《英语语言学》复习要点 10页

Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Togivethebarestdefinitionlanguageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisinstrumentalsocialandconventional.Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageoralternativelyasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itconcernswiththesystematicstudyoflanguageoradisciplinethatdescribesallaspectsoflanguageandformulatestheoriesastohowlanguageworks.2.Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacementetc.ArbitrarinessreferstoformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaningLanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsoundsevenwithonomatopoeicwords.Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructure.Theunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.☺thelowerorthebasiclevel----thesoundunitsorphonemeswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.☺thehigherlevel----morphemesandwordswhicharemeaningfulCreativityreferstoWordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthingsandcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacrossthatusagebefore.Displacementreferstothefactthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresentrealorimaginedmattersinthepastpresentorfutureorinfar-awayplaces.Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjectseventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentintimeandspaceatthemomentofcommunication3.Jakobson’sclassificationoffunctionsoflanguage.Jakobson:InhisarticleLinguisticsandPoetics(1960)definedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent:speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.1).Referentialfunction所指功能2).Poeticfunction诗学功能3).Emotivefunction感情功能4).Conativefunction意动功能5).Phaticfunction交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能HuZhuanglin’classificationoffunctionsoflanguageandusesomeexamplestoillustratethem.1).Informativefunction信息功能2).Interpersonalfunction人际功能3).Performativefunction施为功能4).Emotivefunction感情功能5).Phaticcommunion交感性谈话6).Recreationalfunction娱乐性功能7).Metalingualfunction元语言功能4.WhatarethemajordifferencesbetweenSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleandChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?AccordingtoSaussure,(1)Langueisabstract,paroleisspecifictothespeakingsituation;(2)Langueisnotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;(3)Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.AccordingtoN.Chomsky,Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities;Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence;Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.Chapter2SpeechSounds1.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandreceived.Itisconcernedwiththeactualphysicalarticulation,transmissionandperceptionofspeechsounds.Phonologyisessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsounds.Itis\nconcernedwiththeabstractandmentalaspectofthesoundsinlanguage.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication1.Lips2.Teeth3.Teethridge(alveolar)齿龈4.Hardpalate硬腭5.Softpalate(velum)软腭6.Uvula小舌7.Tipoftongue8.Bladeoftongue舌面9.Backoftongue10.Vocalcords声带11.Pharyngealcavity咽腔12.Nasalcavity鼻腔2.Phone（音素):thesmallestperceptiblediscreetsegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inthemouth)Phoneme（音位）：Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)allophone(音位变体):phonicvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme.//=phoneme[]=phone{}=setofallophonesIPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.Minimalpairs最小对立体Threerequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:1)differentinmeaning;2)onlyonephonemedifferent;3)thedifferentphonemesoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.e.g.aminimalpair:pat-fat;lit-lip;phone-toneminimalset:pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,etc\n3.complementarydistribution互补分布Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theymightformacontrast;e.g./p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit];Iftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydon’tdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontextSuprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征—featuresthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegment,suchasstress（重音），length（音程）,rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）及juncture（音渡）．Chapter3Lexicon/Morphology1.Word1.1Threesensesof“word”(1)Aphysicallydefinableunit:aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopauseorblank.(2)Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm.(3)Agrammaticalunit1.2IdentificationofwordsSomefactorscanhelpusidentifywords:(1)Stability(2)Relativeuninterruptibility(3)Aminimumfreeform1.3TheclassificationofwordWordscanbeclassifiedintermsof:(1)Variablevs.invariablewords(可变词/不可变词)(2)Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords(语法词/词汇词)\n(3)Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords(封闭词/开放词)(4)wordclass(词类)(1)Variablevs.invariablewords(可变词/不可变词)theformerreferstowordshavinginflectivechanges（屈折变化）whilethelatterreferstowordshavingnosuchendings.Variablewords:follow;follows;following;followedInvariablewords:since;when;seldom;through;hello(2)Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords(functionwordsandcontentwords.语法词/词汇词)Theformerreferstothosewordsexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions(连词),prepositions（介词）,articles(冠词),andpronouns（代词）;thelatterreferstowordshavinglexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionetc.suchasn.,v.,adj.,andadv..(3)Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords(封闭词/开放词)theformerreferstowordswhosemembershipisfixedorlimited;e.g.pron.,prep.,conj.,article.thelatterofwhichthemembershipisinfiniteorunlimited.e.g.:n.,v.,adj.,adv.(4)wordclass(词类)Thetraditionallyrecognizedwordclassesare:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Morewordclasseshavebeenintroducedintogrammar:particles小品词/语助词(goby,lookfor,comeup);auxiliaries助词(can,be,will);pro-form替代词(do,so);determiners前置词/限定词(all,every,few,plentyof,this).2.Theformationofword2.1Morphology形态学Definition：Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Thetwofields(p64)Inflectionalmorphology:thestudyofinflectionsDerivationalmorphology:thestudyofword-formation3.Lexicalchange3.1Lexicalchangeproper（词本身的变化）Invention新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词back-formation逆构词analogicalcreation类比造词Borrowing借词、外来词definition:1)Morphology:Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.2)Terminology术语解释Morpheme:Thesmallestunitofmeaning,whichcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Freemorphemes:morphemeswhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves．Boundmorphemes:morphemeswhichcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwords\nInflectionalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemeswhichmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.Derivationalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemes,addedtoexistingformstocreatenewwords.Therearethreekindsaccordingtoposition:prefix,suffixandinfix.Chapter4SyntaxFromWordtoTextSyntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.EndocentricConstructions:isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.ExocentricConstructions:referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroupCategory:referstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:Categoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountabilityCategoriesoftheverb:tense,aspect,voicethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:relationsofposition　位置关系Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.relationsofsubstitutability可替代性关系TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.relationsofco-occurrence同现关系Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)Immediateconstituentanalysisisaformoflinguisticreviewthatbreaksdownlongerphrasesorsentencesintotheirconstituentparts,usuallyintosinglewords.ThiskindofanalysisissometimesabbreviatedasICanalysis,andgetsusedextensivelybyawiderangeoflanguageexperts.Endocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:CoordinationandsubordinationCoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.CharacteristicsofsubjectsA)Wordorder:SubjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatementB)Pro-forms(代词形式):ThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubjectC)Agreementwiththeverb:Inthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular,butthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverbD)Contentquestions(实意问句):Ifthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchangedE)Tagquestion(反意问句):Atagquestionisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence.\nExplainthedifferencebetweensenseandreferencefromthefollowingfouraspects:1)Awordhavingreferencemusthavesense;2)Awordhavingsensemightnothavereference;3)Acertainsensecanberealizedbymorethanonereference;4)AcertainreferencecanbeexpressedbymorethanonesenseThedistinctionbetween“sense”and“reference”iscomparabletothatbetween“connotation”and“denotation”.Theformerreferstosomeabstractproperties,whilethelatterreferstosomeconcreteentities.Firstly,tosomeextent,wecansaythateverywordhasasense,i.e.,someconceptualcontent;otherwisewewouldnotbeabletouseitorunderstandit.Secondly,butnoteverywordhasareference.Therearelinguisticexpressionswhichcanneverbeusedtorefertoanything,forexample,thewordsso,very,maybe,if,not,andall.Thesewordsdoofcoursecontributemeaningtothesentencesinwhichtheyoccurandthushelpsentencesdenote,buttheythemselvesdonotidentifyentitiesintheworld.Theyareintrinsicallynon-referringterms.Andwordslikeghostanddragonrefertoimaginarythings,whichdonotexistinreality.Thirdly,someexpressionswillhavethesamereferenceacrossarangeofutterances,e.g.,theEiffelTowerorthePacificOcean.Suchexpressionsaresometimesdescribedashavingconstantreference.Othershavetheirreferencestotallydependentoncontext.ExpressionslikeI,you,she,etc.aresaidtohavevariablereferences.Lastly,sometimesareferencemaybeexpressedbymorethanonesense.Forinstance,both‘eveningstar’and‘morningstar’(晚星，启明星),thoughtheydifferinsense,refertoVenus.Chapter6Languageandcognition1.WhatisCognition?Inpsychologyitisusedtorefertothementalprocessesofanindividualwithparticularrelationtoaviewthatarguesthattheminghasinternalmentalstatesandcanbeunderstoodintermsofinformationprocessing.Anotherdenefitionismentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.2.CognitiveLinguisticsCognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.3.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenmetaphor&metonymy?Givesomeexamples.Metaphorisaconceptualmapping（概念映射）,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother（从一个语域到另一个语域）,notfromawordtoanother.Metonymyisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle（源域）,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget（目标域）,withinthesamedomain.Thereferencepointactivatesthetarget.1.Metaphorisusedforsubstitution,whilemetonymyisusedforassociation.2.Metaphorcanmeancondensationandmetonymycanmeandisplacement.3.Ametonymyactsbycombiningideaswhilemetaphoractsbysuppressingideas.4.Inametaphor,thecomparisonisbasedonthesimilarities,whileinmetonymythe\ncomparisonisbasedoncontiguity.--Forexample,thesentence‘heisatigerinclass’isametaphor.Herethewordtigerisusedinsubstitutionfordisplayinganattributeofcharacteroftheperson.Thesentence‘thetigercalledhisstudentstothemeetingroom’isametonymy.Herethereisnosubstitution;insteadthepersonisassociatedwithatigerforhisnature..Metaphorisactuallyacognitivetoolthathelpsusstructureourthoughtsandexperiencesintheworldaroundus..Metaphorisaconceptualmapping（概念映射）,notalinguisticone,fromonedomaintoanother（从一个语域到另一个语域）,notfromawordtoanother.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.Itisacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicle（源域）,providesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget（目标域）,withinthesamedomain.1.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivitywiththeuseoflanguage.Languageacquisition(1)Holophrasticstage（单词句阶段）–Language’ssoundpatterns–Phoneticdistinctionsinparents’language.–One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.2)Two-wordstage:around18m3)Three-word-utterancestage4)FluentgrammaticalconversationstageChapter7Language,cultureandsociety1.therelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought?Generally,therelationofLtoCisthatofparttowhole,forLispartofC.Theknowledgeandbeliefsthatconstituteapeople’sculturearehabituallyencodedandtransmittedinL.Thereexistsacloserelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture.ThisisevidencedbythefindingsofanthropologistssuchasMalinowski,Firth,Baos,SapirandWhorf.Thestudyoftherelationbetweenlanguageandthecontextinwhichitisusedistheculturalstudyoflanguage.2.What’sSapir-WhorfHypothesis?Giveyourcommentonit.EdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:a.Similaritybetweenlanguageisrelative;b.thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,thediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.Chapter8LanguageinusePragmatics:Thestudyoflanguageinuseandthestudyofmeaningincontext,aswellasthestudyofspeakers’meaning,utterancemeaning&contextualmeaning..What’syourunderstandingofconversationalimplicature?Useoneortwoexamplestodiscusstheviolationofitsmaxims.Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.CPismeanttodescribewhat\nactuallyhappensinconversation.PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.1.Whatarethemaindifferencesbetweenpragmaticsandsemantics?Semanticsandpragmaticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning.Theessentialdifferenceliesinwhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnot,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitis,thestudyiscarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.Semanticsstudiessentencesasunitsoftheabstractlinguisticsystemwhilepragmaticsstudiesutterancesasinstancesofthesystem.Theformerstopsatthesentencelevel;thelatterlooksatbiggerchunksofconversation.Theformerregardssentencesasstableproducts;thelattertreatsutterancesasdynamicprocesses.Theformeranalysessentencesinisolation;Thelatteranalysesutterancesincloseconnectionwiththeircontextsofsituation.2. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics? 答：   Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to affect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthesemaxims give rise to conversational implicature? 答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:      Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.      To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:   (1) The maxim of quantity     ① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).    ② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.   (2) The maxim of quality ① Do not say what you believe to be false.      ② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.   (3) The maxim of relation      Be relevant.  (4) The maxim of manner      ① Avoid obscurity of expression.      ② Avoid ambiguity.      ③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). ④ Be orderly.Chapter9Languageandliterature1.Whatis‘foregrounding’?\nInapurelylinguisticsense,theterm‘foregrounding’isusedtorefertonewinformation,incontrasttoelementsinthesentencewhichformthebackgroundagainstwhichthenewelementsaretobeunderstoodbythelistener/reader.Inthewidersenseofstylistics,textlinguistics,andliterarystudies,itisatranslationoftheCzechaktualisace(actualization),atermcommonwiththePragueStructuralists.TheEnglishterm‘foregrounding’hascometomeanseveralthingsatonce:-the(psycholinguistic)processesbywhich-duringthereadingact-somethingmaybegivenspecialprominence;-specificdevices(asproducedbytheauthor)locatedinthetextitself.Itisalsoemployedtoindicatethespecificpoeticeffectonthereader;-ananalyticcategoryinordertoevaluateliterarytexts,ortosituatethemhistorically,ortoexplaintheirimportanceandculturalsignificance,ortodifferentiateliteraturefromothervarietiesoflanguageuse,suchaseverydayconversationsorscientificreports.Literallanguageandfigurativelanguage-Alanguageiscalledliteralwhenwhatismeanttobeconveyedissameaswhatthewordtowordmeaningofwhatissaid.Incontrastthefigurativelanguage,thewordsareusedtoimplymeaningwhichisotherthantheirstrictdictionarymeaning.-Literallanguagereferstowordsthatdonotdeviatefromtheirdefinedmeaning.Figurativelanguagereferstowords,andgroupsofwords,thatexaggerateoraltertheusualmeaningsofthecomponentwords.Figurativelanguagemayinvolveanalogytosimilarconceptsorothercontexts,andmayinvolveexaggerations.Thesealterationsresultinfiguresofspeech.Chapter11LinguisticsAppliedlinguistics:isthestudyoftherelationoflinguisticstoforeignlanguageteaching,ofthewaysofapplyinglinguistictheoriestothepracticeofforeignlanguageteaching.UniversalGrammar:isatheoryinlinguisticsthatsuggeststhattherearepropertiesthatallPossiblenaturalhumanlanguageshave.UsuallycreditedtoNoamChomsky,thetheorysuggeststhatsomerulesofgrammararehard-wiredintothebrain,andmanifestthemselveswithoutbeingtaught.Thereisstillmuchargumentwhetherthereissuchathingandwhatitwouldbe.Syllabus:asyllabusisaspecificationofwhattakeplaceintheclassroom,whichusuallycontainstheaimsandcontentsofteachingandsometimescontainssuggestionsofmethodology.Interlanguage:thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.contrastiveanalysis:AwayofcomparingL1andL2todeterminepotentialerrorsforthepurposeofisolatingwhatneedstobelearnedandwhatnot.Itsgoalistopredictwhatareaswillbeeasytolearnandwhatwillbedifficult.Associatedinitsearlydayswithbehaviorismandstructuralism.theInputHypothesis:accordingtokrashen'sinputhypothesis,learnersacquirelanguageasaresultofcomprehendinginputaddressedtothem.Chapter12Theories&schoolsofmodernlinguisticsTransformational-GenerativeGrammarThefivestagesofdevelopmentofTGGrammar:1)Theclassicaltheory(1957)2)Thestandardtheory(1965)\n3)Extendedstandardtheory4)GB/PPtheory(1981)5)TheMinimalistProgramInnatenesshypothesis:Chomskybelievesthatlanguageissomewhatinnate,andthatchildrenarebornwithwhathecallsaLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD),whichisauniquekindofknowledgethatfitsthemforlanguagelearning.CHOMSKY’STGGRAMMARDIFFERSFROMTHESTRUCTURALGRAMMARINANUMBEROFWAYS1.Rationalism2.innateness3deductivemethodology4emphasisoninterpretation5formalization6.emphasisonlinguisticcompetence7.stronggenerativepowers8.emphasisonlinguisticuniversals