TospecifytheCPfurther,Griceintroducedfourcategoriesofmaxims.(conversationalmaxims)It’sinterestingandimportanttonotethatthosemaximsarenotalwaysstrictlyobserved.Rather,forvariousreasonstheyareoftenviolatedor“flouted”,touseGrice’sterm.Someoftheseviolationsgiveriseto“conversationalimplicatuses”,WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Howdoestheviolationofthesemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures?Theco-operativeprinciple,proposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.合作原则：会话是人们在交际过程中的对话。美国逻辑学家和哲学家p.格赖斯在对会话进行考察之后认为，会话受到一定条件的制约，为了使人们的交谈不至于成为一连串的，不连贯的“胡言乱语”，会话双方或多方，需要向一个共同的目的或一组目的互相配合地作出努力。这就要求大家\n要遵守一定的原则，这就是格赖斯所称的“合作原则”，它包括四条准则：Thecooperativepinciplehasthefollowingfourmaxims:(1)themaximofquantity数量的准则a.Makeyoucontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.)使所说的话正好满足当前交谈的需要的信息。b.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.说出的话语所含的信息量既不能太多，也不能太少，只要满足交谈目的的信息量即可。所说的话不要多于需要的信息。(2)themaximofquality质量的准则Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.a.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.所说的话要求真实。不要说自知是虚假的话。b.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.不要说缺乏足够证据的话。说出的话尽可能真实，有证可查，至少是自己信以为真的话。(3)themaximofrelation关联准则Makeyourcontributionrelevant.Berelevant.要有关联。说出的话要切题，不说与主题，论题或话题无关的话。(4)themaximofmanner方式准则Beprespiciousandspecific.要清晰。说话清楚明白，简练而且有条理，避免含混和歧义。a.Avoidobscurityofexpression.避免晦涩b.Avoidambiguity避免歧义c.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)要简练。d.Beorderly.要有序。H.P.Gricebelievesthattheremustbesomemechanismsgoverningtheproductionandcomprehensionoftheseutterances.Hesuggeststhatthereisasetorassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation.Thisiswhathecallsthecooperativeprinciple(CP).Heformulatestheprincipleanditsmaximsasfollows:Makeyourcontributionsuchisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionoftheexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.AndthisprincipleisknownastheCOOPERATIVEPRINCIPLE,orCPforshort.使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。这个原则叫合作原则，简写成CP。\nTheexamplesofCP(1)themaximofquantityA:DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?B:Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBdoesknowMr.X’saddress.ThusBiswithholdingsomeoftheinformationrequiredandisfloutingthemaximofquantity.Theimplicatureproducedis“IdonotwishtotellyouwhereMr.Xlives.”(2)themaximofqualityA:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBisnothavinganyhealthproblemthatwillpreventhimfromgoingtoaparty.ThusBissayingsomethingthathehimselfknowstobefalseandisfloutingthemaximofquality.Theimplicatureproducedis“Idonotwanttogotoyourpartygonight.”(3)themaximofrelationA:Thehostessisanawfulone.Don’tyouthink?B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?ThisiswhenitisknowntobothAandBthatitisentirelypossibleforBtomakeacommentonthehostness.ThusBissayingsomethingirrelevanttowhatAhasjustsaid,andfloutingthemaximofrelation.Theimplicatureproducedis“Idon’twishtotalkaboutthehostnessinsucharudemanner.”(4)themaximofmannerA:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvote.I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingtheword“ice-cream”.ThusBhasfloutedthemaximofmanner.Theimplicatureproducedis“Idon’twantthekidstokownwearetalkingaboutice-cream.”8.2.2.Violationofthemaxims准则的违背ConversationalimplicaturecanonlybeworkedoutonthebasisoftheCP.会话含义只有依赖合作原则才能推导出来。a.quality(telllie;rhetoricdevice)e.g.Paulismadeofiron.(metaphor)[Paulhassomepropertiessimilartothoseofiron.]Youarethecreaminmycoffee.b.quantity--whenisSusan’sfarewellparty?--sometimenextmonth\n--we’llallmissBillandAgatha,won’twe?--well,we’llallmissBILL.[wedidn’tmissAgatha]tautologye.g.Wariswar.[Wariscruel.]--Bobisreallyverymischievous.--Childrenarechildrenc.relation--Howdoyoulikemypainting?--Idon’thaveaneyeforbeauty,I’mafraid[Idon’tlikeitatall]--whatdoyouthinkofthelecture?--Ithoughtthelecturehadwastoobig.[Thelecturewasdullorboring.]d.manner--whereisyourmother?--she’seitherinthehouseoratthemarket.[Idon’tnowexactlywhere]8.2.3.Characteristicsofimplicature含义的特征1．Calculability可推导性Thefactthatspeakerstrytoconveyconversationalimplicaturesandhearersareabletounderstandthemsuggeststhatimplicaturesarecalculable.Theycanbeworkedoutonthebasisofsomepreviousinformation.说话人试图传达他的会话含义，而听话人也能理解这些会话含义，这一事实说明，会话含义是可推导的。它们可以根据已知信息被推导出来。2.Cancellability可取消性Cancellabilityisalsoknownasdefeasibility.可取消性也被称为可废除性。Implicaturecanbecancelledbyadditionalclauses.通过增加句子可以取消原来的含义。Aconversationalimplicaturemayevenbecancelledsimplybythesituationalcontext.会话含义也可以只通过情景语境来清楚。3.non-detachability不可分离性Bynon-detachabilityismeantthataconversationalimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform.Thereforeitispossibletouseasynonymandkeeptheimplicatureintact.Inotherwords,animplicaturewillnotbedetached,separatedformtheutteranceasawhole,eventhoughthespecificwordsmaybechanged.不可分离性是说，会话含义是依附于话语的语义内容，而不是语言形式。因此，我们能用同义成分来替换话语的某一部分，而不改变原来的含义。话句话说就是，\n即使改变话语的具体词语，会话含义也不会因此从整个话语中分离出来。4.non-conventionality非规约性entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:e.g.”Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,”Maryisnotstandingstill”.Entailmentisalogicalrelationshipbetweentwosentencesinwhichthetruthofthesecondnecessarilyfollowsfromthetruthofthefirst,whilethefalsityofthethefirstfollowsfromthefalsityofthesecond.衍推反映的是两个句子之间的逻辑关系，第一个句子是真，第二个句子就一定是真；第二个句子是假，第一个句子就一定是假。Entailmentisapartoftheconventionalmeaning.衍推是规约意义的部分。8.3Post-Griceandevelopment后格莱斯时期的发展1.8.3.1RelevancetheoryAnassumptionisrelevantinacontextiffithassomecontextualeffectinthatcontextThethreetypesofcontextualeffecta.Contextualimplication(1)A:Couldyouhaveaquicklookatmyprinter––it’snotworkingright.B:Ihavegotanappointmentateleveno’clock.(2)a.Thereareonlyfiveminutesuntileleveno’clock.b.Theprinterproblemisnotanobviousone,butwillrequireopeningitup.c.Openingtheprinterwilltakemorethanfiveminutes.(3)Aisnotabletohavealookattheprinternow.b.Strengthening/confirmationofcontextualassumption(4)A:IhaveahunchthatGillislookingforanewjob.B:Yeah,sheisstudyingjobadswhenevershe’sgotaspareminute.(5)Someonereadingjobadsisprobablylookingforanewjob.c.Eliminationofapreviouslyheldassumption(6)A:Wehavetocallanothermeeting.Idon’tthinkthatChristineisgoingtocome,sowe’llbeonepersonshort\nofaquorum.B:Noneedforcancellation,IseeChristinejustcomingupthedrive.ostensivecommunication明示交际------:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-infer-ential..communicativeprincipleofrelevance关联原则------:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.每一个明示交际行动，都传递一种假设：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。明示-推理：ostensive-inferential明示交际：ostensivecommunication推理交际：inferentialcommunication.relevance关联性----:apropertythatanyutterance,orapropositionthatitcommunicates,must,inthenatureofcommunication,necessarilyhave.8.3.2TheQ-andR-principle数量原则和关系原则Q-principle-----:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionnecessary(G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ)constraintsonHornscales荷恩等级的约束-----:thehearer-basedo-Principleisasufficiencyconditioninthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto..\n8.3.3TheQ-,I-andM-principles数量原则，信息原则和方式原则divisionofpragmaticlabour语用劳动分工-----:theuseofamarkedcrelativelycomplexand/orexpressionwhenacorrespondingunmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage(onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed).3.4.Conclusion“Conversationalimplicature”,accordingtoPaulGrice,referstotheextrameaningnotcontainedintheutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthe4maximsoftheCP.第九章.third-personnarrator:ofthenarratorisnotacharacterinthefictionalworld,heorsheisusuallycalledathird–personnarrator..I-narrator:thepersonwhotellsthestorymayalsobeacharacterinthefictionalworldofthestory,relatingthestoryaftertheevent..directspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform..indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform..indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationwhichisanamalgamofdirectspeech..narrator’srepreaentationofspeechacts:aminimalistkindofpresentationinwhichapartofpassagecanbeseenasa\nsummeryofalongerpieceofdiscourse,andthereforeevenmorebackgruondedthanindirectspeechrepresentationwouldbe..narrator”srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofcategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheirofcharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentspeechacts.Forexample,,sheconsideredhisunpunctuality..indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewoulebelate..feeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures..narrator’srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofthecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftherircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking..indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewouldbelate..freeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures.\n.narrator”srepresentationofthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking..freeindirectthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech,e.g.Hewasboundtobelate..directthought:categoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech.第十章Chapter10LanguageandComputer语言和计算机1．Computersystem计算机系统------Themachineitselftogetherwithakeyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.isknownasacomputersystem.计算机本身是有键盘、打印机、屏幕、磁盘驱动器和程序等组成，我们称之为计算机系统。2．Computerliteracy计算机操作能力-----itreferstothosepeoplewhohavesufficientknowledgeandskillintheuseofcomputersandcomputesoftware.计算机操作能力，特指那些能使用计算机并具有大量计算机软件知识和技巧的人。3．Computationallinguistics计算机语言学-----itcanbeseenasabranchofappliedlinguistics,dealingwithcomputerprocessingofhumanlanguage.看作是应用语言学的分支，即通过计算机处理人类语言。4．Computationallinguisticsincludes:计算机语言学包括Atheanalysisoflanguagedata对语言数据的分析\nB.electronicproductionofartificialspeech(speechsynthesis)andtheautomaticrecognitionofhumanspeech人类语言的电子生成（言语合成）和人类语言的自动识别C.researchonautomatictranslationbetweennaturallanguages在自然语言之间的自动翻译D.textprocessingandcommunicationbetweenpeopleandcomputers.语篇处理和人与计算机的交流10.1Computer-assistedlanguagelearing(CALL)计算机辅助语言学习10.1.1CAL/CAIvsCALL1.CAL:computer-assistedlearning计算机辅助学习emphasizestheuseofacomputerinbothteachingandlearninginordertohelpthelearnerachieveeducationalobjectives.强调在教和学两方面使用计算机，帮助学习者达到学习目标。2.CAI:computer-assistedinstruction计算机辅助教学，aimsateseeingeducationalproblemsonthepartoftheteacher.注重于教师教的问题3.CALL:computer-assistedlanguagelearning,referstotheuseofcomputerintheteachingorlearningofasecondorforeignlanguage.计算机辅助语言学习，指的是将计算机运用到第二语言或外语的教学中去。4.CAIorCALdealswithteachingandlearningingeneral,CALLdealswithlanguageteachingandlearninginparticular.CAI或CAL是处理一般的教与学，CALL则是用来处理语言教学的。10.1.2PhasesofCALLdevelopmentCALL的发展阶段10.1.3Technology技术(1).Customizing,template,andauthoringprogram.定制、模块和编程(2).Computernetworks计算机网络Localareanetworks局域网:shortforLAN,whicharecomputerstogetherbycablesinaclassroom,lab,orbuilding.Theyofferteachersanovelapproachforcreatingnewactivitiesforstudentsthatprovidemoretimeandexperiencewiththetargetlanguage.指在教室、实验室或其他建筑里，计算机通过光缆连接在一\n起。他们教师们提供了一种新颖的方式，来创造新的活动，对学生而言就是对目标语言提供更多的时间和经验。(3).Compactdisktechnology.激光盘技术Compactdisk-readonlymemory(CD-ROM)激光可视盘-------allowshugeamountofinformationtobestoredononediskwithquickaccesstotheinfromation.Studentsandteacherscanaccessinformatinquicklyandefficientlyforuseinandoutoftheclassroom.激光可视盘使得大量信息储存在一张磁盘上，以便快速获取信息。学生和教师能够快速有效地在课内或课后使用信息。(4).Digitizedsound.数字化语言。CD-I:compactdisk-interactive交互式激光盘10.2Machinetranslation机器翻译-----shortforMT,itreferstotheuseofmachine(usuallycomputers)totranslatetextsfromonelanguagetoanother.指利用机器（通常是计算机）把文本从一种语言翻译到另一种语言。10.2.1Historyofdevelopment发展历史(1).TheindependentworkbyMTresearchersMT研究者的独立工作(2).Towardsgoodqualityoutput瞄准高质量的输出FAHQT：Fullyautomaticqualitytranslation全自动高质量翻译(3).Thedevelopmentoftranslationtools.翻译工具的发展10.2.2Researchmethods研究方法MTresearchmethodscanberepresentedfromtwoperspective,oneisfromtheapplicationoflinguistictheories,anotherfromwhathasbeenactuallypracticedbyMTresearchers.MT研究方法可以从两个方面来叙述，一方面是语言学理论的运用，一方面是MT研究者们实际所从事的内容。(1).Linguisticapproach语言学的方法MTresearchhasbeenregardedasafieldinwhichnewlinguisticformalismsornewcomputationaltechniquescanbetriedout.Inotherwords,MThasbeenseenasatest-bedforlinguistictheories,becausethequalityofMTandtranslationcanbejudgedbynon-experts.MT研究已经被看做一个试验新的语言形式或新的计算技术的领域。换\n言之，MT已经被视为语言理论的实验床，因为MT和翻译的质量能由非专家来判断。Therelevanttheorieswereinformationtheory,categoricalgrammar,transformational-generativegrammar,dependencygrammar,andstratificationalgrammarinthe1950sand1960s;artificialintelligence,non-linguisticknowledgebases,formalismssuchaslexical-functionalgrammar,generalizedphrasestructuregrammar,head-drivenphrasestructuregrammar,definiteclausegrammar,priciplesandparameters,Montaguesemanticsinthe1970sand1980s,neuralnetworks,connectionism,parallelprocessing,andstatisticalmethodsandothersinthe1990s.与之相关的理论有：20世纪50年代和60年代的信息理论，范畴语法，转换生成语法，从属语法，和层次语法；70年代和80年代的人工智能，非语言知识基础，诸如词汇功能语法，广义短语结构语法，中心词驱动短语结构语法，有定从句语法，原则和参数，70年代和80年代的蒙太古语法等这些形式主义；90年代的神经系统网络，连接注意，平行处理，和统计学方法以及其他理论。(2).Thepracticalapproaches实践的方法thiscanbefurtherdividedinto3strands实践的方法可进一步分为3条线索a.Thetransferapproach转移法b.Theinterlingualapproach语际法c.Knowledge-basedapproach基于知识的方法10.2.3MTqualityMT的质量10.2.4MTandtheInternetMT和互联网10.2.5Spokenlangaugetranslation口语翻译10.2.6MTandhumantranslationMT和人工翻译10.3Corpuslinguistics语料库语言学Computercorpora计算机语料库10.3.1Corpus,plrualcoruoraAcollectionoflinguisticdata,eithercompiledaswrittentextsorasatrancriptionofrecordedspeech.Themainpurposesofacorpusistoverifyahypothesisaboutlanguage-----forexample,todeterminetheusageofa\nparticularsound,word,orsyntacticconstructionvaries.语料，复数形式corpora：一个语言数据的存储，可是是被编辑为书面文本，也可以是被作为录音言语的译本。语料的主要目的是鉴定一个语言的假说------例如，确定一个特定的语音，单词，或句法结构的使用如何变化。CorpusLinguisticsdealswiththepriciplesandpracticeofusingcorporainlanguagestudy.Acomputercorpusisalargebodyofmachine-readab;etexts.语料库语言学：论述语言研究中使用语料的原理和实践。一个计算机语料库是机器可读文本的重要躯干。10.3.2Criticismsandtherevivalofcorpuslinguistcis语料库语言学受到的批判及其复兴10.3.3Concordance共现关系------theuseofcomputertosearchforaparticularword,sequenceofwords.orperhapsevenapartofspeechinatext.Thecomputercanalsoretrieveallexamplesofaparticularword,usuallyinacontext,whichisafurtheraidtothelinguist.Itcanalsocalculatethenumberofoccurrencesofthewordsothatinformationonthefrequencyofthewordmaybegathered。Wemaythenbeinterestedinsortinginsomeway-----forexample,alphabeticallyonwordsoccruingintheimmediatecontextoftheword.Thisisusuallyreferredtoasaconcordance.计算机有能力搜索一个特定的词，词汇的顺序，甚至一个文本里的某一个词类。计算机也能检索一个词所有的实例，通常是在上下文里，这对语言学家是更有力的帮助。它还能计算机一个词出现的次数，从而收集到有关这个词的频率的信息。然后，我们可以饶有兴趣地以某种方式对数据进行分类---例如，按字母顺序将出现在紧接着某个词的上下文里的词进行分类。这通常被称为共现关系。10.3.4Textencodingandannotation文本编辑和注解Annotation注解-----ifcorporaissaidtobeunannotated------itappearsinitsexistingrawstateofplaintext,whereasannotatedcorporahasbeenenhancedwithvarioustypeoflinguisticinformation.如果语料被说成是无注解的，这指它以其存在的自然状态出现在简单的文本里，而有注解的语料通过各种各样类型的语言信息得到增强。10.3.5Therolesofcorpusdata语料库数据的作用\na.Speechresearch言语研究b.Lexicalstudies词汇研究c.Senmantics语义学d.Sociolinguistics社会语言学e.Psycholinguistics心理语言学10.4Infromationretrieval信息检索------thetermconventionally,thoughsomewhatinaccurately,appliedtothetypeofactivitydiscussedinthisvolume.Aninformationretrievalsystemdoesnotinform(i.e.changetheknowledgeof)theuseronthesubjectofhisinquiry.itmerelyinformsontheexistence(ornon-existence)andwhereaboutsofdocumentsrelatingtohisrequest.信息检索习惯上是指本书所探讨的那类活动的术语，虽然不十分精确。信息检索系统不会通知用户查询的内容，它仅仅告诉用于是否存在在和哪里存在与它查询有关的信息。10.4.1Scopedefined范围Automaticinformationretrievalsystem,automaticasopposedtomanualandinformationasopposedtodataorfact.自动信息检索系统，自动是相对于人工而言，信息是相对于数据和事实而言。DR:dataretrieval数据检索IR:infromationretrieval信息检索10.4.2Aninfromationretrievalsystem信息检索系统AtypicalIRcanbeillustratedbythefollowingdiagram,whichshowsthreecomponents:input,processorandoutput.一个典型的信息检索系统由三部分组成：输入，处理和输出。10.4.3Threemainareasofresearch三个主要的研究领域(1).ContentanalysisContentanalysisisconcernedwithdescribingthecontentsofdocumentsinaformsuitableforcomputerprocessing.内容分析，是描述文档内容，便于计算机处理。(2).Infromationstructure-------Infromationstructureisconcernedwithexploitingrelationships,betweendocumentstoimprovetheefficiencyandeffectivenessofretrievalstrategies.Itcoversspecificallyalogicalorganizationofinformation,suchasdocumentrepresentatives,forthepurposeofinformationretrieval.信息结构信息结构指文档之间的关系，用\n来提高检索策略的有效性。它包含信息的逻辑组织，如为了信息检索需要的文档关键词。(3).Evaluation------Evaluationisconcernedwiththemeasurementoftheeffectivenessofretrieval.评估评估是关于检索有效性的检测。Precision精确度------thepropotionofretrievaldocumentswhicharerelevant.检索出相关文档的比例。Recall记忆-------thepropotionofrelevantdocumentsretrieved.有关文档被检索出的比例10.5Mailandnews邮件和新闻FYI:standsfor“foryourinformation”为你提供的信息