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唐山师范学院本科毕业论文外文翻译题目论抗战时期国民党的敌后游击战学生韩为静指导教师闫永增教授学号061100241015年级2006级本科专业历史学系别政史系唐山师范学院政史系2010年5月\n\nDeteriorationI939-I945:theMilitaryJohnK.FairbankAfterthefallofWuhanandCantoninlateOctober1938,thecharacterofthewarandconditionsintheNationalistareaschangedprofoundly.Thefightingprogressivelyenteredastalemate.EspeciallyaftertheJapaneseattackonPearlHarboron7December1941,NationalistleadersanticipatedthattheWesternAlliescoulddefeatJapanwithoutthenecessityoffurtherChinesesacrifices.Afterall,theyhadfoughtJapanaloneforfourandahalfyearsalready.TheyconsequentlydevotedlessattentiontocombatingtheJapanesethantocontainingtheCommunists,whosegrowingpowerandterritorialcontrolauguredbadlyfornationalunityandstabilityinthepostwarperiod.Mostofall,however,theNationalistgovernmentatChungkingfounditselfcaughtinaseeminglyirreversibleprocessofdeterioration—military,economic,social,andpolitical—thatleftitby1945weakanddemoralized.WhentheNationalistsdidnotcapitulatefollowingtheirdefeatatWuhaninOctober1938,theJapaneseleadersrealizedthattheyhadmisjudgedtheChinesepowersofresistanceandthattheimperialarmywouldmerelyexhaustitselfifitcontinuedtopursuetheelusivedefendersintothehinterlands.Theythereforeadoptedanewstrategy,stressingpoliticalmeanstosecurecontrolofChina.First,theywouldconsolidatecontroloftheareasoverrunsinceJuly1937.Theynoweffectivelycontrolledonlysome10percentoftheterritoryinNorthandCentralChina-primarilythemajorcitiesandareasborderingthemajorrailwaysandhighways.Theyneededtoeliminatemanypocketsofresistanceandtoharnesstheproductivecapabilitiesoftheoccupiedareastotheeconomyofthehomeland.Second,theJapanesedeterminedtoweardowntheNationalistsuntiltheycollapsedfrom‘internaldisintegration.TheythussimultaneouslytightenedtheireconomicblockadeoftheNationalistareasandbeganadestructiveairwar.Inthespringof1939theyseizedNanchanginKiangsi,cuttingtheimportantChekiang-Hunanrailway.InNovembertheylandedanamphibiousforceatPo-hai(Pakhoi)inwesternKwangtung,andadvancedahundredmilestotakeNanning,thecapitalofKwangsi.ThiswasadamagingblowtotheNationalists,foritseveredthenewrailwaylinefromHanoioverwhichtheChinesewereobtainingfullyathirdoftheircriticallyneededimports.Then,inSeptember1940theJapaneseoccupiedthenorthernpartofFrenchIndo-China,closingtheimportantraillinebetweenHanoiandKunming.ThereaftertheNationalistsweredependentforsuppliesfromtheoutsideworlduponthenewlyopenedbutbarelypassableBurmaRoad,airtransportfromHongKong(whichtheJapaneseweretooccupyinDecember1941),andthelongcaravanandtruckroutefromRussia(seemap).TheJapaneseairraidsstruckindiscriminatelyatmilitaryandciviliantargets.Theirpurposewaslesstodestroymilitaryinstallationsandfactoriesthantodemoralizethepopulation.VirtuallyallcitiesintheNationalistarea,includingKweilin,KunmingandSian,werehit.Chungking,however,sufferedmostseverely.Bombed268timesduring1939—41,muchofthecitywasgutted,andmanythousandsdied(4,400werekilledinjustthefirsttwodaysofheavyraidsinMay1939).YetneithertheairraidsnortheblockadebroketheChinesewilltoresist.Indeed,theperseveranceoftheChungkingpopulationremainedfirmaslongasthebombingscontinued,andwiltedonlyaftertheyceasedinlate1941.Theblockadewaslessthanacompletesuccess,-10-\ninpartbecausetheNationalistsinJuly1939hadlegalized,andthereafteractivelypromoted,thetradeinmostgoodsfromareasheldbytheJapanese.TheJapanesewereatalosstostopthistrade.Theywereincapableofguardingeveryfoot,oreveneverymile,ofthemorethan2,000milesofborderbetweenoccupiedandunoccupiedChina.ManyJapanesealsoactivelycolludedinthiscommerce,sothatasizeablebutindeterminatepartofNationalistChina’simportsduringthewarcamethroughthisso-calledsmugglingtrade.AmomentousdiscussionbytheJapanesecabinetinJuly1940alsoaffectedtheiroperationsinChina.PerceivingthatsuccessinChinawouldcontinuetoeludethemunlesstheyobtainedaccesstotherichnaturalresourcesofSouth-EastAsia,andconvincedthattheWesternpowerswerepreoccupiedwiththewarinEurope,theJapaneseleadersagreedtobroadenthescopeofimperialexpansionbeyondtheChinatheatre.Theyhoped,althoughwithoutconviction,thattheycouldattaintheirgoalsinthesouthbydiplomacy.ThisdecisioninevitablyalteredthecharacteroftheChinawarandalsoled,withinlittlemorethanayear,totheattackonPearlHarbor.OntheChineseside,strategicandpoliticalconsiderationshadpersuadedtheNationalistleadershiptowageawarofattrition.ChiangKai-shekclaimedthattheJapanesewerespreadingtheirresourcesofmenandequipmenttoothinbyadvancingacrosstheexpanseofChina.’Thelongerourenemystruggles,themoreheinvolveshimselfindifficulties;whilethelongerwestruggle,thestrongerandmoredeterminedwebecome.Chiang,liketheJapanese,alsowishedtoavoiddecisivebattles,becauseheanticipatedthattheWesternAllieswouldultimatelybedrawnintothestruggleagainstJapan.InitiallyhelookedtotheAlliesmerelyformaterialaidandforeconomicsanctionsagainstJapan.ButafterPearlHarbor-newsofwhichwasgreetedjoyouslyinChungking—heexpectedthatGreatBritainandespeciallytheUnitedStates,withitsenormoustechnologicalresources,wouldassumethemajorburdenofdefeatingJapan.By1943,theAmericanambassadortoChina,ClarenceE.Gauss,observedthat‘TheChinesehavepersuadedthemselvesthat[they]aretootiredandtoowornandtooill-equippedtomakegreatereffort,especiallywhensucheffortmaynotbenecessary;andthat[they]cansitback,holdingwhattheyhaveagainsttheJapanese,andconcentratetheirplanninguponChina’spost-warpoliticalandeconomicproblems.ThechiefpoliticalproblemthatdistractedtheNationalists’attentionfromtheJapanesewasthegrowingfrictionwiththeChineseCommunists.AftertheNewFourthArmyincidentinJanuary1941(seep.665)theunitedfronthadvirtuallyceasedtoexist.InfluentialNationalistleaders—mostnotablytheministerofwar,HoYing-ch’in,andthepartyapparatchik,Ch’enLi-fu-atvarioustimesstridentlyadvocatedafinalexterminationcampaignagainsttheCommunists.ChiangKai-shekresistedthesepressures,inlargepartbecausehefearedthattheAllieswouldceaseaidingtheNationalistarmyifitbecameopenlyinvolvedincivilwar.Yet,sincemid-1939,hehadcommittedmanyofhisbesttroops-atvarioustimesbetween150,000and500000-toblockadingtheCommunists’baseinthenorth-west.AlthoughbothNationalistsandJapaneseafterlate1938werecontenttowageawarofattrition,fightingbynomeansabatedcompletely.OccasionallytheJapaneselaunchedanoffensivetoattainlimitedobjectives.InJune1940,forexample,theyseizedtheimportantYangtzeRiverportofI-ch’anginordertostaunchtheflowofgoodsbetweentherice-bowlprovincesofCentralChinaandChungkingandtoobtainanairbaseclosertotheNationalistarea.Inthesummerof1942,afterGeneralJamesH.Doolittle’sbombingofTokyo,theJapanesestruckintoChekiangandKiangsiwith100000troopstodestroyairbasesthatmightbeusedinfutureraidsagainstthehomeislands.Periodically,too,theylaunchedattacksagainsttheNationalistlines,lesstooccupynewterritorythantoravagethecountryside,seizeordestroyrecentharvests,preventtheNationalistsfromamassingpotentiallydangerous-10-\nconcentrationsoftroops,ortrainrecentrecruitsinactualcombat.Thecasualtiessustainedintheseyearsofso-calledstalemate-particularlyduringtheearlyperiod—wereconsiderable.TheChineseadmittedtosuffering340000deadin1940:145000in1941;88000in1942;and43000in1943.Yetthebattlelinesfrom1939toearly1944werenotsignificantlyaltered,andthestrategicbalancebetweenthetwoenemieswaslittlechangedfornearlysixyears.TheNationalistarmyduringthelatterhalfofthewarnumberedmorethan3500000men.Itwasnot,however,aunited,nationalarmy,butacoalitionofarmieswhichdifferedindegreesofloyaltytothecentralgovernmentaswellasintraining,equipment,andmilitarycapabilities.Attheheartofthisheterogeneousassemblagewasthe‘CentralArmy’(Chung-yang-chun).In1941,itcomprisedsomethirtydivisions(about300000men)outofatotalofover300divisionsintheentireNationalistarmy.Asthewarprogressed,Chiangaddedtothisforcesothat,bytheendofthewar,theCentralArmycountedabout650000men.OfficersintheCentralArmyin1937weretypicallygraduatesoftheCentralMilitaryAcademy.Theretheyhadreceivedanintroductiontomodernmilitarytechniques,oftenduringthe1930sfromGermaninstructors.Politicalindoctrinationhadbulkedlargeintheirtraining;officerswereintenselyloyaltoChiangKai-shek.MostoftheNationalistforces,however,weredirectdescendantsofwarlordarmies,commandedbymenwhohadrisentoprominenceindependentlyofthecentralgovernment.Theirloyaltieswerethereforeconditionalandattenuated,andtheywerejealousandfearfulofChiangKai-shek’sgrowingpower.LungYun,governorofYunnan,forexample,resistedcentralgovernmentencroachmentsuponhisprovincialpower,andprovidedarefugeforintellectualscriticaloftheChungkinggovernment.GovernorYenHsi-shan,commanderoftheSecondWarZoneinNorthChinaandvicechairmanoftheMilitaryCouncil,ruledhisnativeShansiasanautonomoussatrapy.HeprohibitedunitsoftheCentralArmyfromenteringhiswarzone,andmaintainedhisownpoliticalparty(theDemocraticRevolutionaryComrades’Association)asacountertotheKuomintang.Indeed,since1941,YenhadevenmaintainedcloseandamiablerelationswiththeJapanese.Othergeneralswithprovincialorigins,suchasLiTsung-jen(Kwangsi),HsuehYueh(Kwangtung),YuHsueh-chung(Manchuria)andFuTso-i(Suiyuan)hadlosttheirspecificallyregionalbases,butretainedcommandofarmiesthatwereloyaltothemratherthantoChiangKai-shek.Therelationshipbetweenthosenon-CentralArmycommandersandthecentralgovernmenthadbeenalteredbytheoutbreakofwar.ThroughouttheNankingdecade,thepowerofprovincialmilitaristshadbeenwaning.CrucialtoChiang’sgrowingpowerhadbeenhiscontrolofapoliticallyloyalandrelativelyproficientarmy.ButthedestructionofChiang’sbesttroopsatShanghai,includingthebulkofhiseliteGerman-traineddivisions,causedthemilitarybalancewithintheNationalistforcestoshiftbacktowardthenon-CentralArmycommanders.Chiang’spoliticalauthoritydiminishedproportionately.Throughoutthewar,ChiangendeavouredtorightthepoliticalandmilitarybalancebetweenhimselfandtheregionalcommandersbyinsertingKMTcadresintotheprovincialarmiesandbyrebuildinghiscentralforceswithnewlytrainedofficersandmodernequipment.Theseeffortsexcitedthesuspicionsandanimosityoftheregionalgenerals.TheycomplainedthatthecentralgovernmentdiscriminatedagainstthembysendingtheirdivisionsintodecimatingcombatwiththeJapanesewhileChiangheldhisownforcessafelyinreserve.Theywereangeredbyinequitableallocationsoffreshsupplies,forChiangdistributedthebulkofnewweaponsandammunition,includingLend-LeaseequipmentfromtheUnitedStates,tohisownforcesratherthantothelesstrustworthyprovincialarmies.Domesticpolitics,inshort,underlayChiang’sconductofthewar,andhetookadvantageofit-10-\ntoenhancehiscentralpower.Nomodernstate,ofcourse-asChiang’ssupportershaveargued-couldeasilytoleratesubversivelyindependentattitudesamongitsmilitarycommanders.YetthemeansthatChiangemployedtoenhancecentralgovernmentpowersmaynothavebeenthemostefficacious.Inanyevent,theantipathiesoftheprovincialmilitaristsgrewkeenerasthewarprogressed.In1944,acoalitionoftheleadingprovincialmilitaristswasactuallyplottingtooverthrowChiang’sgovernment.Meanwhilemanynon-CentralArmycommanderssimplydefectedtotheJapanese.Twelveofthesegeneralsdefectedin1941;fifteendefectedin1942;andin1943,thepeakyear,forty-twodefected.Over500,000Chinesetroopsaccompaniedthesedefectinggenerals,andtheJapaneseemployedthepuppetarmiestoprotecttheoccupiedareasagainstCommunistguerrillas.OneofthedeepestflawsintheNationalistarmy,exacerbatedduringthewar,wasthepoorqualityoftheofficercorps.GeneralAlbertC.Wedemeyer,seniorAmericanofficerinChinaafterOctober1944,characterizedtheNationalistofficersas‘incapable,inept,untrained,petty…altogetherinefficient.Thiswasalsocharacteristicofthenon-CentralArmyseniorcommanders,mostofwhomhadgaineddistinctionandpositionasaresultlessoftheirmilitaryskillsthanoftheirshrewdnessinfactionalmanoeuvringandtimelyshiftsofloyalty.EventheseniorofficerswhohadgraduatedfromtheCentralMilitaryAcademy,however,sorelylackedthequalitiesneededformilitaryleadership.MostofthemweregraduatesoftheWhampoaAcademy’sfirstfourclassesduringthe1920s,whenthetraininghadbeenrudimentaryandhadlastedjustafewmonths.BythetimetheywerepromotedtocommandofdivisionsandarmiesastheirrewardsforloyaltytoChiangKai-shek,theircomprehensionofmilitaryscienceandtechnologywasfrequentlynarrowandoutdated.Duringthe1930s,theseseniorofficersmighthavetakenadvantageoftheadvanced,German-influencedtraininginthestaffcollege.Bythattime,however,theywereofsuchhighrankthattheydeemeditbeneaththeirdignitytobecomestudentsagain.Someoftheseniorcommanders,ofcourse,transcendedthesystem.Ch’enCh’eng,PaiCh’ung-hsiandSunLi-jen,forexample,stoodabovetheirpeersasaresultoftheirintelligence,incorruptibilityandmartialtalents.Significantly,however,neitherPaiCh’ung-hsinorSunLi-jenweremembersofChiangKai-shek’sinnercircle.Chiangusedtheirtalentsbutkeptthemontautleash,becausetheywerenotCentralArmymenanddisplayedanuntowardindependenceofmind.Ch’enCh’eng,whowasatrustedassociateofChiang,neverthelessspentmuchofthewarunderapoliticalcloudasaresultoflosingafactionalquarrelwithHoYing-ch’in,thepompousandmodestlyendowedministerofwar.Whenthewarbegan,lower-rankingofficersweregenerallymorecompetentthantheirsuperiors.Between1929and1937,theCentralMilitaryAcademyhadannuallygraduatedanaverageof3000cadets,anabout2000staffofficershadreceivedadvancedtraining.Thewarhowever,cutdeeplyintothejuniorofficercorps.TenthousandofthemhadbeenkilledinthefightingaroundShanghaiandNankingattheveryoutset.Theselosseswereneverfullyrecouped,becauseofficertrainingduringthewardeterioratedgreatly,bothfromloweredentrancerequirementsandfromshortenedcoursesofstudy.Indeed,thepercentageoofficerswhowereacademygraduatesinatypicalinfantrybattaliondeclinedfrom80percentin1937to20percentin1945.Becausenarmyisbetterthanitsjuniorofficers,thesefiguresprovidearoughindexofthedeteriorationoftheNationalistarmyduringthewar.Thatdeteriorationwasmostevident,however,atthelowestlevels,amongtheenlistedmen.China’swartimearmywascomposedlargelyofconscripts.Allmalesbetweeneighteenandforty-five-withtheexceptionofstudents,onlysons,andhardshipcases-weresubjecttothedraft.Accordingtolaw,theyweretobeselectedequitablybydrawinglots.Infact,menwithmoneyorinfluenceevadedthedraft,whilethepoorandpowerlessofthenationwere-10-\npressgangedintotheranks.Frequentlyconscriptionofficersignoredeventheformalitiesofalottery.Somepeasantsweresimplyseizedwhileworkinginthefields;otherswerearrested,andthosewhocouldnotbuytheirwayoutwereenrolledinthearmy.Inductionintomilitaryservicewasahorribleexperience.Lackingvehiclesfortransport,therecruitsoftenmarchedhundredsofmilestotheirassignedunits-whichwerepurposelyremotefromtherecruits’homes,inordertolessenthetemptationtodesert.Frequentlytherecruitweretiedtogetherwithropesaroundtheirnecks.Atnighttheymightbestrippedoftheirclothingtopreventthemfromsneakingway.Forfoodtheyreceivedonlysmallquantitiesofrice,sincetheconscriptingofficercustomarily‘squeezed’therationsfortheirownprofit.Forwater,theymighthavetodrinkfrompuddlesbytheroadside-acommoncauseofdiarrhoea.Soon,diseasecoursedthroughtheconscripts’bodies.Medicaltreatmentwasunavailable,however,becausetherecruitswerenotregardedaspartofthearmyuntiltheyhadjoinedtheirassignedunits.Thetotalnumberofsuchrecruitswhoperishedenrouteduringtheeightyearsofthewarwasprobablywellinexcessofonemillion.Conscriptswhoreachedtheirunitshadsurvivedwhatwasprobablytheworstperiodoftheirmilitaryservice.Yettheirprospectsoftenremainedbleak.IntheCentralArmyunits,foodandclothingweregenerallyadequate.Butthosesounfortunateastobeassignedtosomeoftheprovincialarmies-suchasthoseofShensiandKansu-weresomiserable,JohnS.Servicereported,‘astoalmostbeggardescription.Shortageoffood,notofweapons,wastheparamountproblemreducingthefightingefficiencyoftheNationalistarmy.WhenGeneralWedemeyerfirsttookuphisdutiesasChiang’schief-of-staffinOctober1944,heconcernedhimselfprimarilywithproblemsoftroopmovementsanddisposition.Withinamonth,however,herealizedthatthesoldiersweretooweaktomarchandwereincapableoffightingeffectively,largelybecausetheywerehalf-starved.Accordingtoarmyregulations,eachsoldierwastobeissued24ozofriceaday,arationofsalt,andatotalmonthlysalarywhich,ifspententirelyonfood,wouldbuyonepoundofporkamonth.AChinesesoldiercouldsubsistnicelyontheserations.Infact,however,heactuallyreceivedonlyafractionofthefoodandmoneyallottedhim,becausehisofficersregularly‘squeezed’asubstantialportionforthemselves.Asaconsequence,mostNationalistsoldierssufferednutritionaldeficiencies.AnAmericanexpert,whoin1944examined1200soldiersfromwidelydifferentkindsofunits,foundthat57percentofthemendisplayednutritionaldeficienciesthatsignificantlyaffectedtheirabilitytofunctionassoldiers.PrimitivesanitaryandmedicalpracticessimilarlycontributedtotheenervationoftheNationalistarmy,anddiseasewasthereforethesoldiers’constantcompanion.Malariawasthemostwidespreadanddebilitatingaffliction.Dysentery,theincidenceofwhichgreatlyincreasedduringthewarbecauseofthedeterioratingphysicalconditionofthetroops,wasoftenignoreduntilcurewasimpossible.Then,ablenolongereventoeat,theysoondied.Scabies,tropicalskinulcers,eyeinfections,tuberculosis,andvenerealdiseasewerealsocommon.Duringthefightinginthesouth-westin1945,Americanobserversfoundthatthe13thArmywasunabletohikeevenashortdistancewithoutmenfallingoutwholesaleandmanydyingfromutterStarvation.AnotherAmericanofficer,ColonelDavidD.Barrett,reportedseeingNationalistsoldiers‘toppleoveranddieaftermarchinglessthanamile.AreporterforthehighlyregardedTa-kung-pao(‘L’Impartial’)observedthat’wheretroopshavepassed,deadsoldierscanbefoundbytheroadsideoneafteranother’.UnitsoftheNationalistarmythatwereespeciallyfavouredorweretrainedbytheUnitedStates—suchastheYouthArmyand-10-\ntheChineseExpeditionaryForcestrainedinIndia—continuedtobewellfedandequipped.Buttheywereexceptions.TheredidexistanArmyMedicalCorps,butthemedicaltreatmentitprovidedwasdescribedbyDrRobertLim(LinK’o-sheng),chairmanoftheChineseRedCrossmedicalReliefCorps,as‘pre-Nightingale.Theformalstructureofthemedicalcorps—comprisingfirst-aidteams,dressingstations,fieldhospitalsandbasehospitals—wasunexceptionable,butitwasunderminedbyinadequateandincompetentpersonnel,insufficientequipmentandmedicines,corruptionandcallousness.Therewereonlysome2000reasonablyqualifieddoctorsservingintheentirearmy—aratioatbestofaboutonequalifieddoctorforevery1700men,comparedtoaboutonedoctorforevery150menintheUnitedStatesArmy.Anadditional28000medicalofficersservedinthecorps,butmostofthesehadreceivednoformaltraining,andhadsimplybeenpromotedfromstretcher-bearers,todressers,to‘doctors’.Thefewreallycompetentdoctorstendedtocongregateinrear-areahospitals,outofreachofseriouslywoundedsoldiersinthefrontlines.Becausethestretcherunitswereoftenunderstaffed,andmedicaltransportscarce,awoundincombat—evenaminorwound—wasoftenfatal.Itcouldbeadaybeforeawoundedsoldierreceivedevenpreliminaryfirstaid.Thenhehadtobehauledtodressingstationsandhospitalsintherear.RhodesFarmer,whosawwoundedbeingtransportedtotherearin1938,observedthatgangrenewaseverywhere:maggotswrithedinthewounds.Withthiskindoftreatment,evenminorwoundsquicklybecameinfected,andmajorinjuries,suchasawoundinthestomachorlossofalimb,wereusuallyfatal.FewcrippleswereseeninwartimeChina.TheChinesesoldier,illfed,abusedandscorned,inevitablylackedmorale.Thiswasindicatedgraphicallybywholesaledesertions.Mostrecruits,iftheysurvivedthemarchtotheirassignedunits,hadfewthoughtsotherthantoescape.Manysucceeded.The18thDivisionofthe18thArmy,forexample,wasregardedasoneofthebetterunits,yetduring1942,stationedintherearandnotengagedincombat,6000ofits11,000mendisappearedduetodeathordesertion.AmbassadorGausscommentedthatthesestatisticswerenotexceptional,andthatsimilarattritionratesprevailedinallthemilitarydistricts.EventheeliteforcesofHuTsung-nan—which,becausetheywereusedtocontaintheCommunistforcesinthenorth,wereamongthebesttrained,fed,andequippedsoldiersinthearmy-reportedlyrequiredreplacementsin1943attherateof600menperdivisionof10000meneverymonth.Officialstatisticsleadtotheconclusionthatovereightmillionmen,aboutoneofeverytwosoldiers,wereunaccountedforandpresumablyeitherdesertedordiedfromotherthanbattle-relatedcauses.FROM:JohnK.Fairbank,TheCambridgeHistoryofChina:RepublicanChina,1912-1949[M],Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986.1939—1945年的恶化:军事费正清1938年10月下旬武汉和广州失陷后,战争的特征和国民党区域的状况起了深刻的变化。战事渐次进入一种僵持局面。尤其在1941年12月7日日本攻击珍珠港后,国民党领导人预料西方盟国能够打败日本,无需中国作进一步的牺牲。毕竟他们已经单独与日本打了四年半仗。因此,他们对与日本人作战,不如对遏制共产党人那么专心致志。共产党人日益增强的势力和地区性的控制,对战后时期的国家统一和稳定呈现了不祥之兆。但是,最重要的是重庆国民党政府发现,它自己陷入了似乎不可逆转的军事、经济、社会和政治的恶化过程。这种恶化,到1945年使它处于虚弱和萎靡不振的状态。-10-\n国民党人于1938年10月在武汉战败后并未屈服。这时,日本的领导人认识到,他们对中国人的抵抗能力估计错了,皇军假如进入内地继续追击那些不可捉摸的防守者,只会把自己弄得精疲力竭。因此,他们采取了一种新战略,着重以政治手段确保对中国的控制。首先,他们巩固自1937年7月以来所占领的地区的控制。当时他们在华北和华中仅有效地控制大约10%的土地——基本上是主要城市以及主要铁路和公路沿线地区。他们需要消灭许多小股的抵抗力量,并利用占领区的生产能力为本国经济服务。其次,日本人决心拖垮国民党人,直到他们因“内部分裂”而崩溃。因而,他们在加紧对国民党区经济封锁的同时,开始了一场破坏性的空中战争。1939年春,他们夺取了江西的南昌,切断了重要的浙江-湖南的铁路。11月,他们以一支两栖部队在广东西部的北海登陆,并挺进100英里攻取广西省会南宁。这是对国民党人的一次摧毁性的打击,因为它切断了通向河内的新铁路线,而中国人当时正通过这条铁路线取得足占他们极为需要的进口物资的1/3。其后,1940年9月,日本人占领了法属印度支那北部,封闭了河内与昆明间的重要铁路线。此后,国民党人依靠新开辟的勉强可以通行的滇缅路、香港(日本人于1941年12月占领)的空运和通往俄国的漫长的队商卡车路,从外部世界取得供给。日本人不加区别地空袭军事的和居民的目标。与破坏军事设施和工厂相比,他们的目的更重在使民众在精神上垮掉。实际上在国民党区的所有城市,包括桂林、昆明和西安,都遭到了空袭。然而,重庆遭受空袭最为严重。1939—1941年轰炸了268次,城市大部毁坏,成千上万的人死亡。仅1939年5月大轰炸的头两天,就有4400人死于非命。但是,中国人的抵抗意志既非空袭,亦非封锁所能摧毁。确实,重庆民众不屈不挠的意志,在轰炸持续期间一直是坚定的,只是到1941年晚些时候轰炸停止后才有所衰退。封锁未完全收效,部分是因为国民党人在1939年7月已经使从日本占领区运来多数货物的交易合法化,后来又对这种交易积极促进。日本人无法停止这种贸易。他们不可能在中国占领区与未占领区间二千多英里边界的每一英尺,哪怕是每一英里都加以监视。许多日本人也在这种贸易中主动勾结。因此,战争时期国民党中国输入品中,相当大而又无法确定的一部分是通过这种所谓走私交易进来的。1940年7月,日本内阁的一场重大争论也影响了他们在中国的活动。日本领导人发觉,除非他们获得东南亚的丰富自然资源,在中国取胜将依然无望,而且他们确信西方列强全神贯注于欧洲的战争,他们商定把帝国扩张的范围扩大到中国战场以外去。他们希望——虽然不是确信——通过外交途径,他们能够在南方达到他们的目标。这一决定不可避免地改变了对华战争的特征,也导致了在一年稍多一点的时间内进攻珍珠港。在中国方面,战略和政治上的考虑已经使国民党领导人相信要打一场消耗战。蒋介石宣称,日本人在中国辽阔的地域推进,把他们的人力资源和装备摊得太开了。“我们的敌人打的时间越长,它陷入的困难也就越多;我们打得越久,我们就更坚强,更有决心。”像日本人一样,蒋也希望避免决战,因为他预料西方盟国最终会被拖入反对日本的斗争。开始,他只期待盟国的物质援助和对日本的经济制裁。但是,在珍珠港事件(这个消息在重庆受到兴高采烈的欢迎)后,他期待英国,特别期待拥有巨大技术资源的美国,会承担打败日本的主要责任。到1943年,美国驻华大使克拉伦斯·E.高思评论说:“中国人使自己相信,他们太疲惫,过于精疲力竭;装备也太差,不能出更大的力了,尤其是在无需再如此努力的时候;而且他们可以保持他们所有的抗日的东西,坐下来歇口气,并把注意力集中于规划中国战后的政治和经济问题。”把国民党的注意力从日本人那里引开的主要政治问题,是与中国共产党人不断增长的磨擦。1941年1月新四军事变(见第12章)后,统一战线实际上已不复存在。有影响的国民党领袖们——最著名的有军政部长何应钦和党务工作者陈立夫——-10-\n多次刺耳地鼓吹发动一场根绝赤祸的运动。蒋介石顶住了这些压力,主要是因为他害怕盟国将停止对国民党军队的援助,如果它公开卷入内战的话。然而,自1939年年中起,他就调动他的许多最精锐的部队——不同的时候在15万至50万人之间——去封锁共产党人在西北的根据地。虽然国民党人与日本人双方从1938年后期起都甘愿打一场消耗战,但这并不意味着战斗已全面减少。日本人偶尔也发动一场攻势以达到有限目标。例如,1940年6月,他们攫取了重要的长江口岸宜昌,以阻断华中粮仓各省与重庆之间的货物流通,以及取得一个更靠近国民党地区的空军基地。1942年夏,在詹姆士·杜立德将军轰炸东京后,日本人以10万军队攻入浙江和江西,捣毁可能在将来用以对其本土岛屿进行轰炸的空军基地。他们也定期向国民党战线发起进攻,相比之下,他们较少占领新的土地,而较多蹂躏农村,掠夺或毁坏新近的收获,阻止国民党人积聚具有潜在危险的精选的部队,或者在实战中训练新兵。在所谓相持的这几年内遭受的伤亡——特别是早期——是重大的。中国人承认死亡人数1940年为34万,1941年为14.5万,1942年为8.8万,1943年为4.3万。但是从1939年到1944年初,战线并无重大变动。敌对双方之间的战略平衡,在将近六年中变化甚微。在战争后半期,国民党军队人数在350万以上。但是,它不是一支统一的国家军队,而是对中央政府忠诚程度不同,训练、装备和作战能力各异的军队联合体。这个参差不齐的集合体的中心是“中央军”。1941年,在全部国民党军队三百多个师的总数之中,中央军约有30个师近50万人。在战争进行过程中,蒋扩充了这支武装,以至到战争结束时,中央军约有65万人。在1937年,中央军的军官是中央军官学校的毕业生,这是有代表性的。他们学习过现代军事技术——30年代时常由德国教官传授。政治灌输在他们的训练中显得很重要;军官们高度效忠于蒋介石。然而,大多数国民党武装是军阀部队的直接衍生物,由不受中央政府节制的名声显赫的人物指挥。因此,他们的忠诚是有条件的,淡薄的。他们妒忌和害怕蒋介石的日益增长的权力。例如,云南省政府主席龙云抵制中央政府对他的省内权力的侵犯,并为批评重庆政府的知识分子提供一个避难所。华北第二战区司令长官、军事委员会副委员长、山西省政府主席阎锡山,像一位拥有自主权的总督那样统治着他的故乡山西。他阻止中央军进入他的战区,并保有自己的政党(民主革命同志会)以对抗国民党。确实,从1941年起,阎甚至与日本人保持密切而和好的关系。其他具有省籍渊源的将军们,如李宗仁(广西)、薛岳(广东)、于学忠(满洲)和傅作义(绥远),均已失去他们特殊的地方性根据地,但仍对那些宁愿效忠他们,而不愿效忠蒋介石的军队保持着指挥权。那些非中央军的指挥官与中央政府之间的关系,因战争爆发而起了变化。在南京十多年中,地方军阀的权力已经衰微。蒋的权力日益增长,最关紧要的是他已控制一支政治上忠实并且比较熟练的军队。但蒋的最好的军队,包括他那由德国教官训练的精锐师大部在上海溃灭,造成了国民党军队内部的军事天平向非中央军的指挥官们倾斜。蒋的政治权威相应减弱。在整个战争期间,蒋通过在各省部队中安插国民党干部,用新近训练的军官和现代装备重建中央武装力量等手段,竭力矫正他本人与地区指挥官之间在政治和军事上的平衡。这些努力激起了地方将军们的猜疑和敌意。他们抱怨中央政府歧视他们,把他们的师送去与日本人进行毁灭性的战斗,而蒋却安然保存自己的部队。他们因补给品分配不公而愤怒,因为蒋把从美国得到的武器弹药,包括根据租借法从美国得到的装备,大部分分配给他自己的部队,而不给不大可靠的地方部队。-10-\n简言之,国内政治支撑着蒋对战争的指挥,而蒋则借此增强他的中央权力。当然,如蒋的支持者们所申辩的那样,没有哪个现代国家能够轻易容忍它的军事指挥官们起着破坏作用的独立态度。不过,蒋所采用的增强其中央政府权力的手段,本来就不可能是最有效的。不管怎么说,各省军阀们的不满随着战争的进展而越来越激烈。在1944年,主要的地方军阀结成了一个联盟,实际上阴谋推翻蒋的政府。当时许多非中央军的指挥官干脆叛逃到日本人那边。这些叛逃的将军1941年有12个,1942年有15个,1943年是高峰的一年,有42人叛逃。50多万军队跟随这些叛逃的将军离去,而日本人则利用这些伪军去保卫其占领的地区,以对抗共产党游击队。国民党军队最严重的缺点之一是军官团的素质差,这个缺点在战争期间加剧了。美国在华高级军官艾伯特·C.魏德迈将军,在1944年10月后把国民党的军官们描述为“无能,愚蠢,缺乏训练,偏狭……全然不称职”。这也是非中央军高级指挥官们的特色。他们中间大多数人获得荣誉和地位,并不是由于他们军事技能娴熟,而是由于他们在派系斗争中的机敏和及时转输忠诚。不过,即使是毕业于中央军官学校的高级军官们,也非常缺乏军事领导所需要的素质。他们中的大多数人是20年代黄埔军校前四期的毕业生,那时训练是初步的,而且只持续几个月。在他们因对蒋介石效忠而被提升到师和军的指挥官时,他们对军事科学技术的理解往往是狭隘而过时的。在30年代,这些高级军官本来可以趁机在参谋学院里受先进的德式训练。然而,那时他们已经有这样高的军阶,以致他们认为再去当学生会有失尊严。当然,也有些高级指挥官超越这种体制。例如,陈诚、白崇禧和孙立人,由于他们智慧,廉洁,具有军事才能而出类拔萃。但是,值得注意的是,白崇禧也好,孙立人也好,都不是蒋介石核心集团成员。蒋使用他们的才干,但把他们紧紧地拴住,因为他们不是中央军的人,并表现出了一种倔强的独立精神。蒋的一个亲信陈诚,由于在与自负而平庸的军政部长何应钦派系纷争中的失败,战争期间大都在政治风云之中度过。战争开始时,总的说来下级军官比他们的上级更能胜任。1929—1937年间,中央军官学校平均每年有3000名学员毕业,并且有大约2000名参谋接受过高等训练。但是,战争深深地斫伤了下级军官团。他们中有一万人在最早的上海和南京周围的战斗中就牺牲了。这些损失绝不会完全得到补偿,因为战争期间由于降低入学要求以及缩短学习课程。军官训练大大地退化了。确实,在一个正规的步兵营里,军校毕业的军官所占的百分比,从1937年的80%降到1945年的20%。由于好的军队莫过于有一批好的下级军官,这些数字为战争期间国民党军队的退化提供了一个粗略的指标。然而,退化在最下层,在应征入伍者中间最为明显。战时中国军队大部由征兵组成。所有男子,凡在18—45岁之间——除去学生、独生子和严重疾患者——均得服从征召。按照法令,他们以抽签的方式公平地被挑选。事实上,有钱有势的人逃避征召,而无钱无势的国民被强征入伍。征兵的军官们往往甚至连抽签的手续都不顾。有些农民简直是在田里劳作的时候被抓去的;另有一些则是被捕去的,那些不能买通路子出来的人于是就被编入军队。服兵役是一种可怕的经历。没有运输车辆,新兵常常行军数百英里到他们被指定的部队——有意远离新兵家乡,以减少开小差的诱惑。新兵常常被用绳索套在他们的颈子上缚到一起。夜里,他们可能被剥光衣服,以防他们私逃。就食物而言,他们只得到少量的米,因为征兵的军官们为了一己私利,惯常“克扣”给养。就水来说,新兵可能不得不从路边的泥水坑里饮水——这是引起腹泻的一个普通原因。疾病很快在应征新兵队中流行开来。然而,他们得不到医疗,因为新兵在加入他们被指定的部队前,不被视为军队的一部分。八年战争期间,这类死于途中的新兵可能大大超过100万。抵达部队的新兵们经受住了也许是他们服兵役的最坏时期,但他们的前景往往仍是黯淡的。在中央军里,食物和服装一般是充足的。但是,那些不幸被派遣到某些地方部队——诸如陕西和甘肃的部队——的人命运极为悲惨,谢伟思报道说:“几乎像乞丐一般”。造成国民党军队战斗效能减弱的首要问题并非武器短缺,而是食物短缺。1944年10-10-\n月,魏德迈将军最初担任蒋的参谋长职务时,他主要关心部队的调动和部署问题。但是,不到一个月,他了解到士兵因太虚弱而不能行军,并且不可能有效地打仗,原因多半在于他们是半饥饿的。按照部队规章,每个士兵发给每天24盎司米,一份盐;每月一份全薪,如果全花在食物上,一个月可以买一磅猪肉。一个中国士兵靠这些配额可以很好地维持生活。可是,事实上他真正得到的仅仅是分配给他的食物和钱的一部分,因为长官们习以为常地为自己“克扣”很大一部分。结果是大多数国民党士兵营养不足。一位美国专家1944年广泛地检查了不同种类部队的1200名士兵,他发现57%的人表现出营养不良。这显著地影响了他们发挥士兵职能的能力。原始的卫生和医疗同样削弱了国民党军队,于是疾病成了士兵经常的伴侣。疟疾是一种最为流行并使人衰竭的病痛。战争期间,由于军队的体质状况恶化,痢疾发生率大为增加,这种疾病常被忽视,终至无法医治。最后,患者甚至不能进食,不久死去。疥疮、热带皮肤溃疡、眼感染、结核病和花柳病也很普遍。1945年在西南作战时,美国观察家发现第十三军甚至不能步行一小段距离,“一大批掉队,而有许多人因极端饥饿而濒于死亡”。另外一位美国军官包瑞德上校报道说,看到国民党士兵们“行军不到一英里,就摇摇晃晃倒下来死了”。受到高度重视的《大公报》的一位记者说:“军队开过以后,在路旁能发现死亡的士兵,一个接着一个”。国民党军队中受到特别照顾的,或由美国训练的部队——如青年军和在印度训练的中国远征军——不间断地得到良好的给养和装备;但他们是例外。确有一个军医团,但它所提供的医疗被中国红十字医疗济难总会会长罗伯特·利姆(林可胜)形容为“前南丁格尔的”。医疗队的正规机构——包括急救队、包扎所、野战医院和后方医院——是无懈可击的,但因供不应求、人员不合格、设备和药品不足、腐败和麻木不仁,不能很好发挥作用。在全部军队中,大约只有2000名大体合格的医生服务,其比率充其量大约为1700人有一名合格医生,相比之下,美军中大约每150人就有一名医生。另有28000名军医在医疗部队服务,但这些人大多没有受过正规训练,并且纯粹是从担架员到包扎员,到“医生”这样提升的。极少数真正胜任的医生,集中在前线重伤士兵所不能到达的后方医院服务。因为担架队常常人员不足,以及医疗运输工具稀少,在战斗中受伤——即便是轻伤——往往也是致命的。一名受伤士兵即便受到初步治疗,可能也要等上一天。然后他才需要转到包扎所和后方医院。1938年罗兹·法默看到过被运送到后方的伤员,他评论道:“遍体坏疽,蛆虫在伤口上蠕动。”经这样的治疗,即使是轻伤员也会迅速感染,而多数伤情,如胃部受伤或丧失一肢,往往致命。在战时中国很少看到跛子。中国士兵给养差,受凌辱和嘲弄,不可避免地缺乏士气。集体开小差鲜明地反映了这一点。大多数新兵,即使在到指定部队的行军中幸存下来,除了逃跑,也别无想法。许多人成功了。例如,第十八军第十八师被视为一支较好的部队,1942年还驻在后方未参加战斗,却由于死亡或开小差,它的1.1万人中有6千人失踪了。高思大使评论道:这些统计数字并非例外,类似的减员率在所有军区普遍存在。即使胡宗南的精锐部队——因为他们被用于遏制北面的共产党军队,他们属于训练、给养和装备最好的部队——据说1943年需要补充的比率为一个1万人的师每月600人。官方的统计导致这样的结论:在800多万士兵中,大约每两个人就有一个去向不明,大概不是开了小差,就是非战斗死亡。出处:费正清.剑桥中华民国史(下卷)[M].剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1986.-10-