语言学 chapter 3 总结 11页

Chapter3Lexicon3.1WhatisWord?Asdifferentcriteriamayidentityanddefinedifferentphenomena,itishardtodefine“word”scientifically.However,itisagreedthattherearethreewaysofdefining“word”,thoughtheycan’tcovereverything.3.11ThreeSensesof“WORD”reference:指称论（therelationshipbetweensymbolsandthethingsinoutsideworldthatrefersto）Sense:词与词的关系（useotherwordstoexplainaword,justaswelookupthedictionarytofindthemeaningofaword）(1)AphysicaldefinableunitLanguageisproducedasacontinuousstretchofspeechorwriting,butonecanstillpausesandblankseverynowandthen.Thus,wordmaybeseenasasetofsoundsegmentsorwritinglettersbetweentwopausesorblanks.Forexample:Itiswonderful.Phonological:/itiswandәful/Orthographic:it’swonderful(2)WordbothasageneraltermandasaspecifictermWordmaybeusedbothasageneralterm(thenboyandboysarejustoneword)andasspecificterms(boysandboyaretwowords).Forexample:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written\n(3)AgrammaticalunitThegrammarofalanguagecontainsasetoflayers,andwordisoneofthem.(rank-----hierarchicalscale等级)Clausecomplex---clause---phrase/wordgroup---word---morpheme3.1.2Identificationofwords(1)Stability:Awordcan’tberearranged,butasentencecan.Word:nothingness**nessnothing(F)Sentence:a.Johnisacleverboyb.AcleverboyJohnis(2)Relativeuninterruptibility:Awordcan’tbeseparatesorinsertedwithotherelements,butasentencecan.Word:disappointment*dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence:Paul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.(3)Aminimumfreeform:Wordisthesmallestunitthatcanbeused,byitself,asacompleteutterance.Expression:---IsJanecomingthisevening?---PossiblyException:----whatismissinginasentencesuchas”Dogisbarking”-----A3.1.3ClassificationofWord(1)Variableandinvariablewords\nWordincluding①variablewords(havinginflectivechanges.E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariablewords(nothavinginflectivechanges.E.g.since,when,hello)(2)Grammaticalwords(虚词)andlexicalwords（实词）①Grammaticalwords,knownasFOUNCTIONWORDS,mainlyworkforconstructinggroup,phrase,clause,clause,complexclause,suchasconj.,prep,articles,pron..②Lexicalwords,knownasCONTENTWORDS,mainlyworkforreferringtosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnoun,verb,adj.,adv.(3)Closed-classandopened-classwords①Closed-classwordisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimited,thiskindofwordscan’teasilyoddordeduceanewmember.suchaspronouns,prep,articlesandothers.②Opened-classwordisonewhosemembershipisinprincipleorunlimited.Asnoun,verb,adjective,adv.③exception:auxiliaryverbssomepreposition(regarding,bymeansof)(4)Wordclass⑴9wordclasses:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,andarticle.⑵otherwordclasses:\n①Particles(小品词，语助词):e.g.infinitemarker“to”;negativemarker“not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has,seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(soismine);pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a.Pre-determiners:all,both,half,twiceb.Central-determiners:this,those,every,no,either,yourc.Post-determiners:cardinalnumerals(基数)，ordinalnumerals(序数)，generalordinals(next,last,other,several,little,agreatdealof)3.2TheFormationofWord3.2.1MorphemeandMorphology①Morphemeisthesmallestunitofmeaninginlanguage.②Morphologyisthestudyofmorphemeandabranchoflinguistics.Itstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.3.2.2TypesofMorphemes(1)Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme①Freemorphemecanmakeupwordsbyitself.(dog,nation)②Boundmorphememustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme.(-dis,-ed)(2)Root,affix,andstem①Rootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtherbeanalyedwithout\ndestroyingitsmeaning(NOTICES:a.Rootcanbefreemorphemeorboundmorpheme.b.Itcanbeboundmorpheme,suchas–ceiveinconceiveandperceive;-mitincommitandpermit.c.Itcanbebothfreemorphemeandboundmorpheme.Childandchild-inchildren))②Affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem),includingprefix(para-,mini-,un-,),suffix(-ise,-tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Forexample:a.friend-infriendsshowsthatastemmaybethesameasarootb.friendship-infriendshipsindicatesthatastemmaycontainarootandone,ormorethanone,derivationalaffix.3)InflectiveaffixandderivationalaffixThedifferencesbetweeninflectiveaffixandderivationalaffix:①.inflectiveaffixesaregenerallylessproductivethanderivationalaffixes;②.inflectiveaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,whilederivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicallexicalmeaning;③.inflectiveaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal(e.g.-s).Butderivationalaffixescanbothbeprefixes(e.g.sub-,de-)and\nsuffixes(e.g.-er,-able)3.2.3InflectionandwordformationTobemorespecific,therearetwofieldsthatmorphologyisconcernedwith:(ⅰ).Thestudyofinflections(alsocalledasINFLECTIONAMORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ).Thestudyofwordformation(oftenreferredtoasLEICALorDERIVATIONALMORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTIONindicatesgrammaticalrelationsbyaddinginflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase;andwheninflectionalaffixesareadded,thegrammaticalclassofthestem(towhichtheyareattached)willnotchange.Forexample,(a)number:table/tables(b)person:finitenessandaspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case:boy/boy’s⑵WordformationWord-formation,initsrestrictedsense,referstotheprocessofhowwordsareformed.Twosub-types:a.thecompositionaltype(COMPOUND)b.thederivationaltype(DEROVATION)ⅰ、Compound\n⑴(a)NOUNCOMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g.day+break→daybreak(b)VERBCOMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g.lip+read→lipread(c)ADJECTIVECOMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g.duty+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITIONCOMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g.in+to→into⑵twokindsofcompound:(a)endocentriccompound(self-control)(b)exocentriccompound(breakthrough)⑶thewaysofwritten(a)asasingleword(wardrobe,birdseed,bodyguard)(b)joinedwithahyphen”-”(rest-room,wedding-ring)(c)withordinaryspacebetweentwowords(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivationshowsarelationshipbetweenrootsandaffixes,andmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchanged(length--lengthen)orunchanged(non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4Sememe&MorphemeandPhoneme&Morpheme⑴Sememevs.morphemeSememeisthesmallestcomponentofmeaning,whilemorphemeissmallestunitofmeaning①onemorphemevs.onesememe②onemorphemevs.morethanonesememe③onesememevs.morethanonemorpheme\n①morphemesthathavenospecificsememe②functionchangesinbothsememeandmoephemewithoutmorphemechange⑵Morphemevs.phoneme①asinglephonemevs.asinglemorpheme②asinglemorphemevs.multiplephoneme③allomorph④morphemicconditionsa.phonologicalconditionedb.morphonologicallyconditioned3.3LexicalChange3.3.1Lexicalchangeproper⑴Invention:Coke,Nylon,granola⑵Blending:transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor.digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnothersortofblendingiscalledFUSION,suchasrippe(ripple+shuffle),stample(trample+stample),andspinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3)Abbreviatiom(alsocalledCLIPPING)缩写词e.g.advertisement→adbicylce→bike(4)Acronym(缩略词)e.g.CIA→CentralIntelligenceAgency\n(5)Back-formation:editor---edit(6)Analogicalcreation:work→wrought→worked;slay→slew→slayed(7)Borrowing:aLoanwords:borrowbothformandmeaning(aupairfromFrench);b.Loanblend:borrowthemeaning,theformisblended(china-town);cLoanshift:meaningisborrowedandtheformisnative(bridge);loantranslation(翻译借词):：blackhumor3.3.2Morph-SyntacticalChange(词素句法变化)(1)Morphologicalchange:thirdperson;pluralform,possessivecase(2)Syntacticalchanges:--Splitinfinitive:e.g..Ihavetriedtoconsciouslystop,worryingaboutit--PostponedPreposition:e.g.Thepersonisimpossibletoworkwith--Objectivecaseofrelativepronoune.g.Thegirlwho(m)hetalkedaboutisaviolinist3.3.3Semanticchange(1)Broadeningisaprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsoriginallyspecificsensetoarelativelygeneralone.e.g.“holiday”→”holyday”inreligiousEnglish→”adayforrest”(2)Narrowingiscontrarytobroadening:theoriginalmeaningofawordcan\nbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense.e.g.meat→“food”→theediblefleshofmammals.(3)Meaningshifthereunderstoodinitsnarrowsense,thatis,thechangeofmeaninghasnothingtodowithgeneralizationorrestrictionasmentionedabove.e.g.“bead”→“theprayerbead”→“small,ball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwood”(4)classshift:Bychangingthewordclassonecanchangethemeaningofawordfromaconcreteornotiontoaprocessorattribution.ThisprocessofwordformationisalsoknownasZERO-DERIVATION,orCONVERSIONe.g.hog→N(apig)→V(totakeandkeep(allofsomething)foroneself)(5)folkstymology(民俗词源学)referstothechangeofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningoftheterm,orfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.e.g.SpanishcucarachachangedintoEnglishcokroach3.3.4Phonologicalchange(1)loss(省音)：temperature/’tempәrәtә/----/’temprәt/(2)Addition(增音)：a(n)article(3)Metathesis(换位)：isaprocessinvolvingachangeinthesequenceof\nsound.e.g.Theytaxedhimwithhisfailures.(accused)Theytookhimtotaskforhisfailures.(scolded)(4)Assimilation:同化cap----can3.3.5Orthographicchangea.ThesamedaywentIesus(sun)outofthehouse,andsatebytheseaside.b.AndwhentheSunne(sun)wasup,theywerescorched