[历史学]语言学学习纲要 49页

《简明语言学教程》学习纲要LinguisticsChapter1IntroductionlWhatislinguistics?nLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.uObserving&questioninguFormulatinghypothesesuVerifyingthehypothesesuProposingatheorynTheSscopes/BranchesoflinguisticsuInternalbranches:intra-disciplinarydivisionslPhonetics语音学----thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.lPhonology音系学（音位学）lMorphology词法学lSyntax句法学lSemantics语义学uExternalbranches:inter-disciplinarydivisionslPragmatics语用学lPsycholinguistics心理语言学lSociolinguistics社会语言学lAppliedlinguistics应用语言学nSomeImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsuDescriptivevs.prescriptive“描写式”和“规定式”Theyrepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.uSynchronicvs.diachronic“共时”和“历时”Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.uSpeech&writinguLangue&parole“语言”和“言语”ThedistinctionwasmadebytheSwisslinguistSaussureintheearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.49\nWhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.uCompetence&performance语言能力和语言运用ThedistinctionisdiscussedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.uTraditionalgrammar&modernlinguisticsModernlinguisticsstartedwiththepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearly20thcentury.SoSaussureisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.Thegeneralapproachtraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguagebeforethatisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar.”Theydifferinseveralbasicways:(1)Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof“correctness”.(2)Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.(3)Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwouldbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind.lWhatislanguage?nAsisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.lDesignFeaturesofhumanlanguage语言的结构特征nArbitrarinessuTherelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.uThereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.nProductivityuLanguageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.uThegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.nDualityuLanguagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.uCertainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.uCertainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.nDisplacementuThereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.uLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.nCulturaltransmission49\nuCulturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.uLanguageisawayoftransmittingculture.Chapter2PhonologylWhatisphonetics?nPhoneticsistermedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithalthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.nPhoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfrom3distinctbutrelatedpointsofview.uThesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofviewuThesoundsfromthehearer’spointofviewuThesoundwavesnSub-branchesofphoneticsuArticulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsounds发音uAuditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds听觉uAcousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds声学lOrgansofspeechnWheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?uFromthelungnWhatisthefunctionofvocalcords?uControllingtheairstreamnWhatarethecavities?uPharyngealcavityuOralcavity(thetongue,theuvula,thesoftpalate/velum,thehardpalate,theteethridge/alveolus,theteethandthelips.)uNasalcavitylBroad&narrowtranscriptionsnUnitsofrepresentationuSegments(theindividualsounds)nPhoneticsymbolsuThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).uTheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.uInmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.nBroadtranscriptions---thetranscriptionswithletter-symbolstogetherwiththe49\ndiacritics.nNarrowtranscriptions---thetranscriptionswithdiacritics.lClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsnClassificationofEnglishconsonantsuGeneralfeature:obstructionuCriteriaofconsonantdescriptionlVoicingofarticulationlPlacesofarticulationlMannersofarticulationuVoicingofarticulationlThisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.nVoicedsounds浊音nVoicelesssounds清音uMannersofarticulationlThisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.nStops:[p][b][t][d][k][g]塞音/爆破音nFricatives:[f][v][s][z][][][][][h]擦音nAffricates:[][]塞擦音nLiquids:[l][r]流音nNasals:[m][n][]鼻音nGlides:[w][j]滑音uPlacesofarticulationlThisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.nBilabial:[p][b][m][w]双唇音nLabiodental:[f][v]唇齿音nDental:[][]齿音nAlveolar:[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]齿龈音nPalatal:[][][][][j]腭音nVelar:[k][g][]软腭音nGlottal:[h]声门音bilabiallabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglottalStopsptkbdgFricativesfshvzAffricatesNasalsmn49\nLiquidsl,rglideswjnClassificationofEnglishvowelsuGeneralfeature:withoutobstructionuCriteriaofvoweldescriptionlPartofthetonguethatisraisedfrontcentralbackClosei:u:iSemi-closeeSemi-openopenanFrontnCentralnBacklTheopennessofthemouthnClosenSemi-closenSemi-opennOpenlKindofopeningmadeatthelipsnUnroundednRoundeduMonophthongs&diphthongslPhonologynPhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.nPhonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.nPhonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.uWhatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?uWhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?uWhatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?lPhone,phonemeandallophonenAphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.nAphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue;itisanabstractunit.nThevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.nWeuseallophonestorealizephonemes.lDiscoveringphonemesnContrastivedistribution–phonemesuIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.49\nuTypicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.lAminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.lMinimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.uTheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.uSomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.nComplementarydistribution–allophonesuSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.uIfsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.nFreevariationuIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.lDistinctiveandnon-distinctivefeaturesnFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.nDistinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.lPhonologicalrules★Sequentialrules★Assimilationrules★DeletionrulesnPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.nWhatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.nTheregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.nTherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.l[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_l[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_lSyllablestructure49\nnAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.nEverysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.nThenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.lSequenceofphonemesnNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.nSomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.nSequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps.nWhennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.lSuprasegmentalfeaturesnFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.nThesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.nStressuStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.uStressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.uIfawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.uInsomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.nToneuToneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.uThesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.uChineseisatypicaltonelanguage.nIntonationuWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.uIntonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.uThesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.uInEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,rise,fall-rise.Chapter3MorphologylWhatismorphology?49\nnThetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.nWordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.nMorphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.lMorphemesandallomorphsnThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.nAmorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.n“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletivesuSomecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.uSomeverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.lFreeandboundmorphemesnSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.nOthermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.nThedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.nFreemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).lInflexionalandderivationalmorphemesnInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.nDerivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.uEnglishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.uSomelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.uTheprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.lConclusion:classificationofmorphemes49\nnMorphemesuFreemorphemesuBoundmorphemeslInflexionallDerivational:affixesnPrefixes:-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-snSuffixeslFormationofnewwordsnDerivationuDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.uSincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.uDerivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.uDerivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.uSomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.nCompoundinguCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.uThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.uIncompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.uThemeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.nConversionuConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.uConversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.nClippinguClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.uClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.uSomeclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.nBlendinguBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemic49\npartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).nBack-formationuBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.nAcronymsandabbreviationsuAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.uAcronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.uThistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.nEponymsuEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.nCoinageuCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.uThiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.Chapter4SyntaxlWhatissyntax?nThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or“settingouttogether”.nTraditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflexions,arearrangedtoshowconnexionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.nSyntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.lWhatisasentence?nSyntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.nAsequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguage49\nknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.lKnowledgeofsentencestructurenStructuralambiguityuStructuralambiguityisoneormorestring(s)ofwordshas/havemorethanonemeaning.Forexample,thesentenceTomsaidhewouldcomeyesterdaycanbeinterpretedindifferentways.nWordorderuDifferentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings.Forexample,withthewordsTom,loveandMary,wemaysayTomlovesMaryorMarylovesTom.nGrammaticalrelationsuNativespeakersknowwhatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly.Forexample,inTheboatsarenotbigenoughandWedon’thaveenoughboats,thewordenoughisrelatedtodifferentwordsinthetwosentences.nRecursionuThesamerulecanbeusedrepeatedlytocreateinfinitesentences.Forexample,Iknowthatyouarehappy.HeknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.SheknowsthatheknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.nSentencerelatednessuSentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated.nSyntacticcategoriesuAsyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:lThechildfoundtheknife.lApolicemanfoundtheknife.lThemanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.lHefoundtheknife.uAlltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycallednounphrase(NP).Thenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubject.Theknife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.lTraditionalgrammarnIntraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.nSentencesareanalyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:subjects,objects,verbs(predicates),predicatives,…nCompulsoryelementsofasentence:subject,verb,object,complement,adverbial…nNouns:number,case,gender…nVerbs:tense,aspect,voice…nAdjectivesandadverbs:comparativeandsuperlativedegrees49\nnAgreementinnumber/person/gendernParsing:tryingtomakedetailedanalysisinstructurelStructuralgrammarnStructuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.nFormclassuFormclassisawiderconceptthanpartofspeechintraditionalgrammar.uLinguisticunitswhichcanappearinthesameslotaresaidtobeinthesameformclass.Forexample,a(n),the,my,that,every,etc.canbeplacedbeforenounsinEnglishsentences.Thesewordsfallintooneformclass.uTheselinguisticunitsareobservedtohavethesamedistribution.nImmediateconstituent(IC)analysisuStructuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysis.uAsentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.uExamples:lOldmenandwomen:old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomenlThe|||little||girl|speaks||French.uInthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.lIwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.uTwoadvantagesofICanalysis:lItcananalyzesomeambiguities.lItshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.lTransformational-generative(TG)grammarnBackgroundandthegoalofTGgrammaruChomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.lAdequacyofobservationlAdequacyofdescriptionlAdequacyofexplanationuWritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.uTGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.nSyntacticcategories49\nuNounPhrase(NP)uVerbPhrase(VP)uSentence(S)uDeterminer(Det)uAdjective(Adj)uPronoun(Pro)uVerb(V)uAuxiliaryVerb(Aux)uPrepositionalPhrase(PP)uAdverb(Adv)nPhrasestructure(PS)rulesuS→NPVP(Det)(Adj)NuNP→{ProuVP→(Aux)V(NP)(PP)uPP→PNPnTreediagrams(omit)nRecursionandtheinfinitudeoflanguageuScontainsNPandVPandthatSmaybeaconstituentofNPandVP.NPandPPcanbemutuallyinclusive.Ifphrasalcategoriesappearonbothsidesofthearrowinphrasestructurerules,therulesarerecursive.Recursiverulescanbeappliedagainandagain,andthephrasestructurecangrowendlessly.nSub-categorizationofthelexicon.uTheprocessofputtingwordsofthesamelexicalcategoryintosmallerclassesaccordingtotheirsyntacticcharacteristicsiscalledsub-categorization.nTransformationalrules(T-rules)uParticlemovementT-rulelJohnturnedthemachineoff.Johnturnedoffthemachine.uReplacementT-rulelJohnbeatTom.HebeatTom.lThehouseneedsrepairing(toberepaired).uInsertionT-rulelAfishisswimminginthepond.Thereisafishswimminginthepond.uDeletionT-rulelTheycameinand(they)satdown.uCopyingT-rulelHeiscoming,isn’the?lHehasfinishedhishomework,hasn’the?uReflexivizationT-rulelIwashme(myself).nTGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.49\nlSystematic-functionalgrammarnBackgroundandthegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaruM.A.K.HallidaylLanguageisasystemofmeaningpotentialandanetworkofmeaningaschoices.lMeaningdeterminesform,notviceversa.Meaningisrealizedthroughforms.lThegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaristoseehowfunctionandmeaningarerealizedthroughforms.lThethreemeta-functionsoflanguagenIdeationalfunctionnInterpersonalfunctionnTextualfunctionnThetransitivitysystemoflanguageuElementslProcesslParticipantslCircumstancesuCategorizationofrealitylDoing–materialprocessnProcessesinvolvingphysicalactions:walking,running,throwing,kicking,wrapping,etc.nActor,goalandcircumstancelBeing–relationalprocessnProcessesrepresentingarelationbeingsetupbetweentwoseparateentities.nBe(identifying),have(attributive)nCarrier/possessorandattribute/possessedlSensing–mentalprocessnProcessesofsensing,includingfeeling,thinking,perceiving,imagining,wanting,liking,etc.nSenserandphenomenonlLesscentraltypesoflinguisticprocessnVerbalprocesses–sayingsomethinguSayerandreceivernBehaviouralprocesses–activeconsciousprocessesuBehaverandrangenExistentialprocesses–existenceofanentityuExistentnMoodandmodalityuMoodexpressesthespeaker’sattitudeandservesforinterpersonalfunction.Itisasyntacticconstituentmadeupofthesubjectandthefinite.uModalityisthedegreeofcertaintyorfrequencyexpressedbythegrammatical49\nformsoffinite.Itcanbecategorizedbymodalizationandmodulation.nThemeandrhemeuThemeisthegiveninformation,whilerhemeisthenewinformation.uExamples:lJohn|ismyfriend.lHe|shouldhaverepliedtomyletter.Chapter5SemanticslWhatissemantics?nSemanticsisdefinedasthestudyofmeaning.However,itisnottheonlylinguisticdisciplinethatstudiesmeaning.nSemanticsanswersthequestion“whatdoesthissentencemean”.Inotherwords,itistheanalysisofconventionalmeaningsinwordsandsentencesoutofcontext.lReferenceandsensenLinguisticexpressionsstandinarelationtotheworld.Therearetwoaspectsofmeaning.nReferenceistherelationbywhichawordpicksoutoridentifiesanentityintheworld.Butthereferentialtheoryfailstoaccountforcertainkindsoflinguisticexpression.uSomewordsaremeaningful,buttheyidentifynoentitiesintherealworld,suchasthewordsdragon,phoenix,unicorn,andmermaid.uItisnotpossibleforsomewordstofindreferentintheworld,suchasthewordsbut,and,of,however,the,etc.uSpeakersofEnglishunderstandthemeaningofaroundtrianglealthoughthereisnosuchgraph.nSenseistherelationbywhichwordsstandinhumanmind.Itismentalrepresentation,theassociationwithsomethinginthespeaker’sorhearer’smind.Thestudyofmeaningfromtheperspectiveofsenseiscalledtherepresentationalapproach.lClassificationoflexicalmeaningsnReferentialmeaning(denotativemeaning)–centralmeaningofwords,stable,universalnAssociativemeaning–meaningthathingesonreferentialmeaning,lessstable,moreculture-specificuConnotativemeaning–thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,embracesthepropertiesofthereferent,peripheraluSocialmeaning(stylisticmeaning)–whatisconveyedaboutthesocialcircumstancesoftheuseofalinguisticexpressionuAffectivemeaning–whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingorattitudeofthe49\nspeaker/writertowardswhatisreferredtouReflectedmeaning–whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressionlTaboosuCollocativemeaning–theassociatedmeaningawordacquiresinlinewiththemeaningofwordswhichtendtoco-occurwithitlLexicalsenserelationsnSynonymyuSynonymsarewordswhichhavedifferentformsbutsimilarmeanings.lDialectalsynonyms–lift/elevator,flat/apartmentlSynonymsofdifferentstyles–gentleman/guylSynonymsofdifferentregisters–salt/sodiumchloridelSynonymsdifferinginaffectivemeaning–attract/seducelSynonymsdifferingincollocation–beautiful/handsome,able/capableuSynonymsarefrequentlyusedinspeakingandwritingasacohesivedevice.Inordertoavoidrepetitionthewriter/speakerneedstouseasynonymtoreplaceawordinthepreviousco-textwhenhe/shewantstocontinuetoaddressthatidea.Thesynonymstogetherfunctiontocreatecohesionofthetext.nAntonymyuAntonymsarewordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.lGradableantonyms–pairsofwordsoppositetoeachother,butthepositiveofoneworddoesnotnecessarilyimplythenegativeoftheother.Forexample,thewordshotandcoldareapairofantonyms,butnothotdoesnotnecessarilymeancold,maybewarm,mildorcool.Therefore,thispairofantonymsisapairofgradableantonyms.lComplementaryantonyms–wordsoppositetoeachotherandthepositiveofoneimpliesthenegativeoftheother:alive/deadlReversal(relational)antonyms–wordsthatdenotethesamerelationorprocessfromoneortheotherdirection:push/pull,up/down,teacher/studentuAntonymyisfrequentlyutilizedasarhetoricalresourceinlanguageuse.Oxymoronandantithesisbasedonantonymy.Gradableantonymsmaygiverisetofuzziness.nHomonymyuHomonymsarewordswhichhavethesameform,butdifferentmeanings.lHomographs–wordswhichareidenticalinspelling,butdifferentinmeaningandpronunciation:tear[tZE](v.)/tear[tiE](n.)lHomophones–wordswhichareidenticalinpronunciation,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning:see/sealFullhomonyms–wordswhichareidenticalinspellingandpronunciation,butdifferentinmeaning:bear(v.togivebirthtoababy/tostand)/bear(n.akindofanimal)uRhetorically,homonymsareoftenusedaspuns.49\nnPolysemyuApolysemeisawordwhichhasseveralrelatedsenses.uPolysemyisbasedontheintuitionofnativespeakersaswellastheetymologyorhistoryofwords.nHyponymyuHyponymyisarelationofinclusion.uTiger,lion,elephantanddogarehyponymsofthewordanimal.Wordslikeanimalarecalledsuperordinates.uThiskindofverticalsemanticrelationlinkswordsinahierarchicalwork.lComponentialanalysisnComponentialanalysisistheapproachthatanalyzewordmeaningbydecomposingitintoitsatomicfeatures.Itshowsthesemanticfeaturesofaword.nExamples:uMan:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULTuBoy:+HUMAN+MALE–ADULTuFather:+HUMAN+MALE+ADULT→PARENTuDaughter:+HUMAN–MALE0ADULT←PARENTlWordsandconceptsnCategorizationuCategorizationreferstotheprocessbywhichpeopleuselanguagetoclassifytheworldaroundandinsidethem.uItisfundamentaltohumancognition.uInthepasttwodecadescognitivepsychologistsandcognitivelinguisticshavegainednewinsightsintothenatureofcategories.nPrototypesuAprototypeisasetthathastypical,centralfeatures.Othersareperipheralfeatures,whicharenottypicalbutrelated.nHierarchiesuConceptualnetworklSentencialsenserelations–semanticrelationsofsentencesnSentencesmayberelatedinsense.Iwillillustratesenserelationswithinandbetweensentences.uTautology:Thebachelorisunmarried.uContradiction:Thebachelorismarried.uInconsistency:Johnissingle./Johnismarried.uSynonymousness:Johnbroketheglass./TheglasswasbrokenbyJohn.uEntailment:Themeetingwaschairedbyaspinster./Themeetingwaschairedbyawoman.49\nuPresupposition:Samhasreturnedthebook./Samborrowedthebook.nThesesemanticrelationsarefoundwithinorbetweenmeaningfulsentences.Therearesentenceswhichsoundgrammaticalbutmeaningless.Thesesentencesaresaidtobesemanticallyanomalous.Forexample:uColourlessgreenideassleepfuriously.uThepregnantbachelorkilledsomephonemes.lMetaphorsnFromrhetoricaldevicetocognitivedeviceuTheclassicalviewseesmetaphorasakindofdecorativeinadditiontoordinarylanguage,arhetoricaldevicethatmakeslanguageusecolourful.uAnotherviewofmetaphor,whichhasbecomemoreinfluentialinthepasttwodecades,holdsthatmetaphorsareacognitivedevice.Metaphorisanessentialelementinourcategorizationoftheworldandourthinkingprocess.uCognitivelinguisticshasshownthatmetaphorisnotanunusualordeviantwayofusinglanguage.Theuseofmetaphorisnotconfinedtoliterature,rhetoricandart.Itisactuallyubiquitousineverydaycommunication.nThecomponentsofmetaphorsuTargetdomain–tenoruSourcedomain–vehiclenFeaturesofmetaphorsuMetaphorsaresystematic.uMetaphorscancreatesimilaritiesbetweenthetwodomainsinvolved.uMetaphorsarealsocharacterizedbyimaginativerationality.Chapter6PragmaticslWhatispragmatics?nPragmaticscanbedefinedastheanalysisofmeaningincontext.nPragmaticanalysisofmeaningisfirstandforemostconcernedwiththestudyofwhatiscommunicatedbyaspeaker/writerandinterpretedbyalistener/reader.nAnalysisofintentionalmeaningnecessarilyinvolvestheinterpretationofwhatpeopledothroughlanguageinaparticularcontext.nIntendedmeaningmayormaynotbeexplicitlyexpressed.Pragmaticanalysisalsoexploreshowlisteners/readersmakeinferencesaboutwhatiscommunicated.lSemanticsvs.pragmatics?nSemanticsstudiesliteral,structuralorlexicalmeaning,whilepragmaticsstudiesnon-literal,implicit,intendedmeaning,orspeakermeaning.nSemanticsiscontextindependent,decontextualized,whilepragmaticsiscontextdependent,contextualized.49\nnSemanticsdealswithwhatissaid,whilepragmaticsdealswithwhatisimplicatedorinferred.lSpeechactstheorynInlinguisticcommunication,peopledonotmerelyexchangeinformation.Theyactuallydosomethingthroughtalkingorwritinginvariouscircumstances.Actionsperformedviaspeakingarecalledspeechacts.nPerformativesentencesuImplicitperformatives–It’scoldhere.uExplicitperformatives–Pleaseclosethedoor.nTypesofspeechactsuLocutionaryspeechact–theactionofmakingthesentenceuIllocutionaryspeechact–theintentionsuPerlocutionaryspeechact–theeffectsuOfthesedimensions,themostimportantistheillocutionaryact.nInlinguisticcommunicationpeoplerespondtoanillocutionaryactofanutterance,becauseitisthemeaningintendedbythespeaker.nIfateachersays,“Ihaverunoutofchalk”intheprocessoflecturing,theactofsayingislocutionary,theactofdemandingforchalkisillocutionary,andtheeffecttheutterancebringsabout–oneofthestudentswillgoandgetsomechalk–isperlocutionary.nInEnglish,illocutionaryactsarealsogivenspecificlabels,suchasrequest,warning,promise,invitation,compliment,complaint,apology,offer,refusal,etc.thesespecificlabelsnamevariousspeechfunctions.nAsfunctionsmaynotcorrespondtoforms,speechactscanbedirectandindirect.uSearle:twowaysofcommunication(performingacts)lDirectspeechact:Closethedoor.lIndirectspeechact:It’scoldinhere.uWhydopeopleoftenspeakindirectlyinsocialcommunication?lDifferentsocialvariables:age,sex,socialconditionlPoliteness:communicativestrategyuIndirectspeechactsarerelatedtoappropriateness.lIndirectspeechactsaremadeforpoliteness,notviceversa.Tomakeappropriatechoicesdoesnotnecessarilymeanindirectspeechacts.lConversationalimplicaturenWhatisaconversation?uAconversationischangingideas,orconversing.uConversationisthebasicformofspeechinhumancommunication.uConversationisthedialogicforminspokenandwrittendiscourse.nAnalysisofconversationuTheglobalanalysis–toanalyzethewholestructure,thewholeprocessofa49\nconversation.uThelocalanalysis–tounderstandtheinternalstructureofaconversation,theturn-taking.lTurn-takingnTurn-takingreferstohavingtherighttospeakbyturns.nConversationsnormallyfollowthepatternof“Ispeak–youspeak–Ispeak–youspeak”,iftherearetwoparticipants.nAnypossiblechange-of-turnpointiscalledatransitionrelevanceplace(TRP).nOnespeaks(takesthefloor),theotherlistens.lAdjacencypairnAdjacencypairsareafundamentalunitofconversationalstructure.nGreeting/greeting,question/answer,invitation/acceptance,offer/decline,complaint/denialarecommoncasesofadjacencypairs.lInsertionsequencenNotallfirstpartsareimmediatelyfollowedbysecondparts.Itoftenoccursthattheanswerisdelayedbyanotherpairofquestionandanswer.Lookatthefollowingexample:-MayIhaveabottleofMich?(Q1)-Areyouover21?(Q2)-No.(A2)-No.(A1)nThesecondpartofadjacencypairisviolatedhere.nAconversationsometimesisorganizedinapreferentialway.lPre-sequencenPre-invitationnPre-requestnPre-announcementlPost-sequencenExplanationChapter8Language&SocietylWhatissociolinguistics?nThesociolinguisticstudyoflanguageuLanguageinrelationtosocietyuDiversityoflanguage,variationbetweensocietiesorwithinasocietynThedistinctionbetween“language”and“alanguage”uTrytoanswerthefollowingthreequestions:lCanlanguagebedefinedintermsofgeography?lCanlanguagebedefinedintermsofnationality?lShouldlanguagebedefinedbymutualintelligibility?uTheanswertothesequestionsshouldallbeno.Alllanguagesareequal.Ifyou49\ndefinelanguageintermsofthesefactors,youarespeakingof“alanguage”.lVarietiesoflanguagenAlanguagevariesaccordingtothefollowingfactors:uSituationuGeographicalareasuSocialfactorsuPurposesandsubjectmattersuTime(throughwhichthelanguagedevelops)nGeographicalvarietiesandregionaldialectsuWhat’stherelationshipbetweenaregionaldialectandthenationalstandardspeech?lAregionaldialectisavarietyofthenationalstandardspeech.uAccentlPronunciation:lSpelling:-our/-orlVocabulary:lGrammar:haveyou/doyouhave…uSocialvarietieslSociolectsareformsofalanguagethatcharacterizethespeechofdifferentsocialclasses.lAsocialvarietyisavarietyoflanguagebroughtaboutbythesocialfactors.lLanguageplaystheroleofasocialindicator.lSocialclassesandvariationnGrammar:thirdpersonsingularnPronunciation:popularcontractedformslSexandvariationnWomentendtospeakmorestandard,decentvariation.nWomentendtomakeoverstatements,especiallywhenmakingcomment.nWomenprefertousecertainadjectiveswhicharenotusednormally.nWomentendtoavoidtheuseofvulgarwords.nWomentendtousecertainexpressionstoshowhappinessorsurprise.lAgeandvariationlRaceandvariationnRacialdifferencenBlackEnglish-Pronunciation-GrammarlTemporaldialectsnStandarddialectandidiolectuStandarddialectisthehighestprestigeinasocietyoranation.Itisusuallybasedonthewell-educatedspeech.49\nlItisusedinnewsmediaandliterature.lItisdescribedindictionariesandgrammarbooks.lItistaughtinschoolsandtonon-nativelearners.uIdiolectisthelanguagesystemofanindividual.Itisone’sparticularwayofspeakingand/orwriting.nRegister–situationalvarietyuRegisterisaspeechvarietywhichchangesaccordingtothesituationwherelanguageisused.Usuallyitissharedbyagroupofpeople,suchaslawyers,doctors,stampcollectors,etc.uToknowhowtousearegistermeanstoknowhowtouselanguageappropriately.uRegisterisanalyzedonthreedimensions:field,modeandtenor.Fieldisconcernedwithwhyandaboutwhatwecommunicate;modeisrelatedtohowwecommunicate;tenorisaboutwithwhomwecommunicate.lFormalitynFrozennFormalnConsultativenCasualnIntimatelLanguageincontactnThroughouthistorynonaturallanguageispureorfreefromtheinfluenceofotherlanguages.Duetotrade,war,colonizationandothercauseslanguagesmaycomeintocontact.Whenthisoccurs,mixedcodesmaycomeintobeing,whicharecalledpidginsandcreoles.uThetermpidginisthelabelforthecodeusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguages.Apidginisnotthenativelanguageofanygroup.uAcreoleisamixedlanguagewhichhasbecomethemothertongueofaspeechcommunity.nBilingualismandmultilingualismarenormalinmanypartsoftheworldtoday.nBilingualismgivesrisetocode-switchingandcode-mixing.Theformerreferstothefactthataspeakerchangesfromonelanguagetotheotherindifferentsituationsorwhentalkingaboutdifferenttopics.Thelatterreferstothechangefromonelanguagetotheotherlanguagewithinthesameutterance.lTaboosandeuphemismsnTabooreferstoaprohibitionontheuseof,mentionof,orassociationwithparticularobjects,actions,orpersons.Euphemismisanexpressionthatsubstitutesonewhichmaybeseenasoffensiveordisturbingtotheaddressee.49\nnTabooandeuphemismareactuallytwosidesofthesamecoin.nWhatistabooornottaboodependsonthecontext.lAbriefintroductiontoahottopicnowadays:languageandculturenWhatisculture?uNatureismaterial,whilecultureisspiritual.uLinguisticrelativitynLanguageispartofculture,acarrierofculture.uLanguageisaproductofoursociallife.uLanguageistheprincipalmeanbywhichcultureispasseddown.uLanguagereflectsthewayofthinking.Mentalactivitiesdependonlinguisticactivity.nSapir-Whorfhypothesis(relationshipbetweenlanguageandculture)uDeterminismlLanguagedeterminesourwayofthinking.uRelativism(linguisticrelativity)nForfurtherstudyofthishottopic,refertothebookLanguageandCulturewrittenbyClaireKramschlCompetencenLinguisticcompetence:grammaticality,presentedbyChomskynCommunicativecompetence:fourcomponentsuGrammaticalityuAcceptabilityuAppropriatenessuEffectivenessChapter11SecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA)lWhatisSLA?nWhatislanguageacquisition?uThenaturalprocessofchildren’slanguagedevelopment.uItisdifferentfromlanguagelearning.uFourstagesoflanguageacquisitionlBabbling–holophrastic–two-word–telegraphicnWhatissecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)?uSLAislearningalanguageinF2(thelanguagebeinglearnt)languageenvironment.uItisdifferentfromforeignlanguagelearning,whichislearningalanguageinF1languageenvironment.uThemajordifferenceistheenvironment.nForeignlanguageteaching(FLT)andsecondlanguageteaching(SLT)nSLAtheory49\nlFactorsaffectingSLAnExternalfactors:socialfactorsuSocialdemanduLanguagepolicynInternalfactors:learnerfactorsuMotivationlInstrumentallIntegrativeuAgeuLearningstrategylCognitivenRepetitionnTranslationnNote-takinglMetacognitivenOrganizingnSelf-monitoringnSelf-evaluationuPersonalityuAttitudelAnalysisoflearners’languagenWhyanalyze?uLearners’languageprovidesdataforresearchintothenatureofthelearningprocess.Inordertogaininsightintotheprocess,researchershaveengagedintheanalysisoflearners’language.nHowtoanalyze?uContrastiveanalysislComparethetargetlanguagewiththemothertongue.uErroranalysislIdentifyingerrorsnErrorsareduetothefaultinknowledgeofthespeaker,whilemistakesarebecauseofunsuccessfulperformance.lDescribingerrorsnOmission-Hecameinto_classroomwithabookin_hand.nAddition/wordy-Mychildgoestohisschool.nSelection-Ihope/wish…nDisordering-Iyesterdaywentto…(I,yesterday,wentto…/Iwentto…yesterday)lExplainingerrorsandanalyzingreason49\nnInterlingualfactors-Mothertongue’sinfluencenIntralingualfactors-Overgeneralization-Simplification-Cross-associationlLimitationforerroranalysisnFailtoseewhatlearners’languagewillbelikeifwefocusontheerrors.uInterlanguagelApproximatelanguagesystemlTransitionallanguagelLanguagetransfer–toborrowlanguagefromL1nPositivetransfer:L1doeshelpnNegativetransfer:L1misleadslLearnersextendpatternsbyanalogy–overgeneralizedmistakes(overextension).lCommunicativestrategylExplainingSLAnNativisttheoriesuChomsky:LADsystemuKrashen:monitortheoryuInputhypothesis(i+1hypothesis)nEnvironmentalisttheoriesuCulturalawarenessuTheoreticalperspective(languageoutlook)uConfidenceandcompetencenFunctionalisttheoriesuLanguageuseuCommunicativestrategies(CS)★LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeaching(FLT)lFLTasasystemnGovernmentplanningnSyllabusdesignandmaterialdevelopmentnClassroomteachingnEvaluationlContributionoflinguistics:applicationsandimplicationsnApplicationsuLinguisticdescriptioncanbedirectlyusedasinputintosyllabusandmaterialdevelopment.nImplicationsuThereisanindirectrelationshipbetweenlinguisticsandFLT.lContents:whattoteach?49\nlMethodology:howtoteach?uWhatwelearnfromacertaintheoryishelpfulindecidingthose.lTheroleofateachernOrganizernLanguageuser英语语言学重难点提示1.      Whatislanguage?“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,“shu”inChinese.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.2.      Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage?“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability3.      Whatisarbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.4.      Whatisduality?Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.,languageisa49\nsystemoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.5.      Whatisproductivity?Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky).6.      Whatisdisplacement?“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.7.      Whatisculturaltransmission?Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.8.      Whatisinterchangeability?Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itis49\nturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)is(are)“speaking”andwhichlistening.9.      Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.10.      Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersonalandtextual.11.    Whatisthephaticfunction?The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.“Howareyou?”“Fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship.12.    Whatisthedirectivefunction?The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“Indirectspeechacttheory”atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”13.    Whatistheinformativefunction?Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrue(truth)orfalse(falsehood).AccordingtoP.Grice’s“CooperativePrinciple”,oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.49\n14.    Whatistheinterrogativefunction?Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.,accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.,“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listener’sanswer.15.    Whatistheexpressivefunction?The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”Sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgmentonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.16.    Whatistheevocativefunction?The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.,youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.17.    Whatistheperformativefunction?Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc.,areperformatives.18.    Whatislinguistics?“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities.19.    Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhas49\nconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,consistency,andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.20.    Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,psycholinguisticsetc.21.    Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies?Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration.22.    Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary,becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional,whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.23.    Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches?Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguistic49\nstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,however.It(thelatter)believesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech(hesitation,incompleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,corrupt,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobeexplainedalso.24.    Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole?F.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.25.    Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance?AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.26.    Whatislinguisticpotential?Whatisactuallinguisticbehaviour?Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,weremadebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential).27.    Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyare49\ninnatelydifferent.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Parole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.28.    Whatisphonetics?“Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer’spointofview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.29.    Howarethevocalorgansformed?Thevocalorgansorspeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.30.    Whatisplaceofarticulation?Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced,atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved,e.g.lips,hardpalateetc.,soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing(1)bilabial:[p,b,m];(2)];(4)alveolar:[t,d,l,n,s,z];(5)T,Plabiodental:[f,v];(3)dental:[retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar:[  ];(7)palatal:[j];(8)velar[k,g];(9)uvular;(10)glottal:[h].Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthattwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”.31.    Whatisthemannerofarticulation?The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreammaybeobstructedinvariousways,resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation,arethefollowing:(1)plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g];(2)nasal:[m,n,];(3)trill;(4)taporflap;(5)lateral:[l];(6)fricative:[f,v,s,z];(7)approximant:[w,j];(8)affricate:[  ].32.    WhatisIPA?Whendiditcomeintobeing?49\nTheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.33.    Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription?Inhandbookofphonetics,HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.34.    Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.Phoneticsisthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures,andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances,torecognizeaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone’slanguage.35.    Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?Whatisanallophone?A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]s,readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit].Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”,i.e.,thedifferent(i.e.,phones)butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]sintheabovewordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.36.    Whatareminimalpairs?Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesound49\nsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage.37.    Whatisfreevariation?Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives,forexample,maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal(e.g.,act,apt,goodmorning).Theminutedistinctionsmay,ifnecessary,betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.38.    Whatiscomplementarydistribution?Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc.39.    Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletionrule?The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-“servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in],[i]or[im]whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[  ](alveolar)inconceivable-[  ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling.40.    Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,lengthandpitch,stress,intonation.49\n41.    Whatismorphology?“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.42.    Whatisinflection/inflexion?“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.43.    Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph?The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc.44.    Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme?A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes).45.    Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix?A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.An“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).46.    Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?49\nInEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.47.    Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary?“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.[itiz‘w  ](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence).AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords;(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,etc.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;(3)closed-classandopen-classwords.Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabstractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:“write”,“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.”“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.48.    Whatiscollocation?“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.49.    Whatissyntax?“Syntax”isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensentential49\nelements.50.    Whatisasentence?L.Bloomfielddefines“sentence”asanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticfrom,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,itisastructurallyindependentlinguisticform.Itisalsocalledamaximumfreeform.51.    Whataresyntacticrelations?“Syntacticrelations”refertothewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences;hencethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:positionalrelations,relationsofsubstitutabilityandrelationsofco-occurrence.“Positionalrelation”,or“wordorder”,referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatF.deSaussurecalled“syntagmaticrelations”,orofwhatotherlinguistscall“horizontalrelations”or“chainrelations”.“Relationsofsubstitutability”refertoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“associativerelations”.Otherpeoplecallthem“paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”.By“relationsofco-occurrence”,onemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelationsandpartlytoparadigmaticrelations.52.    WhatisICanalysis?Whatareimmediateconstituents(andultimateconstituents)?“ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents”,andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.Forexample,“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented:“John|left||yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(|),andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit(||)thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:“John”,“left”and“yesterday”.53.    Whatareendocentricandexocentricconstructions?“Endocentricconstruction”isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinable“centre”or“head”.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetothehead.“Exocentricconstruction”,oppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupaswhole;thatistosay,thereisnodefinablecentreorheadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.54.    Whatisasubject?Apredicate?Anobject?49\nInsomelanguage,an“subject”referstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase,suchas“pater”inthefollowingexample:“paterfiliumamat”(putliterallyinEnglish:thefatherthesonloves).InEnglish,a“grammaticalsubject”referstoanounwhichcanestablishcorrespondencewiththeverbandwhichcanbecheckedbyatag-questiontest,e.g.,“Heisagoodcook,(isn’the?).”A“predicate”referstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectareconsideredtogether.e.g.,inthesentence“Themonkeyisjumping”,“isjumping”isthepredicate.Traditionally“object”referstothereceiverorgoalofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintotwokinds:directobjectandindirectobject.Insomeinflectinglanguages,anobjectismarkedbycaselabels:the“accusativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”forindirecttowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).e.g.,inthesentence“Johnkissedme”,“me”istheobject.Modernlinguistssuggestthatanobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomeasubjectinpassivetransformation.55.    Whatiscategory?Theterm“category”insomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc.56.    Whatisnumber?Whatisgender?Whatiscase?“Number”isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs.“Gender”displayssuchcontrastsas“masculine”,“feminine”,“neuter”,or“animate”and“inanimate”,etc.,fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities,wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender).“Case”identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.57.    Whatisconcord?Whatisgovernment?“Concord”maybedefinedasrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallbecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategoryorcategories,e.g.,“manruns”,“menrun”.“Government”requiresthatonewordofaparticularclassinagivensyntacticclassshallexhibittheformofaspecificcategory.InEnglish,governmentappliesonlytopronounsamongthevariablewords,thatis,prepositionsandverbsgovernparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtotheirsyntacticrelationwiththem,e.g.,“Ihelpedhim;hehelped49\nme.”58.    Whatisaphrase?Whatisaclause?A“phrase”isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof“clauses”.Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy,fallingbetweenaclauseandword,e.g.,“thethreetallestgirls”(nominalphrase).Thereisnowatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenwordgroupsandphrases.A“wordgroup”isanextensionofawordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.Thuswehavenominalgroup,verbalgroup,adverbialgroup,conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup.A“clause”isgroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicateincludedinalargersubject-verbconstruction,namely,inasentence.Clausescanalsobeclassifiedintotwokinds:finiteandnon-finiteclauses,thelatterreferringtowhataretraditionallycalledinfinitivephrase,participlephraseandgerundialphrase.59.    Whatisconjoining?Whatisembedding?Whatisrecursiveness?“Conjoining”referstoaconstructionwhereoneclauseisco-ordinatedorconjoinedwithanother,e.g.,“Johnboughtacatandhiswifekilledher.”“Embedding”referstotheprocessofconstructionwhereoneclauseisincludedinthesentence(ormainclause)insyntacticsubordination,e.g.,“Isawthemanwhohadkilledachimpanzee.”By“recursiveness”wemeanthatthereistheoreticallynolimittothenumberoftheembeddedclausesinacomplexsentence.Thisistruealsowithnominalandadverbialclauses,e.g.,“Isawthemanwhokilledacatwho…aratwhich…that…”60.    Whatishypotacticrelation?Whatisparatacticrelation?“Hypotacticrelation”referstoaconstructionwhereconstituentsarelinkedbymeansofconjunction,e.g.“Heboughteggsandmilk.”“Paratacticrelation”referstoconstructionswhichareconnectedbyjuxtaposition,punctuationorintonation,e.g.,“Heboughttea,coffee,eggsandmilk”(payattentiontothefirstthreenounsconnectedwithout“and”).61.    Whatissemantics?“Semantics”referstothestudyofthecommunicationofmeaningthroughlanguage.Orsimply,itisthestudyofmeaning.62.    Whatismeaning?Thoughitisdifficulttodefine,“meaning”hasthefollowingmeaning:(1)anintrinsicproperty;(2)theconnotationofaword;(3)thewordsputafteradictionaryentry;(4)thepositionanobjectoccupiesinasystem;(5)whatthesymboluseractuallyrefersto;(6)whatthesymbolusershouldreferto;(7)whatthesymboluserbelievesheisreferringto;(8)whatthesymbolinterpreterrefersto;(9)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievesitrefersto;49\n(1)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievestheuserrefersto…linguistsarguedabout“meaningofmeaning”fiercelyintheresultof“realism”,“conceptualism/mentalism”,“mechanism”,“contextualism”,“behaviorism”,“functionalism”,etc.Mentionoughttobemadeofthe“SemanticTriangleTheory”ofOgden&Richards.Weuseawordandthelistenerknowswhatitreferstobecause,accordingtothetheory,theyhaveacquiredthesameconcept/referenceofthewordusedandoftheobject/referent.63.    Whatisthedifference¬¬¬¬¬¬¬betweenmeaning,concept,connotation,sense,implication,denotation,notation,reference,implicatureandsignification?“Meaning”referstotheassociationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealword.“Concept”or“notion”istheimpressionofobjectsinpeople’smind.“connotation”istheimpliedmeaning,similarto“implication”and“implicature”.“Sense”isthelexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.“Denotation”,like“sense”,isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjects,butmakestheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.“Reference”istheword-objectrelationship.“Implicature”,initsnarrowsense,referstoconversationalimplicatureachievedbyintentionallyviolatingoneofthefourCPmaxims.“Signification”,incontrastwith“value”,meanthemeaningofsituationmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue,like“What’sthis?”64.    WhatistheSemantic/SemioticTriangle?OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.65.    Whatiscontextualism?“Contextualism”isbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfrom,orreduceitto,observablecontext:the“situationalcontext”andthe“linguisticcontext”.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatial-temporalsituation,asthefollowingfactorsarerelatedtothesituationalcontext:(1)thespeakerandthehearer;(2)theactionstheyareperformingatthetime;(3)variousexternalobjectsandevents;(4)deicticfeatures.The“linguisticcontext”isanotheraspectofcontextualism.Itconsiderstheprobabilityofoneword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanother,whichformspartofthemeaning,andanimportantfactorincommunication.66.    Howmanykindsofmeaningdidlinguistsfindandstudy?C.C.Fries(1952)makesatraditionaldistinctionbetweenlexicalmeaningandstructuralmeaning.Theformerisexpressedbythose“meaningful”partsofspeech,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,andisgiveninthedictionaryassociatedwithgrammar.Thelatterexpressesthedistinctionbetweenthesubjectandtheobjectofasentence,oppositionsofdefiniteness,tensethenumber,andthedifferencebetweenstatements,questionsandrequests.Inaword,“thetotallinguisticmeaningofanyutteranceconsistsofthelexicalmeaningoftheseparatewordsplussuchstructuralmeaning…”49\nG.Leech(1981)categorizessevenkindsofmeaning,fiveofwhicharebroughtunderthe“associativemeaning”.Differentfromthetraditionalandthefunctionalapproach,F.R.Palmer(1981)andJ.Lyons(1977)suggestwedrawadistinctionbetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning,theformerbeingdirectlypredictablefromthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofthesentence,whilethelatterincludesallthevarioustypesofmeaningnotnecessarilyassociatedthereto.67.    Whatissynonymy?“Synonymy”isusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Dictionarymakers(lexicographers)relyontheexistenceofsynonymyfortheirdefinitions.Somesemanticiansmaintain,however,thattherearenorealsynonyms,becausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects:Inshadesofmeaning(e.g.,finish,complete,close,conclude,terminate,finalize,end,etc.);Instylisticmeaning;Inemotivemeaning(oraffectivemeaning);Inrangeofuse(orcollocativemeaning);InBritishandAmericanEnglishusages[e.g.,autumn(BrE),fall(AmE)].SimeonPottersaid,“Languageislikedress.Wevaryourdresstosuittheoccasion.Wedonotappearatafriend’ssilver-weddinganniversaryingardeningclothes,nordowegopuntingontheriverinadinner-jacket.”Thismeansthelearningofsynonymsisimportanttoanyonethatwishestousehislanguagefreelyandwell.68.    WhatisAntonymy?Howmanykindsofantonymsarethere?Theterm“antonymy”isusedforoppositionsofmeaning;wordsthatstandoppositeinmeaningarecalled“antonyms”,oropposites,whichfallintherecategories1)gradableantonyms(e.g,good-bad);2)complementaryantonyms(e.g.,single-married);3)relationalantonyms(e.g.,buy-sell).69.    Whatishyponymy?Whatisahyponym?Whatissuperordinate?“Hyponymy”involvesusinthenotionofmeaninginclusion.Itisamatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay,whenXidakindofY,thelowertermXisthe“hyponym”,andtheuppertermYisthe“superordinate”.Twoormorehyponymssharingthesameonesuperordinatearecalled“co-hyponyms”.Forexample,“flower”isthesuperordinateof“tulip”,“violet”and“rose”,whicharetheco-hyponymsof“flower”.70.    Whatispolysemy?Whatishomonymy?“Polysemy”referstothesemanticphenomenonthatawordmayhavethanonemeaning.Forexample,“negative”,means(1)astatementsayingormeaning“no”,(2)arefusalordenial,(3)oneofthefollowingwordsandexpressions:no,not,nothing,never,notatall,etc.,(4)anegativephotographorfilm.Butwecansometimeshardlytellifaformhasseveralmeaningsoritisadifferentwordtakingthisform;hencethedifferencebetweenpolysemyandhomonymy.49\n71.    Whatisentailment?“Entailment”canbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentences,withSentenceAentailingSentenceB:A:Hemarriedablondeheiress.B:Hemarriedablonde.Intermsoftruthvalue,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthesetwosentences1)WhenAistrue,Bisnecessarilytrue;2)WhenBisfalse,too;3)WhenAisfalse,Bmaybetrueorfalse;4)WhenBistrue,Amaybetrueorfalse.Entailmentisbasicallyasemanticrelationorlogicalimplication,butwehavetoassumeco-referenceof“He”insentenceAandsentenceB,beforewehaveAentailB.72.    Whatispresupposition?Similartoentailment,“presupposition”isasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.Theabove-mentioned“WhenphraseNo.1”isalsotruewithpresupposition.Forexample:A:Thegirlhemarriedwasanheiress.B:Hemarriedagirl.Butthereisanimportantdifference:Presuppositionisnotsubjecttonegation,i.e.,whenAisfalse,Bisstilltrue.Otherstatementsaboutthetruthvalueinpresuppositionare1)WhenBistrue,Acaneitherbetrueorfalse;2)WhenBisfalse,Ahasnotruthvalueatall.Presuppositiondoesnothavetobefoundbetweentwopropositions.Anexampleinpointis:“Whendidyoustopbeatingyourwife?”Thispresupposesthathehasbeenbeatinghiswife.73.    Whatiscomponentialanalysis?“Componentialanalysis”definesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.Forexample,wemay“clip”thefollowingwords“Man”,“Woman”,“Boy”and“Girl”sothatwehaveonlyseparatepartsofthem.Man:+Human+Adult+MaleWoman:+Human+Adult-MaleBoy:+Human–Adult+MaleGirl:+Human–Adult–Male74.    Whatispredicationanalysis?Whatisaone-placepredicate?Whatisatwo-placepredicate?Whatisano-placepredicate?Whataredown-gradedpredications?“Predicationanalysis”isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.“Predication”isusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commands,etc.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argument(logicalparticipant)andpredicate(relationelement).The“predicate”isthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.Wemaynowdistinguisha“two-placepredicate”(whichgovernstwoarguments,e.g.,subjectandobject),a“one-placepredicate”(which49\ngovernsoneargument,i.e.,subject)anda“no-placepredicate”thathassimplynoargument(norealsubjectorobject).75.    Whatisalogicaloperator?“Logicaloperator”makeonlyonekindofthe“logicalfactors”or“logicalmeans”,othersbeing“definiteness”,“coreference”,“tense”and“time”,sincepredicationisnotthewholeofasentenceorproposition.Allthesefactorsplayapartinprepositionalactualizationofthepredication---thepiningofapredicationdownaclaimaboutreality.Exampleoflogicaloperatorsare“not”,“and”,“or”,“some”,“if”,“false”,etc.Theterm“logicaloperation”reflectsthefactthatthesemeaningelementsareoftenthoughtofasperformingoperations,controllingelementsofthesemanticsystem,sotospeak.76.    Whyiswritingimportant?Whyisspeechconsideredpriortowriting?Languagecantaketheformofspeechorwriting,theformerusingsoundasmediumandthelatteremployingvisualsymbols.Noonecouldtellwhenmankindfirstspoke;norcouldpeopletellwhenmankinddevelopedthefirstwriting.Awritingsystemconsistsofagraphemespluscharacteristicfeaturesoftheiruse,resultinginthediversionofthewritingforms;wordwriting,syllabicwritingandsoundwriting.Itiswidelyconsideredthatspeechistheprimarymedium,andwritingthesecondarymedium.Butthiscomparativediminutiondoesnotmeanthatwritingisunimportant.Withtheshot-livedmemoryandthefinitecapacityofinformationstoring,writingisused,partlyforcompensationandpartlyforbettercommunication.Wecannottrustthenegotiationcounterpartsoweturntothewritingandsigningofanagreement.Writingleadspeopletotheacmeofscience,studyandresearch,andtotheultimatejoyofliterature77.    Whatisapictogram?Whatisanideogram?A“pictogram”referstoaninscriptionrepresentingthefeaturesofaphysicalobject.TheHebrewandtheChineseorthographystillreflectstracesoftheirpictorialorigin.Forinstance,theletter“a”(aleph)imitatestheheadofanoxandtheletter“b”(beth)imitatesahorse.And“niú”,“mǎ”,“hǔ”andhundredsmoreofChinesewordsderivedfrom,andstillkeepthepictorialresemblanceto,theshapesofthethingsorobjects.Theadvantageofpictogramsisthattheycanbeeasilyunderstoodbyanyone.Thatexplainswhyinternationalroadsignsandpublic-toiletsignsmakeawideuseofthem.An“ideogram”meansanideapictureorideawriting.Inordertoexpresstheattributeofanobjectorconceptsassociatedwithit,thepictogram’smeaninghadtobeextended.Forinstance,apictureofthesundoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheobjectitself,butconnotes“warmth”,“heat”,“light”,“daytime”,etc.Inspiteofitsdisadvantages,thelaterformofideogramsturnedouttobelinguisticsymbols,symbolsforthesoundsoftheseobjects.Theprocessiscalledthe“RebusPrinciple”indicatingthatwritingislikeariddlecomposedofwordsorsyllablesdepictedbysymbolsorpicturesthatsuggestthesoundofthewordsorsyllablestheyrepresent.78.    Whatiswordwriting?Whatissoundwriting?Whatissyllabicwriting?Wordwritingreferstothewritingsystembasedonideogramsand/orpictograms,like49\nChinese.“Soundwriting”or“alphabeticwriting”,whichdominatestheworld,derivedformtheLatinalphabetwithmildadjustments.MostoftheEuropeanalphabetsbelongtothesoundwritingsystem,e.g.,Spanish,German,French,English,etc.“Syllabicwriting”isaword-syllabuswriting,developedbytheEgyptians.Japaneseisatypicalsyllabic-writinglanguage,thoughderivedfromChinese,aSino-Tibetanlanguage.TheJapanesemodifiedtheChinesecharacterstheyhadborrowedfromancientChinasothattheJapanesesyllables(tothenumberoffifty)wereeachrepresented,eitherbywhatiscalled“hiragana”orbywhatisname“katakana”.79.    Whatisagrapheme?Whatisorthography?A“grapheme”istheminimalconstructiveunitinthewritingsystemofalanguage.TheEnglishgraphemeAisrepresentedbyA,α,aetc.Orthographymeanscorrectspelling,spellingrulesorattemptstoimprovespelling.80.    Whatisaffixation,conversionandcompounding?“Affixation”isthemorphologicalprocesswherebygrammaticaloflexicalinformationisaddedtothebase(rootorstem).Ithasbeentheoldestandthemostproductiveword-formationmethodintheEnglishlanguageandsomeotherEuropeanlanguages.“Prefixation”meansadditionofaprefixtomakeanewword,while“suffixation”meansaddingasuffixtoaword.Theword“unfaithful”isresultofbothprefixationandsuffixation.“Conversion”(calledsometimes“fullconversion”)isaword-formationprocessbywhichawordisalteredfromonepartofspeechintoanotherwithouttheaddition(ordeletion)ofanymorpheme.“Partialconversion”isalsoalterationwhenawordofoneword-classappearsinafunctionwhichischaracteristicofanotherword-class,e.g.,“thewealthy”(=wealthypeople).“Compounding”issocomplexaword-formationprocessasfarasEnglishisconcernedthatthereisnoformalcriterionthatcanbeusedforthedefinitionofit,thoughitmaymeansimplythattwowordsormorecometogetherusedasonelexicalitem,like“dustbin”.81.    Whatisblending,abbreviationandbackformation?“Blending”isarelativelycomplexformofcompoundinginwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots,e.g.,smog→smoke+fog,boatel→boat+hotel,etc.“Abbreviation”,alsocalledinsomecases“clipping”,meansthatawordthatseemsunnecessarilylongisshortened,usuallybyclippingeitherthefrontorthebackpartofit,e.g.,telephone→phone,professor→prof.,etc.Broadlyspeaking,abbreviationincludesacronymsthataremadeupfromthefirstlettersofthelongnameofanorganization,e.g.,WorldBank→WB,EuropeanEconomicCommunity→EEC,etc.Otherexamplesofacronymscanbefoundwithterminologies,tobereadlikeoneword,e.g.,radiodetectingandranging→radar.TestofEnglishasaForeignLanguage→TOEFL,etc.“Back-formation”referstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydetectinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.Itisaspecialkindofmetanalyais,combinedwithanalogicalcreation,e.g.,editor→edit,49\nenthusiasm→enthuse,etc.82.    Whatisanalogicalcreation?Whatisborrowing?Theprocessof“analogicalcreation”,asoneoftheEnglishtendenciesinEnglishword-formation,referstothephenomenonthatanewwordoranewphraseiscoinedbyanalogybetweenanewlycreatedoneandanexistingone.Forexample,“marathon”appearedattheFirstOlympicGamesandbyanalogymodernEnglishcreatedsuchwordsas“telethon”,“talkthon”,etc.Analogymaycreatesinglewords(e.g.,sunrise-moonrise,earthrise,etc.;earthquake-starquake,youthquake,etc.)andphrases(e.g.,environmentalpollution-soundpollution,airpollution,culturalpollution,etc.).“Borrowing”meanstheEnglishlanguageborrowedwordsfromforeignlanguages,whichfallinfourcategories:aliens,denizens,translation-loansandsemanticborrowings.“Aliens”areforeignloansthatstillkeeptheiralienshapes,i.e.,morphologicalandphonologicalfeatures,e.g.,“elite”,“coupdétat”,“coupé”,etc.(fromFrench).“Deniens”,alsoforeignwords,havetransformedtheirforeignappearance,i.e.,theyhavebeenAngolcized(orAmericanized),e.g.,“get”(aScandinavianborrowing),“theater”(aFrenchloan),etc.“Hybrids”arealsodenizens,becausetheyarewordsmadeupoftwopartsbothfromforeignsoil,suchas“sociology”(“socio-”fromFrenchand–logyfromGreek).“Translation-loans”arewordsimportedbywayoftranslation,e.g.,“blackhumor”fromFrench(“humornoir”),“foundobject”formFrench,too(“objecttrouve”),etc.Finally,semanticborrowingshaveacquirednewmeaningundertheinfluenceoflanguageorlanguagesotherthanthesourcetongue.Forexample,“gift”mean“thepriceofawife”inOldEnglish(450-1150AD),andafterthesemanticborrowingofthemeaningof“giftorpresent”oftheScandinavianterm“gipt”,itmeantandstillmeans“gift”inthemodernsenseofit.83.    Whatisassimilation,dissimilationandmetathesis?“Assimilation”referstochangeofasoundastheresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichiscalled“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.Theassimitativeprocessesatwordinlanguagecouldbeexplainedbythe“theoryofleasteffort”,i.e.,inspeakingwetendtoexertaslittleeffortaspossiblesothatwedonotwanttovarytoooftenplacesofarticulationinutteringasequenceofsounds.Assimilationtakesplaceinquickspeechveryoften.Inexpressionssuchas“immobile”,“illegal”,etc.,thenegativeprefixesshouldbeorhavebeen“in-”etymologically.“Dissimilation”,oppositeofassimilation,istheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanothersound,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalikethanexpected.Astherearetwo[r]soundsintheLatinword“peregrines”,forinstance,thefirstsegmenthadtodissimilateinto[l],hencetheEnglishword“pilgrim”.“Metathesis”isaprocessinvolvinganalterationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadoriginallybeenaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.Forinstance,theword“bird”was“bird”inOldEnglish.Theword“ask”usedtobepronounced[ask]inOldEnglish,asstilloccursinsomeEnglishdialects.84.    Whatispragmatics?Pragmaticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuse.Itisconcernedwith49\nthestudyofmeaningascommunicatedbyaspeaker(orwriter)andinterpretedbyalistener(orreader).Ithas,consequently,moretodowiththeanalysisofwhatpeoplemeanbytheirutterancesthanwhatthewordsorphrasesinthoseutterancesmightmeanbythemselves.85.    Whatisspeechacttheory?SpeechacttheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.  Austinsuggeststhreebasicsensesinwhichinsayingsomethingoneisdoingsomethingandthreekindsofactsareperformedsimultaneously:1)Locutionaryact:theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference;2)Illocutionaryact:themakingofastatement,offer,promise,etc,inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit;3)Perlocutionaryact:thebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudiencebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstances.86.    What’sSearle’sclassificationofillocutionaryacts?Searlesuggestsfivebasiccategoriesofillocutionaryacts:    Assertives:sentencesthatcommitthespeakertothetruthofsomething.Typicalcasesare"Ithinkthetrainismoving"and"I'msureJohnhasstolenthebook".Thedegreeofcommitmentvariesfromstatementtostatement.Thecommitmentissmallin"IguessJohnhasstolenthebook"butverystrongin  "IsolemnlyswearthatJohnhasstolenthebook".    Directives:sentencesbywhichthespeakertriestogetthehearertodosomething."Ibegyoutogivemesomehelp"and"Iorderyoutodoitrightnow"arebothattemptstogetsomethingdonebythehearer.Amongtheverbsthatfallintothisgroupare  "ask","plead","entreat","command",or"advise".    Commissives:sentencesthatcommitthespeakertosomefutureaction.Promisesandoffersarecharacteristicoftheseacts.Interestingly,warningisalsoacommissive,asin"Ifyoudothat  again,  I'll  hit  you",becauseitalsocommitsthespeakertodoingsomething.    Expressives:sentencesthatexpressthespeaker'spsychologicalstateaboutsomething.Verbstypicallyusedforthiscategoryare  "thank",  "congratulate","apologize","welcome","deplore".Declaratives:sentencesthatbringaboutimmediatechangeinexistingstateofaffairs.Assoonasanemployersaystoanemployee"Youarefired",theemployeeloseshisjob.Verbsoftenusedfordeclarationsare"name","christen","nominate","point",or"declare".87.Whatisthecooperativeprinciple?H.P.Grice(1975)believesthattheremustbesomemechanismsgoverningtheproductionandcomprehensionoftheseutterances.Hesuggeststhatthereisasetorassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation.ThisiswhathecallstheCooperativePrinciple.Heformulatestheprincipleanditsmaximsasfollows:  Makeyourcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionoftheexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.  TheMaximof49\nQuality  Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue,specifically    (i)donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;    (ii)donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.  TheMaximofQuantity    (i)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange;    (ii)donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.  TheMaximofRelevance    Makeyourcontributionrelevant.  TheMaximofManner    Beperspicuousandspecific:    (i)avoidobscurity;    (ii)avoidambiguity;    (iii)bebrief;(iv)beorderly.88.Whatisappliedlinguistics?Inthebroadestsense,appliedLinguisticsreferstothestudyoflanguageandlinguisticsinrelationtopracticalproblems,suchaslexicography,translation,speechpathology,etc.Appliedlinguisticsusesinformationfromsociology,psychology,anthropology,andinformationtheoryaswellasfromlinguisticsinordertodevelopitsowntheoreticalmodelsoflanguageandlanguageuse,andthenusesthisinformationandtheoryinpracticalareassuchassyllabusdesign,speechtherapy,languageplanning,machinetranslation,variousfacetsofcommunicationresearch,andmanyothers.Inthenarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstothestudyofsecond/foreignlanguagelearningandteaching.Itservesasamediatingareawhichinterpretstheresultsoflinguistictheoriesandmakesthemuser-friendlytothelanguageteacherandlearner.89.WhatisSapir-WhorfHypothesis?TheSapir-Whorftheory,namedaftertheAmericanlinguistsEdwardSapirandBenjaminLeeWhorf,isaveryinfluentialbutcontroversialtheoryconcerningtherelationshipbetweenlanguage,thoughtandculture.Whatthishypothesissuggestsislikethis:ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Followingthisargument,twoimportantpointscouldbecapturedinthistheory.Ontheonehand,languagemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns;ontheother,similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.Forthisreason,thishypothesishasalternativelybeenreferredtoasLinguisticDeterminismandLinguisticRelativity.Nowadays,fewpeoplewouldpossiblytendtoaccepttheoriginalformofthistheorycompletely.Consequently,twoversionsoftheSapir-WhorfHypothesishavebeendeveloped,astrongversionandaweakversion.Thestrongversionofthetheoryreferstotheclaimtheoriginalhypothesissuggests,emphasizingthedecisiveroleoflanguageastheshaperofourthinkingpatterns.Theweakversionofthishypothesis,however,isamodifiedtypeofitsoriginaltheory,suggestingthatthereisacorrelationbetweenlanguage,cultureandthought,49\nbutthecross-culturaldifferencesthusproducedinourwaysofthinkingarerelative,ratherthancategorical.90.Whatissociolinguistics?Sociolinguisticsstudiesrelationshipsbetweenlanguageandvariousaspectsofsociety.Onemajorfocusofsociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguagevariation,thatis,thewayslanguagediffersacrosssocialsettings.91.Whatarelanguagevarietiesanddialects?Languagevarietyisabroadtermthatcanbeappliedtoanylanguagesystem.Forexample,entirelanguagessuchasEnglish,Japanese,Flemish,andMalaysiancanbereferredtoaslanguagevarieties.Languagevarietiesalso(andperhapsmorecommonly)refertodifferentformsofthesamelanguage.Suchvarietiesareoftencalleddialects.Dialectsofalanguagemaybeassociatedwithdifferentgeographicalregions,forexample,Michigan,Mississippi,orLosAngeles,aswellaswithvarioussocialgroupsdefinedbysocioeconomicclass,culture,and/orethnicity.Thus,wespeakofregionaldialectsandsocialdialects.92.Whatarepidginsandcreoles?Twosortsoflanguagevarietiesthatdonotfittypicallanguageordialectdefinitionsarepidginsandcreoles.Theseinterestingvarietiesevolveastheresultofcontactbetweenmultiplelanguages.Pidgins,forexample,developwhenspeakersfromdifferentlanguagesneedacommonlanguageforcommunication,suchasfortrade.Circumstancesmaynotallowspeakerstoselectoneoftheirownlanguagesasalinguafranca,orcommonlanguage,sospeakerscreateasystemthatblendsvariouspartsoftheirdifferentlanguages.Weoftenrefertothesemixedlanguagesystems,orpidgins,asEnglish-based,Portuguese-based,andsoforthtoindicatewhatlanguagehassuppliedthebulkofthevocabularytothepidgin.ExamplesofEnglish-basedpidginsincludeTokPisin,spokeninPapuaNewGuinea,andCameroonPidgin,spokeninCameroon,Africa.Theseandotherpidginsdifferfrom"normal"languagevarietiesinthattheyaresimplifiedintheirphonological,lexical,andstructuralfeatures.Pidginsareusuallyauxiliarylanguages;thatis,pidginspeakerstendtohavesomeotherlanguageastheir"mothertongue"andtypicallyusepidginsforothersocialfunctions.Oftenwhentheoriginalneedforthepidgindisappears,sodoesthepidgin.Insomecases,however,theroleofthepidgingreatlyexpandsasaspeechcommunityacquiresthepidginasitsprimarylanguage.Whenthisoccurs,thepidginturnsintosomethingelse--acreole.Structurally,creoles(e.g.theFrench-basedHaitianCreole,theEnglish-basedJamaicancreole,andmanyothers)aredistinguishedfrompidginsbytheirlargervocabulariesandmorecomplexgrammaticalpatterns.93.Whatstagesdochildrengothroughinacquiringalanguage?Ifyouhaveeverbeenaroundbabies,youhaveundoubtedlynoticedthattheybegin"vocalizing"rightaway.However,itisnotuntillaterthattheirutterancesbegintoreflectclearerlinguisticfeatures.Ataboutsixweeks,forexample,babiesbegincooingvowelsounds.Later,atroughlysixmonths,childrensoundevenmorelanguage-likeastheybeginbabblingstreamsofconsonantsandvowelswithpatternedsyllablestructure(e.g."babababa")aswell49\naswithintonationfeaturesofthelanguagebeinglearned.Thus,someofchildren’sbabblesmaysoundalittlelikerealsentencesbecauseoftheirmelodies,orprosody.Aroundoneyear,childrenreachamajormilestone—thefirstword,ortheonewordstage.Althoughchildren’searlywordsmaynotsoundexactlylikeadultwords(e.g."baba"forbottle),theynonethelesshaverealmeaningforchildren.Earlyvocabulariestendtoconsistofconcretewordsdescribingthings,people,andactionsinthechild’simmediateenvironment(e.g."kitty,""daddy,""juice,""mommy,""go"),aswellassocialinteractivewords(e.g."hi,""bye").Children’sutterancesatthistimeareoftencalledholophrasesbecauseasinglewordmayrepresentthemeaningofanentireadultsentence.Forexample,"doggie?"witharisingintonationmightmean"Isthatadog?"Asonemightpredict,thenextmajorstageoflanguagedevelopmentisthetwo-wordstage,beginningroughlyaroundtwoyearsold.Herechildrenbegintoexpressrelationshipsthroughlanguage(e.g."mommyshoe,""babysleep,""teddybed,""kickball")aswellasreflectawarenessofbasicsyntacticstructuresintheirlanguage.Forexample,achildwhosays"kickball"showsunderstanding,albeitunconscious,thatverbs(e.g."kick")gobeforedirectobjectnouns(e.g."ball")inEnglish.Intheirnextstageofdevelopment,childrenbegintocombinethreeormorewordsinsentences.Thismulti-wordmilestoneisoftencalledthetelegraphicstagebecausetheutteranceschildrenproduceduringthistimesoundliketelegrams.Considerthefollowingtelegraphicsentences:"Katiewalkschool,""Jeremyneedthat,""Cathybuildtwohouse."Whatdoyounoticeismissingfromthesesentences?Childrenduringthisstagetendtoleaveoutfunctionwords,suchasprepositions(e.g.the"to"inthefirstsentence),determiners,andauxiliaryverbs,aswellasaffixes(e.g.thethirdpersonsingular-son"need"andtheplural-son"house").Theseomittedfunctionwordsandaffixesareknownasgrammaticalmorphemes.Overthenextseveralyears,childrengraduallyaddinotherpiecesofthelanguage,suchasgrammaticalmorphemes,andtheirsentencesbecomelongerandmorecomplex.Theybegin,forexample,toproducefullquestionsandnegativestatements,aswellassentenceswithmultipleclauses.Amazingly,bythetimechildrenarefourorfiveyearsold,theyhavemasteredmostofthesoundsandstructuralpatternsoftheirlanguage.Ifyouknowanykindergartners,youknowthattheirlanguageisquitedeveloped!49