philosophy 1100哲学 8页

Philosophy1100IntroductiontoEthicsEthics,Philosophy,Religion,andCriticalThinkingAnOverviewoftheIntroductoryMaterial:TheMainTopics1.TheOriginofPhilosophy2.EthicsasaBranchofPhilosophy3.TheNatureofPhilosophy4.TheNatureofEthics5.Meta-EthicsandNormativeEthics6.TheFocusinthisCourse7.HowCanthisApproachPossiblyWork?8.TheSocraticChallengeandtheUnexaminedLife9.SomeImportantBeliefsabouttheNatureoftheWorld10.CouldSomeofYourMostImportantBeliefsBeFalse?11.TheRelationbetweenGodandObjectiveMoralValues12.AreThereRevealedTruths?Question1:Howmuchexposuretophilosophyhaveyouhad?A.Ihaven’treallybeenexposedtophilosophytoanyextent.B.I’veheardalittleaboutphilosophy,orI’vereadafewthingswrittenbyphilosophers.C.I’vehadonephilosophycourse,eitherinhighschoolorcollege.D.I’vehadafewphilosophycourses.E.Icouldteachthisclass.\n1.TheOriginofPhilosophyPhilosophyoriginatedinGreeksociety,duringaperiodwhensciencebegan,whentherewereverygreatdiscoveriesandadvancesindeedinmathematics,achievedbypeoplesuchasPythagoras(569?-500?B.C.),Zeno(495-435B.C.),Eudoxus(408-355B.C.),Euclid(330?-275?B.C.),andArchimedes(287-212B.C.),andwhendemocracyalsooriginated.TheThreeGreatestGreekPhilosophersSocrates(469-399B.C.)Socratesdidnothimselfwriteanything.Hequestionedpeople,raisingphilosophicalissues,especiallyaboutthenatureofthegoodlife.Hewaschargedwithnotrespectingthegods,andwithcorruptingtheyoung,andhewassentencedtodeath.Hediedbydrinkinghemlock.HewasPlato'steacher,andourknowledgeofSocratesisbasedmainlyuponPlato'sdialogues,especiallytheearly,'Socratic'ones.Plato(426-347B.C.)Platowrotemanydialogues.Inallofthemhisteacher,Socrates,wasthecentralfigure.Theearlydialoguesfocusuponethics,andaregenerallythoughttoprovideanaccurateaccountofSocrates'ownviews.Inlaterdialogues,however,thefigureofSocratesbecomesaspokesmanforPlato,andtherangeofphilosophicaldiscussionisgreatlyexpanded:ratherthanfocusingalmostentirelyonethicalquestions,laterdialoguesaddresstopicsinmetaphysics,intheoryofknowledge,inphilosophyofmind,inlogicandphilosophyoflanguage,andinsocialandpoliticaltheory.Aristotle(384-322B.C.)AristotlewasastudentofPlato,andlikePlato,hehadaverystronginterestinethics,andinsocialandpoliticalphilosophy.(PoliticsandtheNichomacheanEthics.)LikePlato,however,Aristotlewasinterestedinallofphilosophy.Thushewroteaboutthenatureofthemind(orsoul);hewroteaboutknowledgeandsenseperception;headdressedquestionsinmetaphysicsabouttheultimatenatureoftheworld,andtheexistenceofaprimemover.\nAristotlealsoinvestigatedlogicinaverysystematicway,andhedevelopedatheoryofwhatarecalledsyllogisticargumentsthatdistinguishedbetweenthoseargumentsthatarelogicallycorrect(orvalid)andthosethatarenot.Thistheoryenduredforover2100years,withveryfewsignificantadvancesbeingmadeuntilwellintothe19thcentury.TheFutureDevelopmentofLogicSignificantcontributionstothedevelopmentinlogicweremadeinthe19thcenturybyGeorgeBoole(1815-1864),andbyAugustusDeMorgan.Thegreattransformationinlogicwasmade,however,byGottlobFrege(1848-1925),who,withthepublicationofhisBegriffschriftinproduced"thefirstreallycomprehensivesystemofformallogic,"andasystemthatwentfarbeyondAristotle'ssyllogisticlogic.)WilliamKnealeandMarthaKneale,TheDevelopmentofLogic(Oxford:ClarrendonPress,1962),p.510.Aristotle(384-322B.C.)-ContinuedAristotle'sinterestswere,however,evenbroaderthanPlato's,sinceAristotlewasalsoveryinterestedinscience-specifically,bothphysicsandbiology.Inthecaseofbiology,itmaywellbethatAristotleexaminedmorespeciesoflivingthingsthananyoneuntilthetimeofCharlesDarwin.(Aristotle'smostfamousstudentwasnotaphilosopher,butageneralandruler-AlexandertheGreat-whotraveledagreatdeal,andwhoeitherbroughtbackspecimensofanimalsfromotherlands-includingmanymarineanimals-orelseprovidedAristotlewithdetailedreportsofobservationsofanimalsmadebyothers.)Finally,inthecaseofphysics,Aristotle'sviewscompletelydominatedtheintellectuallandscapeforover1800years,untilthetimeofGalileo(1564-1642).2.EthicsasaBranchofPhilosophyAsonecanseefromtheabove,ethics,asabranchofphilosophy,isnotanewdiscipline:itbeganwithSocrates,over2400yearsago,anditwasoneofthecentralinterestsofthetwootherGreekphilosopherswhoaregenerallyconsideredtwoofthegreatestphilosopherswhohaveeverlived-PlatoandAristotle.\nThisdevelopment,moreover,representedanenormousbreakwithwhathadexistedpreviously.For,beforeSocrates,ethicswasalmostinvariablyassociatedwithreligion,withmoralrulesbeingregardedaslawshandeddownbyadeity,withrightandwrongbeingamatterofdivineinjunctionsandprohibitions-suchasinthecaseoftheTenCommandments,whichwereheldbytheJewstohavebeenhandeddowntoMosesontabletsofstonegiventohimbyYahweh.Theideathatmoraltruthsaretobearrivedatbysomeprocessofthoughtandrationalreflectionchallengesthisviewthatmoraltruthsmustcomefromadeity,andindoingsoitraisesanissuethatisveryimportantindeed:Shouldonelooktoreligionforanswerstomoralquestions,orshouldoneturninsteadtophilosophy?Thisissueis,moreover,onethatisverymuchalivetoday,asmanypeoplecontinuetomaintainthatweshouldturntoreligion-or,rather,tosomeparticularreligion-ratherthantophilosophy,ifwewanttoknowwhatmoralprinciplestoaccept.3.TheNatureofPhilosophyWhatisphilosophy?Philosophy,bothasithasbeenpracticedsincethetimeofSocrates,andasitispracticedtoday,involvesatleastthefollowingfouractivities.(1)TheJustificationofBasicBeliefsPhilosophersareconcernedwithwhethervariousbasichumanbeliefsarejustified,and,ifso,preciselyhow.SomeExamples1.Arewereallyawareofanexternalworld?(Comparethemovie,TheMatrix.)2.Canweknowthatotherhumansalsohaveminds?(ComparealsoRenéDescartes'(1596-1650)viewthatnon-humananimalsweremereautomata.)3.Arewejustifiedinbelievingthatwearereallyfree?4.Arethereobjectivestandardsofrightandwrong?5.Isittrue-asmostpeopleseemtobelieve-thatwesurvivebodilydeath?6.Wasthereacreatorofthephysicaluniverse?\n3.TheNatureofPhilosophy(2)TheAnalysisofFundamentalConceptsPhilosophersarealsoconcernedwiththeclarificationandtheanalysisofthefundamentalconceptsthatenterintobasichumanbeliefs-suchastheconceptofaphysicalobject,ofspaceandtime,ofthemind,ofconsciousness,offreedom,ofrightandwrong,etc.(3)TheDiscoveryofNecessaryTruthsArelatedactivityconcernstherelationbetweenfundamentalconcepts:philosophersattempttoestablishtruthsinvolvingthoseconceptsthatcouldnotbeotherwise,truthsthatarenecessary.SomeExamples1.Insciencefictionstories-suchasTheTerminator-peoplesometimestravelbackwardsintothepast.2.Isitlogicallypossible-asmanyphilosophersandscientiststodayclaim-thatthemindisjustthebrain,andthatconsciousnessisjustaneuralprocess?3.TheNatureofPhilosophy(4)TheDevelopmentofaSystematicOverview-aSynopticView-ofRealityasaWholeThebasicgoalhereistoarriveatapictureofrealityasawholethatisbothcomprehensiveandplausible.OneIllustration:TheNatureoftheMind,anditsPlaceinRealityAnotherIllustration:HumanFreedomandMoralResponsibility,andtheDeterminismofNewtonianPhysics4.TheNatureofEthicsEthicsisabranchofphilosophy,andthefouractivitiesjustmentionedarecentraltoethicsaswell.(1)JustificationQuestions1.Arethereobjectivemoralvalues?2.Ifthereare,howcanweacquireknowledgeofsuchvalues?3.Ifwecanacquiresuchknowledge,whatbasicmoralprinciplesareinfactthecorrectones?\n(2)QuestionsofAnalysis1.Whatdoesitmeantosaythatanactionismorallywrong?Orthatitismorallypermissible?2.Whatdoesitmeantosaythatsomestateofaffairsisgoodordesirable,orthatitisbadorundesirable?(3)QuestionsConcerningNecessaryTruths1.Isitanecessarytruththatthemorallyrightactionistheonethatleadstothebestbalanceofgoodstatesofaffairsoverbadstatesofaffairs?2.Isitanecessarytruththatonlypleasureisintrinsicallygood-goodinitself-andthatonlypainisintrinsicallybad?3.Isitanecessarytruththatanactionthatisforbiddenbyanomnipotentandomniscientcreatoroftheuniverseismorallywrong,andoughtnottobedone?(4)QuestionsConcerningtheMetaphysicsofValue,thePlaceofValuesinRealityWeinhabitaphysicalworldinspaceandtime.Ifthereareobjectivevalues,howdotheyfitintothings?1.Doobjectivevaluesexistsomewhereinspaceandtime?Arethey,perhaps,non-naturalpropertiesofactionsandstatesofaffairs,astheEnglishphilosopherG.E.Moorebelieved?Ordotheyinsteadexistinsomenon-spatial,non-temporalrealm-asPlatobelieved?OrdotheyexistinthemindofGod,assomereligiousthinkershaveclaimed?2.Howdoweacquireknowledgeofobjectivevalues?Dotheycausallyactuponourminds?Ifso,thenthingsinthephysicalworldareaffectednotjustbyphysicalforces-asmostphysicistsappeartobelieve,norevenjustbyphysicalforcesplusminds:objectivevaluesalsoexertatleastanindirectinfluence,viatheirinfluenceuponminds,anduponourbeliefsaboutrightandwrong.5.Meta-EthicsandNormativeEthicsMeta-ethicsisthebranchofphilosophythatisconcernedwith:(1)Theanalysisofethicalconcepts;(2)Necessarytruthsinvolvingsuchconcepts;\n(3)Themetaphysicsofvalue;(4)Themostgeneralquestionsaboutthejustificationofethicalbeliefs.Normativeethics,ontheotherhand,isconcernedwithsettingoutcorrectprinciplesconcerningtherightnessandwrongnessofactions,andthegoodnessandbadnessofstatesofaffairs.High-levelversuslow-levelnormativeethics.6.TheFocusinthisCourse1.Weshallnotbetacklingissuesinmeta-ethics.2.Weshallnotattempttoconstructasound,generalmoraltheorythatwould,inprinciple,supplyanswerstoallofone'sethicalquestions.3.Thefocuswillinsteadbeuponanumberofdetailedmoralissues.7.HowCanthisApproachWork?1.Twoobjectionstosuchanapproach:(1)Meta-ethicsmustcomefirst;(2)Low-levelnormativeethicspresupposeshigh-levelnormativetheory.2.Theidealapproach:(1)Demonstratethatthereareobjectivevalues;(2)Showthatonecanhaveknowledgeofsuchvalues;(3)Determinewhatthecorrecthigh-level,basicmoralprinciplesare.3.Twoproblemswiththeidealapproach:(1)Thereisthedifficultyofestablishingthatthereareobjectivevalues.(2)Thereisnogenerallyacceptedanswertothequestionofhowonecanestablishwhatthecorrectmoralprinciplesare.7.HowCanthisApproachWork?4.Ifthat'sthesituation,isn'toneforcedtoconcludethat,atpresent,itisawasteoftimedoinglow-levelnormativeethics?5.Theansweris‘No’.\n6.Thereasonisthis.Low-levelnormativeethicsdoesnotdependuponasolutiontothesehigh-levelethicalissuesisthis:theapplicationoftechniquesofcriticalthinkingcanoftenprovideapersonwithgoodreasonsforchanginghisorhermoralbeliefs.7.Onereasonisthatpeopleoftenhavepotentialmoralbeliefsthatconflictwithactualmoralbeliefs.WhatIhaveinmindhereisthatpeoplemay,ontheonehand,believethatallactionsofacertaintypearewrong,buttheremaybecasesofsuchanactionthat,iftheyweretoconsiderthecase,theywouldnotthinkthattheactionwaswrong.Question2Pleasurableactivitiesmayhavebadconsequences,butpleasureinitselfisalwaysgood.A.Stronglyagree.B.I’minclinedtoagree.C.I’muncertain,orIwanttopassonthisquestion.D.I’minclinedtodisagree.E.Stronglydisagree.Arethereanycrucial,potentialcounterexamplestotheclaimthatpleasureinitselfisalwaysgood?Oneplausiblecounterexample:Thecaseofsadisticpleasure.7.HowCanThisApproachWork?8.Anotherreasonisthatnotallmoralbeliefsarebasic.Somerestuponbeliefsconcerningnon-moralfacts,andifthosenon-moralbeliefsarefalse,thatwilldestroythebasisofthemoralbeliefthatrestsuponthosenon-moralbeliefs.ExampleThecaseofsomeonewhothinksthatabortionisalwayswrongbecausethereisanimmaterialsoulpresentinhumanbeingsfromconception.